1

10. PIPE NETWORKS

10.1 Introduction
Pipe network analysis involves the determination of the flow rates and pressure
heads. For each pipe of a system or network, there is a definite relationship between the
head loss and discharge, and may be expressed in the form,
Hf = rQm (i)
where r is dependant on pipe friction formula and pipe characteristics, and m depends
upon the pipe friction formula used. Generally, Darcy-Weisbach formula and Hazen-
Williams formula (favoured) are generally used in pipe water practice.

10.2 Hardy Cross Method of Analysis

Apart from compliance with the laws of pipe resistance, the two basic hydraulic
conditions which must be fulfilled in any pipe system are:
(i) For continuity of flow, the algebraic sum of the flow in the pipes meeting at any
junction point must be zero, or
Q = 0 (ii)
(ii) For continuity of pressure, the algebraic sum of the head losses in any closed
circuit within the system must be zero, or
hf = 0 (iii)

10.2.1 Head Balance

The procedure devised by Hardy Cross, which is known as head balance is as
follows:
(i) Give assumed flows, Qa, to the various pipes in the system such that the
condition represented by equation (ii) is satisfied.
(ii) Calculate the value of hfa for each pipe in accordance with equation (i),
assuming that m is constant.
(iii) Divide the pipe network into a number of closed circuits of sufficient number to
ensure that each pipe is included in at least one circuit.
(iv) Determine the algebraic sum of the head losses ( hfa) in each circuit. Unless it so
happens, which is unlikely, that the assumed flows are correct, equation (iii)
will not initially be satisfied.
(v) Compute the value of (hfa/Qa) for each closed circuit with regard to sign.
(vi) Determine the correction Q, to be applied to the assumed flows in each circuit
using the expression,

Q = hf a ...(iv)
m (hf a /Q a )
the derivation of which is explained below.
(vii) Revise the flows in accordance with
Q = Qa+Q ...(v)
paying due regard to sign. As some pipes are common to two or more circuits,
more than one correction may be applied so that a state of imbalance will
normally persist.
(viii) Repeat the procedure until by convergence the desired accuracy of balance is
obtained.

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Derivation of equation (iv):

Neglecting losses other than friction for any pipe, head lost,
hf = rQm
where Q = discharge through the pipe
r = resistance co-efficient
m = a constant
m
Q
m
hf = rQ = r ( Qa + Q ) = rQ 1 +
m

m
a
Qa
Expanding by the Binomial theorem,
Q m ( m 1) Q
2

m
hf = rQ 1 + m
a + + ........
Qa 2! Qa

Assuming that Q is very small compared to Qa, all the terms in brackets involving
the second or higher orders of Q may be neglected.
Q
Hence, hf = rQam 1 + m
Qa
For the circuit,
hf = rQam + mQ rQam 1,
where Q is outside the numerator sign because it is the same for each pipe in the circuit.
One of the basic conditions is hf = 0, so that,
mQ rQ = rQ
m 1
a
m
a

Or Q =
rQ m
a

m ( rQ /Q ) m
a a

=-
hf ,a

m ( hf /Q )
a a

which is the form of equation (iv).

10.2.2 Quantity Balance

This may be adapted when the pressure head at each entry point is given and it is
required to determine the pressure heads and flow throughout the network. The procedure
is as follows:
(i) Make a reasonable assumption as to the pressure head, ha, at each junction
point where the pressure is not initially known.
(ii) Select one of these junction point and record the value of hfa for each pipe
connected to the junctions.
(iii) Calculate the corresponding flow, Qa, in accordance with equation (i).
(iv) Unless the pressure heads have been correctly assumed in the first instance,
which is unlikely, the algebraic sum of the flows at the junction point will not be zero.
Record the excess or deficiency of inflow Qa.
(v) Compute the value of (Qa/hfa) for the various pipes at the junction without
regard to sign.
(vi) Determine the correction h to be applied to the head at the junction from the
expression,

h.m.m.
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m Qa
h = (vi)
( Q /hf )
a a

the derivation of which is explained below.

(vii) Amend the pressure head at the junction in accordance with ,
h = ha+h (vii)
(viii) Obtain amended pressure heads for the remaining junction points in the
network in turn, taking advantage of all previous amendments.
(ix) As the head corrections cannot be applied simultaneously, a state of imbalance
will persist and the procedure must be repeated until the required accuracy of balance is
obtained.
Derivation of equation (vi):
Since hf a = rQ am , we can write hfa+h = r(Qa+Q)m.
Expanding the bracket term as before, we have,
hf a + h = rQam + m rQam /Q a , from which,
m Q a
h =
Q a /hf a
We do not know the value of Q for each individual pipe, but only for all the pipes
connected to a junction, so that,
m Qa
h =
(Qa /hf a )
which is the required form of equation (vi).

