1

9. FLOW THROUGH PIPES

9.1 Introduction
A pipe is defined as a closed conduit of circular section through which the fluid
flows filling the cross-section completely. The fluid in the pipe has no free surface, and
the pipe is pressurised. If a pipe runs partially full, atmospheric pressure exists inside the
pipe and it is treated as an open channel.
Frictional resistance to fluid flow depends on; area of wetted surface, density of
fluid, surface roughness of pipe and frictional co-efficient (which is a function of
Reynolds Number Re). Frictional resistance increases with square root of velocity (V2)
and it is independent of fluid pressure.
9.2 Loss of Head Due to Friction in a Pipe
Consider a liquid of velocity v flowing through a pipe of diameter D, over a short
length L between sections 1-1 and 2-2 as shown in Fig 9.1.
1 L 2

1 2

Fig 9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction

As the flow occurs, there will be a frictional resistance.

According to Froude,
Frictional resistance = fcontact area (velocity)2, where f = a coefficient
depending on roughness of pipe.
Frictional resistance = f(PL)V2, where P = perimeter of pipe.
As the flow occurs, there will be loss of energy in doing work to overcome
frictional resistance.
Loss of energy/s
= work done in overcoming frictional resistance/s
= frictional resistancedistance moved per second.
= f (PL)V2V = fPLV3
Weight of liquid discharged/s = wav, where a = area of pipe
Loss of energy/unit weight of liquid,
f PLV 3
hf =
waV
f PLV 2

= (i)
wa
D 2
For circular pipe, P = D and a =
4
p D 4
= 2
=
a D / 4 D

h.m.m.
 2

f 4 LV 2
or h f =
dw
fw
Let f be a coefficient such that f =
2g
fw
4 LV 2
4fL LV 2
hf =
2g
=
w D D 2g
4fL V 2
or hf = (9.1)
D 2g
where hf = loss of head due to friction,
f = coefficient of friction,
L = length of pipe,
V =mean velocity of flow, and
D = diameter of the pipe
Equation (9.1) is referred to as Darcys formula.
9.3 Losses of Energy in Pipelines
The losses may be considered as shown in Fig 9.2
Energy losses

Major losses Minor losses

(a) (b,c,d,e,f,g,h)
Fig 9.2 Energy losses in a pipeline

Major losses:
(a): These are due to friction and may be calculated using Darcys formula.

Minor losses:
(b) Loss due to sudden expansion of the pipe.
(c) Loss due to sudden contraction of the pipe.
(d) Loss due to bend in pipe.
(e) Loss due to pipe fittings e.t.c.
(f) Loss due to obstruction in pipe.
(g) Loss at entrance to a pipe.
(h) Loss at exit from a pipe.
9.3.1 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement (he).
Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and after enlargement as shown in Fig 9.3.
2
1

v1,p1,a1 p2 a2, v2

1
2
Fig 9.3

Let p1, v1, and a1 be the pressure intensity, velocity and area of the pipe at section
1-1. The corresponding values at section 2-2 are p2, v2 and a2. Loss of energy is due to

h.m.m.
 3

the formation of eddies.

Let p = pressure intensity of liquid eddies on area a2-a1
he = loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Applying Bernoullis equation to sections 1-1 and 2-2,
p 1 V12 p 2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + he
w 2g w 2g
where h e = loss of head due to sudden enl arg ement.
Also z1 = z2 for horizontal pipe
p V2 p V2
1 + 1 = 2 + 2 + he
w 2g w 2g
p p 2 V12 V22
or h e = 1 + (i)
w 2g
Consider control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Force acting on
liquid in control volume in the direction of flow,
Fx = p1a1+p(a2-a1)-p2a2
Experimentally, p=p1
Fx = p1a1+p1(a2-a1)-p2a2 = p1a2-p2a2
or Fx = a2(p1-p2) ...(ii)
Momentum of liquid/s at section 1-1,
= massvelocity
= a 1V1 V1 = a 1V12
Momentum of liquid/s at sections 2-2,
= a 2 V2 V = a 2 V22
Change of momentum per second,
= a 2 V22 a 1V12
a V
From continuity equation, a1V1= a2 V 2 or a1= 2 2
V1
Change of momentum/s,
a V
= a 2 V22 2 2 V12 = a 2 V22 a 2 V1V2
V1
Or change of momentum/s,
= a 2 (V22 V1 V2 ) (iii)
But net force acting on control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the
rate of change of momentum, i.e. Eq.(ii) = Eq.(iii);
(p1 p 2 )a 2 = a 2 (V22 V1V2 )
p1 p 2
or = V22 V1 V2