10.2.3 Considerations For a pipe Network

Consider a pipe network as shown in Fig 10.1.
Q1 Q3
a b c

II III

d e
I IV

Q2 f g h Q4

Fig 10.1

Suppose that the pipe characteristics and the flows entering a network are known,
and that it is required to determine the flow in each of the pipe components. If the
pressure throughout the system are also required to be determined, then the pressure head
at one point in the network must also be initially known.
For each pipe, an assumption must first be made of the direction and the discharge,
so as to satisfy the conditions:
(i) That the inflow to each junction must equal the outflow from that junction. The
pipe network shown can be divided into four circuits (or loops), and for loop III, (bced in
the figure), the direction of flow might be as indicated by the arrows. Thus, the flow in bc

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and ce is clockwise (taken as positive) round the loop, and the flow in bd and de is
anticlockwise (taken as negative).
(ii)The loss of head between b and e in loop III, must be the same in either
clockwise or anticlockwise route.

10.3 Pipe Friction Formula

10.3.1 Hazen Williams Formula
This may be given in the form,
Q = 0.278CD 2.63S0.54 (viii)
where Q = discharge (m/s),
C = coefficient (i.e. 100 for 20 year old inclined cast iron pipe),
D = diameter of pipe (m), S = hydraulic gradient (metres/m).
The above equation can be re-arranged to give the discharge, Q in litres/s, and d in
mm, and rewritten in terms of hfa for the hydraulic gradients in the form,
12.25 109 LQ1.85
hfa = (ix)
C1.85 d4.87
where L = length of pipe (m),
Q = Discharge (l/s),
C = coefficient (100 for 20 year old cast iron {CI} pipe.
Equation (ix) compares to the form,
hfa = rQm, where m = 1.85
Hence, Q = - hf a

1.85 ( hf /Q )
a a
9
12.25 10 L 6 L
The value of r = 1.85 4.87 = 2.44 10 4.87 , for C = 100
100 d d
where L = length of pipe (m),
D = diameter of pipe (mm).

10.3.2 Darcys Equation

Frictional head loss is expressed by,
4flv 2
hf = (x)
2gd
The above equation may be written in the form,
flQ2
hf = (xi)
Nd5
fl
Or hf = rQ am , where r = , since N 3.
3d 5

Since for turbulent flow m=2, it can be shown that,

2

4fl Q flQ 2 flQ 2
hf = = =
2gd 2 Nd 5
3d 5
d
4

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2
1
where N = 2g = 3.026, say 3.
4 4

10.4 Water Supply Pipe Network

In the design of a pipe network, care should be taken to ensure that proper flow
rates are delivered where needed at adequate pressure. A static pressure of 60-75 psi
(400-450 kN/m2) is usually recommended at the delivery points. Nowhere in the
distribution system should pressures be permitted to drop to the point where they permit
cavitation.

Example 10.1 Determine the flow in the various pipes of the network shown in Fig 10. 2.
Inflow is 90l/s at A, and outflow is 60l/s at D and 30l/s at F. Take C = 100 in the Hazen
Williams formula.
90l/s A 600m, 254mm B 600m, 203mm C
(50l/s) 1 2
(40) (20l/s)

900m 900m 8 3 900m

6 229mm 7 152mm (30) 152mm

F (10 l/s) 600m, 152mm E (30 l/s) 600m, 203mm D

30 l/s 5 4
60 l /s
Fig 10..2

Solution
Hazen Williams formula (with Q in l/s and d in mm) gives the head loss as,
12.25 109 LQ1.85
hf = 1.85 4.87
= rQ1.85
C d
12.25 109 L 6 L
r= 1.85 4.87 = 2.444 10 4.87
100 d d
where l = lengths of pipes in m.
Tabulation of r values:
Pipe L(m) d(mm) r 10-3
1 600 254 2.85
2 600 203 8.49
3 900 152 52.10
4 600 203 8.49
5 600 152 34.73
6 900 229 7.08
7 900 152 52.10

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Adjustments in flows is carried out as follows:

First Adjustment
-3
Loop pipe r10 Qa1(l/s) hfa1 hfa1/ Qa1 Q1 Q1
1 2.85 50 3.96 0.079 -3.9
I 7 52.10 20 13.29 0.665 -3.9 +4.2
5 34.73 -10 -2.47 0.247 -3.9
6 7.08 -40 -6.52 0.163 -3.9
+8.26 1.154
hf a 8.26
Q1 = = = 3.9
m (hfa /Q a ) 1.85 1.154
II 8 60.59 30 32.78 1.093 -4.2
4 8.49 -30 -4.59 0.153 -4.2
7 52.10 -20 -13.29 0.665 -4.2 +3.9
+14.90 +1.911
' 14.90
Q1 = = 4.2
1.85 1.911

Note: (i) hf a = rQ am = rQ1.85

a , (ii) Q =
hf a

m (hf /Q )
a a

with Q assigned from common pipe (No. 7 from next loop).

Second Adjustment
-3
Loop Pipe r10 Qa2 (l/s) hfa2 hfa2/Qa2 Q2 Q2
1 2.85 46.1 3.41 0.074 -2.1
I 7 52.10 20.3 13.65 0.672 -2.1 +1.6
5 34.73 -13.9 -4.51 0.324 -2.1
6 7.08 -43.9 -7.74 0.176 -2.1
+4.81 1.246
4.81
Q 2 = = 2.1
1.85 1.246
8 60.59 25.8 24.78 0.961 -1.6
II 4 8.49 -34.2 -5.84 0.171 -1.6
7 52.10 -20.3 -13.65 0.672 -1.6 +2.1

+5.29 +1.804
' 5.29
Q 2 = = 2.6
1.85 1.804

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Further adjustments:

Third Adjustment
-3
Loop pipe r10 Qa3(l/s) hfa3 Hfa3/ Qa3 Q3 Q3
1 2.85 44.0 3.13 0.071 -0.8
I 7 52.10 19.8 13.13 0.663 -0.8
5 34.73 -16.0 -5.87 0.367 -0.8 +0.8
6 7.08 -46.0 -8.44 0.181 -0.8
+1.95 +1.284
1.95
Q = = 0.8
3 1.85 1.284
II 8 60.59 24.2 21.99 0.909 -0.8
4 8.49 -35.8 -6.36 0.178 -0.8
7 52.10 -19.8 -13.13 0.663 -0.8 +0.8
+2.50 +1.750
' = 2.50
Q3 = 0.8
1.85 1.750

Fourth Adjustment
Loop Pipe r10-3 Qa2 (l/s) hfa2 hfa2/Qa2 Q2 Q2 Q (l/s)
1 2.85 43.2 3.02 0.070 -0.4 42.8
I 7 52.10 19.8 13.13 0.663 -0.4 +0.3 19.7
5 34.73 -16.8 -6.43 0.383 -0.4 -17.2
6 7.08 -46.8 -8.71 0.186 -0.4 -47.2
+1.01 +1.302
1.01
Q = = 0.4
4 1.85 1.302
8 60.59 23.4 20.66 0.883 -0.3 23.1
II 4 8.49 -36.6 -6.63 0.181 -0.3 -36.9
7 52.10 -19.8 -13.13 0.663 -0.3 +0.4 -19.7
+0.90 +1.727
0.90
Q' = = 0.3
4 1.85 1.727

Notes:

Check for each balance: (hf = rQm)
A to D: (1)-(8); 2.98+20.18 = 23.16; (1)-(7)-(4); 2.98+12.92+6.72 = 22.62
(6)-(5)-(4); 8.84+6.70+6.72 = 22.86

Pipes (2) and (3) are supposedly replaced by an equivalent pipe (8) such that hf8
= hf2+hf3, or r8 = r2+r3 = 60.59103

The pipe discharge comprise six unknowns. In order to include all pipes, two
circuits for head balance are required and taken as (1)-(7)-(5)-(6) and (8)-(4)-
(7). Tentative discharges are assigned (clockwise positive, anticlockwise
negative) and Hardy cross step-by-step procedure tabulated.

h.m.m.
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Example 10.2 The elevation and pressure heads at the junction points in the pipe
network of Example 10.1 are as shown in Table 10.1. The inflow and draw-off points are
at A, D and F as previously stated. (i) Assuming C = 100 in the Hazen Williams formula,
determine the flow in the various pipes of the system.(ii) Sketch the pressure contours on
the assumption that the pipe gradient between the given elevation heads is uniform.