Divide by g on both sides:
p1 p2 p1 p2 V 2 V1 V2
= = 2
g w g

h.m.m.
 4

p1 p 2
Substitute above values of in equation (i):
w
V22 V1 V2 V12 V22 2V22 2V1 V2 + V12 V22 V 2 + V12 2V1 V2
he = + = = 2
g 2g 2g 2g
(V1 V2 ) 2
or h e = (9.2)
2g
The above relation is called Bordas equation or Carnots equation.

9.3.2 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction (hc).

Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2, before and after contraction (Fig 9.4).
1
C 2

p1, a1 p2,a2

C 2

1
Fig 9.4
Loss of head is due to sudden enlargement from vena contracta to smaller pipe.
Let: ac = area of flow at C-C
Vc = velocity of flow at C-C
a2 = area of flow at sections 2-2
V2 = velocity of flow at section 2-2
hc = loss of head due to sudden contraction
Now, hc = actual loss of head due to enlargement from section C-C to section 2-2,
and Eq.9.2 is given as,
(Vc V2 )2 V22 Vc
hc = = 1 (i)
2g 2g V2
From continuity equation,
V a 1 1
a c Vc = a 2 V2 , or c = 2 = =
V2 a c a c / a 2 c c

Substituting the value of Vc/V2 in equation (i),

2
V2 1
h c = 2 1 (ii)
2g c c
2
V2 1
= k 2 , where k = 1
2g cc
If the value of Cc is assumed equal to 0.62,
2
1
k = 1 = 0.375
0.62

h.m.m.
 5

kV22 V22
hc = = 0.375
2g 2g
If the value of Cc is not given, the head loss due to contraction is generally taken as,
v2
h c = 0.5 (9.3)
2g
9.3.3 Loss of Head at Entrance to a Pipe
This occurs when liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a large tank or reservoir.
In the case of rounded or bell mouthed entrance, or inlet of a pipe with sharp cornered
entrance, entrance loss is taken as equal to that of a sudden entrance (sudden contraction),
V2
or h e = 0.5 (9.4)
2g
where V = velocity of liquid in pipe.
9.3.4 Loss of Head at Entrance to a Reservoir
This loss is taken as similar to sudden enlargement,
V2
h er = (9.5)
2g
where V = velocity at outlet of pipe.
9.3.5 Loss of Head Due to a Bend in Pipe
This loss is generally taken as,
V2
hb = k (9.6)
2g
where k = coefficient of bend depending on angle of bend, radius of curvature of
bend and diameter of the pipe, and
V = mean velocity of flow of fluid.
9.3.6 Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings
This loss of head in various pipe fittings (such as valves, couplings etc.) is taken as,
V2
h pf = k (9.7)
2g
where k = coefficient of pipe fitting, and V = mean velocity of flow of fluid.
9.3.7 Loss of Head Due to Obstruction of Pipe
This occurs due to an obstruction in a pipe on account of reduction in cross-
sectional area of the pipe by the presence of obstruction.
Consider a pipe of area a when obstructed as shown in Fig 9.5. Vena-contracta
is formed beyond section 1-1.
1 2

Vc

V Area, a V
Area, a

1 2

Fig 9.5

h.m.m.
 6

Let: a = maximum area of obstruction

ac = area at vena contracta
V = velocity of liquid in pipe
Vc = velocity of liquid at vena contracta
V = velocity at section 2-2
Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1 = a-a
Loss of head due to obstruction = loss of head due to enlargement from vena
contracta to section 2-2,
(Vc V )2
= (i)
2g
From continuity equation,
acVc = aV ...(ii)
If Cc = coefficient of contraction,
area at vena contracta ac
CC = =
(a a') (a a')
or ac = Cc(a-a)
Substitute value in equation (ii),
aV
C c (a a')Vc = aV, or Vc =
C c (a a')
Substitute value of Vc in equation (i),
Head loss due to obstruction,
2
aV
V
(Vc V )2 C (a a')
h obs = = c
2g 2g
2
V2 a
or h obs = 1 (9.8)
2g C c (a a')
9.4 Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines
9.4.1 Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.)
This is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum
head (z) of a flowing liquid with respect to some reference point, and is obtained by
joining top of all vertical ordinates showing pressure head (p/w) of a flowing liquid,
from the centre of pipe (Fig 9.6). Slope of H.G.L., i = h/L., where L is the length of the
pipeline from A to B.
A

Fig 9.6: Hydraulic Gradient Line

h.m.m.
 7

9.4.2 Total Energy Line (T.E.L)

Total energy line (or Energy Gradient Line, E.G.L.) is defined as the line which
gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic energy of a flowing liquid in a
pipe, with respect to some reference point. (Fig 9.7)

A
V12/2g T.E.L.

V22/2g
a H.G.L.
V32/2g
V1, L1, f1, D1 b
B
V2, L2, f2, D2 c
d
Fig 9.7: Total Energy Line V3, L3, f3, D3

9.4.3 Total Energy Losses

For the pipeline shown in Fig 9.7, the energy losses are:
V2
(i) Head loss at a at entrance to pipe = 0.5 1
2g
2
4f L V
(ii) Head due to friction in 'a-b = 1 1 1
2gD 1
V22
(iii) Head loss at bdue to sudden contraction = 0.5
2g
4f 2 L 2 V22
(iv) Head loss in b-c due to friction =
2gD 2
(V2 V3 )2
(v) Head loss at cdue to sudden enlargement =
2g
4f 3 L 3 V32
(vi) Head in c-d due to friction =
2gD 3
V32
(vii) Head at loss d at entrance to reservoir =
2g

Example: 9.1 Two reservoirs as shown in Fig 9.8 are connected by a pipeline which is
150mm diameter for the first 6m and 250mm in diameter for the remaining 15m. The
entrance and exit are sharp and change in section sudden. The water surface in the upper
reservoir is 6m above that in the lower reservoir.(a) Determine: (i) the losses of head
which occur (ii) the discharge.(b) Draw the H.G.L. and T.E.L. lines. Take f = 0.01 for
both pipes.

h.m.m.
 8

Solution
A
V12/2g TEL

HGL
V22/2g
a

V1 B
L1 b
D1
V2
L2 C
D2 c

Fig 9.8
Let V1 and V2 be the velocities in the 150mm and 250mm diameter pipes
respectively.
Due to continuity,
2 2
2 D 250 25
D1 V1 = D 22 V2 , or V1 = 2 V2 = V2 , or V1 = V2
4 4 D1 150 9
(i) Loss of head at a entrance to 150mm pipe,
2
V2 25 V
2
V2
= 0.5 1 = 0.5 2 = 3.858 2
2g 9 2g 2g
(ii) Frictional head loss a-b in 150mm pipe,
2
4f1 L1 V12 4 0.01 6 V12 V12 2
25 V2 V22
= = = 1.6 = 1.6 = 12.346
D1 2g 0.15 2g 2g 9 2g 2g
(iii) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement b,
2
(V1 V2 )2 V22 25 V22
= 1 = 3.160
2g 2g 9 2g
(iv) Frictional head loss b-c in 250mm diameter pipe,
4f 2 L 2 V22 4 0.01 15 V22 V22
= = = 2.40
D2 2g 0.25 2g 2g
(v) Loss of head at entrance to lower reservoir c,
V2 V2
= 2 = 1.0 2
2g 2g
V2 V2
Total head loss = 2 (3.858 + 12.346 + 3.160 + 2.40 + 1.0 ) = 22.764 2
2g 2g
Applying Bernoullis equation to A and B;
Total energy at A = Total energy at B+losses
or H = 0+losses
V2
or 6 = 22.764 2
2g
V2 = 2.274m / s