Table 10.1
Junction Elevation head (m) Pressure head (m)
A 155 34
C 150 -
D 146 28
F 152 32

Solution
Sum of pressure heads and elevation heads i.e. HGL elevation is known for the
junction points A, D and F, and the respective points are inserted in the layout
diagram.

A 1 B 2 C
189

6 I 7 8 3
II

184 F 5 E 4 D 174
Fig 10 3

Flow in pipe (6) may be directly determined, since hf6=5m and r6=7.0810-3
1/1.85
hf6 5 103
Q6 = = = 34.7l/s
r6 7.08
There are two effective junction points (B and E) where the grade line elevation
is unknown, hence Hardy Cross method is used to obtain the necessary quantity
balance.

Note: Flow towards a junction is positive (+ve) and flow away is negative (-e).
r 8.49
The friction head loss in pipe (2) is = 2 hf 8 = 13.1 = 1.8m
r8 60.59
Grade line elevation at C = 187.1-1.8 = 185.3m

Tentative heads are assigned and tabulation is as follows:

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First Adjustment
-3
Loop pipe r10 ha1 hfa1 Qa1 Qa1/hfa1 h1
1 2.85 186.0 3.0 43.0 43.0 +1.2
I 7 52.10 -7.0 -14.1 -14.0
8 60.59 -12.0 -12.0 -17.4
11.5 17.79

II 7 52.10 179.0 8.2 15.4 1.88 -0.2

5 34.73 5.0 14.7 2.94
4 8.49 -5.0 -31.4 6.28
-1.3 11.10

Second Adjustment
Loop Pipe r10-3 ha2 hfa2 Qa2 Qa2/hfa2 h2 H(m) hf Q
(l/s)
I 1 2.85 187.2 1.8 32.6 18.11 -0.1 187.1 1.9 33.6
7 52.10 -8.4 -15.6 1.86 -8.3 -15.5
8 60.59 -13.2 -18.4 1.39 -13.1 -18.3
-1.4 21.36

II 7 52.10 178.8 8.3 15.5 1.87 0 178.8 8.3 15.5

5 34.73 5.2 15.0 2.88 5.2 15.0
4 8.49 -4.80 -30.7 6.40 -4.8 -30.0
-0.2 11.15

A B (34.6) C (35.3)
(34)

34

33

32

F E D
(32) (29) (28)
31 30 29
Fig 10.4

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Example 10.3. In the network shown in Fig 10.8, a value BC is partially closed to
v2
produce a local head loss of 10.0 BC . Using the data provided analyze the flows in
2g
the network. Roughness of all pipes = 0.06mm.

( 60)
200 A (120) B (50) valve C (40)

(80) I (10) II (10)

(40) D
F E (20)
(30) (30)
(40)
Fig 10.8

Pipe AB BC CD DE BE EF AF
Length (m) 500 400 200 400 200 600 300
Diameter (mm) 250 150 100 150 150 200 250

Solution
The procedure is identical with that of the previous problem. kBC is now composed
of the value loss coefficient and friction loss co-efficient.
With the initial assumed flows as shown in the table below:
QBC = 50l/s; Re = 3.7105, k/D = 0.0004; = 0.0174 (from Moody chart). Hence
kf* = 7573, km = 1632. kBC = kf +km= 9205
2
10 2 10 Q
*Note: hf=kQ2. For valve, hf = vB = = kQ2 , where k (taken as kf)=1632.
2g 2g A
Re hL/Q
Loop Pipe k/D Q (l/s) (105) k hL (m) m/(m3/s)
AB 0.00024 120.00 5.41 0.0157 664.2 9.56 79.70
I BE 0.0004 10.00 0.75 0.0208 4526.5 0.45 45.26
EF 0.0003 -40.00 2.25 0.0175 2711.2 -4.34 108.45
FA 0.00024 -80.00 3.61 0.0163 413.7 -2.65 33.10
3.03 266.37
3.03
Q = = 5.69l/s
2 266.37
BC 0.0004 50.00 3.75 0.0174 9205.2 23.01 460.26
II CD 0.0006 10.00 1.13 0.0205 33877 3.39 338.77
DE 0.0004 -20.00 1.50 0.0190 8226.0 -3.39 164.52
EB 0.0004 -4.31 0.32 0.0242 5266.4 -0.10 22.70
23.01 986.25
23.01
Q = = 11.67l/s
2 986.25

h.m.m.
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Proceeding this way, the solution is obtained within a small limit on hL in any
loop.