h.m.m.
 9

Discharge Q = a2V2

= D 22 V2
4

= 0.25 2 2.274 = 0.112m 3 /s
4
Actual head losses:
V2
(i) Loss at entrance to 150mm pipe = 3.858 2 = 3.858 0.2635 = 1.02m
2g
V2
(ii) Frictional loss in 150mm pipe = 12.346 2 = 12.346 0.2635 = 3.25m
2g
2
V
(iii)Loss at sudden enlargement = 3.160 2 = 3.160 0.2635 = 0.84m
2g
V2
(iv) Frictional loss in 250mm pipe = 2.40 2 = 2.40 0.2635 = 0.63m
2g
V2
(v) Loss at entrance to lower reservoir = 1.0 2 = 1.0 0.2635 = 0.26m
2g
Total head loss = 6.00m (difference between the two reservoirs).
Note: Discharge if minor losses are neglected would depend on the velocity based
4f L V 2 4f L V 2
on the following equation: H = 1 1 1 + 2 2 2
2gD 1 2gD 2
9.5 Flow Through Pipes in Series
An equivalent pipe when pipes are connected in series is defined as the pipe of
uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equal to the loss of head and
discharge of a compound pipe consisting of a different lengths and diameters.
Consider a compound pipe as shown in Fig 9.9.
1 2 3

V1, D1 ,L1 V2, D2, L2 V3 , D3 ,L3

Fig 9.9: Pipes in Series

Let : D1, D2 and D3 be the diameters of component pipes
L1, L2 and L3 the lengths of the pipes
V1, V2 and V3 the velocities in the respective pipes
If hf1, hf2 and hf3 are the head losses in the respective pipes, the total head loss is
given by;
hf = hf1+hf2+hf3
4fL V 2 4f1 L1 V12 4f 2 L 2 V22 4f 3 L 3 V32
or = + + (i)
D 2g D 1 2g D2 2g D3 2g
If f1=f2 = f3 = f,
Discharge Q = a1V1 = a2V2 = a3V3

h.m.m.
 10

2
Or Q = D1 V1 = D 22 V2 = D 32 V3
4 4 4
4Q 4Q 4Q
V1 = 2
, V2 = 2
, V3 = ,
D1 D 2 D 32
Substituting in equation (i):
2 2
4Q 4Q 4Q
4fL1 2 4fL 2 2 4fL 3 2
hf = D1 + D 2 + D 3
d 1 2g d 2 2g D 3 2g
4 16fQ 2 L1 L 2 L 3
= + + (ii)
2 2g D15 D 52 D 53
Head loss in equivalent pipe,
4fLV 2
hf = , (assuming f is the same as in a compound pipe)
2gD
Q Q 4Q
where v = = =
a D / 4 D 2
2

L = length of pipe = L1+L2+L3

2
4Q
4fL 2
D = 4 16fQ l
2
hf = (iii)
2gD 2 2g D 5
Taking head loss in compound pipe as equal to that of equivalent pipe,
4 16fQ 2 L1 L2 L 3 4 16fQ 2 L
+ + = 2
2 2g D15 D 2 5 D 3 5 2g d 5
L L L L
Or 5
= 15 + 25 + 35 (9.9)
D D1 D2 D3
Equation (9.9) is known as Dupuits equation.

Example: 9.2 Three pipes of lengths 800m,500m and 400m and of diameters 500mm,
400mm and 300mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are replaced by a
single pipe of length 1700m. Determine the diameter of the single pipe.
Solution
L L L L
5
= 15 + 25 + 35
D D1 D2 D3
1700 800 500 400
= + +
D5 0 .5 5 0 .4 5 0 .3 5
D 5 = 0.007118
D = 0.3718m
9.6 Flow Through Parallel Pipes
Suppose a main pipe branches at section 1-1 into two lengths L1 and L2, and of
diameters D1 and D2, and again unite at section 2-2 to form a single pipe as shown in Fig
9.10

h.m.m.
 11

Q1, L1, V1, D1

1 2
Q Q

1 2

Q2, L2, V2, D2

Fig 9.10: Pipes in Parallel

In the arrangement shown, the two pipes of lengths L1 and L2 are in parallel, and Q
divides into components Q1 andQ2,
Q1 +Q2 = Q
Loss of head at sections 1-1 and section 2-2 is equal to the loss of head in any one of
the branched pipes.
hf = hf1 = hf 2
4f1 L1 V12 4f 2 L 2 V22
Or = (i)
2gD1 2gD 2
Q 4Q 2 16Q 2
But V = Q/a = = , or V =
2 D 2 2D4
D
4
Also f = f1 = f 2
Substituting in equation (i) :
4fl116Q12 4fl 2 16Q 22
=
2gD 15 2gD 52
Q12 L 2 D15
2 =
Q 2 L1 D 52
It should be observed that if a number of pipes are connected in parallel, the total
loss of head in the system is equal to the loss of head in any one of the pipes.
Total loss of head in the above system,
= loss of head from section 1-1 to section 2-2
Also hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3 = hf4
Total discharge,
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4
fL1Q12 fL 2 Q 22 fL 3 Q 32 fL 4 Q 24
hf = = = = (9.10)
3.0257D15 3.0257D 52 3.0257D 53 3.0257D 54

Example: 9.3 It is intended to use 300mm diameter pipes as the mains for distribution of
water in a city. But since pipes over 250mm diameter are not available, it is decided to
use two parallel mains of the same diameter. Determine the diameter of the parallel
mains pipes.

h.m.m.
 12

Solution:
Let D = diameter of originally planned single main = 300mm
d = diameter of each parallel main, with discharge of each = Q/2
L = length of each pipe
Since the head loss in the two arrangements is the same,
2
Q
fL
fLQ 2
= 5
2
hf = 5
3.0257D 3.0257d
5
d 1
or 5
= = 0.25
D 4
d
= (0.25) = 0.7578
1/ 5
or
D
d = 0.7578D = 227 say 230mm

9.7 Flow Through a By-Pass (or Diversion)

A by-pass is a small diameter pipe connected in parallel to the main pipe. The ratio
of the discharge in the by-pass to the total discharge is known as the by-pass coefficient.
The by-pass may be used to determine the total discharge in the main pipe if the by-pass
coefficient is known. Since the discharge in a by-pass is small, it may be easily
determined by using a venturimeter or any other measuring meter.
Consider a bye-pass connected to a main pipe as shown in Fig 9.11. Let Q be the
discharge through the main pipe, and q the discharge through the by-pass, between
sections 1-1 and 2-2. The total discharge in the main pipe just before the by-pass is
(Q+q).The by-pass coefficient according to the definition is{q/(Q+q)}.
v, d

1 2

D V
1 2
Fig 9.11: By-pass

Let l, d, and v be the length, diameter and velocity respectively for the by-pass. Then
L,D and V are the corresponding values respectively for the main pipe. Since the main
pipe and the by-pass are in parallel between sections 1-1 and 2-2,
Head loss in main pipe = head loss in by-pass
4fLV 2 4fLv 2 v2
= + k' (i)
2gD 2gd g
v2
where k' represents loss of head at inlet and outlet sections of the
g
diversion (main losses in the by - pass due to bends, meter etc.)
Dividing both sides of equation (i) by (4f/2g),

h.m.m.
 13

L 2 L 2 2
V = v + kv (ii)
D d
k
where k =
4f
Equation (ii) may be written as,
V2 D L
2 = + k
v L d
From the continuity equation,