Final values:

Pipe AB BE FE FA BC CD ED
Q (l/s) 111.52 16..48 48.48 88.48 35.05 4.95 34.95
hL (m) 8.32 1.15 6.26 3.20 11.57 0.91 9.52

Example 10.4 Fig 10.10 shows a pipe network and the assumed flows. The elevation of
the pipe nodes A, B, C, D, E and F are 40m, 35m, 30m, 30m, 32m, and 35m respectively
with reference to a datum point. The pressure head elevation at A is 80m, and the
roughness size of all the pipes is 0.06mm. Using the data in Table 10.2, and neglecting
minor losses, determine the flows in the pipes and the pressure heads at the nodes. Use
Moody resistance diagram and the equation for head loss,
Lv 2
hL =
2 gD
Take = 1.1310-6 m2/s at 15 C. (kinematic viscosity).

Table 10.2

Pipe AB BC CD DE EF AF BE
Length (m) 800 800 300 800 800 300 300
Diameter (mm) 450 250 150 250 250 300 150

500l/s (130) (90)

A (270) B C

(230) (20) (30)

I II

(140) E (50) D

F (90) (110) (80)

Fig 10.10

Solution
Two loops are used and the assumed flows are as shown.
Head loss coefficient, k:
2
4flv 2 Lv 2 L ( Q A ) LQ2
hf = = = = = kQ2
2gD 2gD 2gD 2gDA 2
L
where k = and v = Q / A
2gDA 2

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Pipe AB:
0.27
v= = 2.149m/s
2
0.4
4
2.149 0.4 0.06
Re = 6
= 0.76 106 ; k D = = 1.5 10 4
1.13 10 400
From chart, = 0.014
2
hL (m) = kQ2 , (with Q in m3 /s) = 90.37 ( 0.27 ) = 6.59m
6.59
hL / Q = = 24.41
0.27

Tabulation of distributions:

First correction
Loop Pipe k/D Q Re k hL hL/Q
(l/s) (106) (m) {m/(m3/s)}
AB 0.00015 270 0.76 0.014 90.3 6.56 24.30
I BE 0.0004 20 0.15 0.0162 5288 2.12 105.76
EF 0.00024 -140 0.63 0.015 1015 -19.89 142.10
FA 0.0002 -230 0.86 0.0145 148 -7.83 34.04
-19.04 306.2
h ( 19.04 )
Q = = = 0.03109 = 31.09l/s
2 h / Q 2 ( 306.2 )
BC 0.00024 120 0.54 0.015 1015 14.62 121.83
II CD 0.0004 30 0.225 0.0182 134 0.12 4.00
DE 0.00024 -50 0.225 0.0173 1171 -2.93 58.60
EB 0.0004 -20 0.150 0.0190 6202 -2.48 124.04
9.33 308.47
h -9.33
Q = - = = -0.01512 = -15.12l/s
2 h/Q 2 ( 308.47 )

Second correction
Loop pipe k/D Q Re k hL (m) hL/Q
(106)
(l/s) {m/(m3/s)}
I AB 0.00015 301.09 8.5 0.0145 93.6 8.49 28.20
BE 0.0004 35.97 2.7 0.0178 5810.4 7.52 139.34
EF 0.00024 -108.914.9 0.016 1083.0 -12.85 117.99
FA 0.0002 -198.917.5 0.0152 155.1 -6.14 30.85
-2.98 316.38
h -(-2.98)
Q = - = = 0.00471 = 4.7l/s
2 h/Q 2 ( 316.38)
II BC 0.00024 104.8 4.7 0.0162 1097 12.05 114.97
CD 0.0004 14.8 1.1 0.020 6529 1.43 96.63
DE 0.00024 -65.20 2.9 0.017 1151 -4.89 75.05
EB 0.0004 -35.97 2.7 0.0178 5810 -7.52 208.99
1.07 495.64
h -1.07
Q = - = = -0.001079 = -1.08l/s
2 h/Q 2 ( 495.64 )

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Final values of flows and pressure heads:

Pipe hL (m) Flow rate, Q: (l/s) Node Pressure head: (m)

AB 8.49 305.79 A 80-40=40.00
BE 7.52 39.59 B 80-35-8.49=36.51
FE 12.85 104.21 C 29.46
AF 6.14 194.21 D 26.12
BC 12.05 103.72 E 29.01
CD 1.43 13.72 F 38.86
ED 4.89 64.12

Note: Further distributions could even out the unbalanced flows and heads.

h.m.m.