Q= D 2 V and q = d2v
4 4
Substitute values in equation (iii),
Q2 / D4 D L
2 4
= + k
q /d Ld
5
Q D L + dk
=
q d L
Adding unity to both sides,
5
Q D L + dk
+1 = 1+
q d L
5
Q+q D L + dk
= 1+
q d L
q 1
= (9.11)
Q+q 5
D L + dk
1+
d L
Equation (9.11) gives the expression for the by-pass coefficient.
Note. Sometimes the by-pass coefficient is defined as {(Q+q)/q}.

Example: 9.4 A by-pass 125mm in diameter and 100mm long is installed along a main
pipe 2.5m in diameter. The length of the main pipe between the inlet and exit of the by-
pass is 10m. (i) If the minor losses in the by-pass are equivalent to the frictional loss in a
length of 2.5m, determine the by-pass coefficient (ii) If the discharge in the by-pass is
0.0015m3/s, determine the discharge in the main.
Solution:
Minor losses in the by-pass = frictional loss in the 2.5m length of by-pass
v2 4fLv 2 4f 2.5 v 2
Or k' = =
g 2gd d 2g
k ' 2.5
= = k or kd = 2.5
4f d

h.m.m.
 14

From equation (9.11),

q 1
=
Q+q 5
D L + dk
1+
d L
1 1
= =
5
2.5 10 + 2.5 2001
1+
0.125 10
1
The by - pass coefficient =
2001
Discharge in the main = q2001 = 0.0015 2001 = 3.002m3/s

9.8 Siphon
A siphon is long bent pipe employed for conveying water from a reservoir at a
higher elevation to another reservoir at lower elevation when the two reservoirs are
separated by a ridge or high level ground in between them.
The highest point of the siphon is called a summit and the pressure at this point is
lower than atmospheric pressure. Pressure at the summit should not be less than about
2.7m of water absolute otherwise dissolved air and other gases would come out from
water and collect at the summit. Hence a siphon should be laid such that no section of the
pipe will be more than 7.6m (i.e.10.3m-2.7m =7.6m) above the hydraulic gradient at that
section. In order to limit reduction of pressure at the summit, the length of the inlet leg
(rising portion of the siphon) of the siphon is also limited so as to reduce frictional head.

Example: 9.5 A siphon of diameter 200mm connects two reservoirs whose water surface
levels differ by 40m as shown in Fig 9.12. The total length of the pipe is 8km. The pipe
crosses a ridge which is 8m above the level of water in the upper reservoir and the length
of the siphon from the upper reservoir to the ridge is 500m. If the absolute pressure head
at the summit is not to fall below 3.0m of water, determine : (a) the minimum depth of the
pipe below the summit of the ridge. (b) the discharge. Take f = 0.006, and atmospheric
pressure head as 10.3m of water.

x
8m C

40m

Fig 9.12

Solution
Given: Diameter of siphon, D = 0.2m
Difference in two levels between two reservoirs, h = 40m.
Total length of pipe, L = 8000m

h.m.m.
 15

Height of ridge above water level in upper reservoir = 8m

Coefficient of friction, f = 0.006
Length of siphon from upper reservoir to summit, L1 = 500m
Let: Depth of pipe below summit of ridge in upper reservoir = xm
Height of siphon above water level in upper reservoir = (8-x)m
Pressure head at C = Pc/w = 3.0m of water absolute
Atmospheric pressure head, Pa/w = 10.3m of water
Applying Bernoullis equation to points A and B, and taking datum line through B,
we have:
p A VA2 p V2
+ + z A = B + B + z B + head loss due to friction from A to B
w 2g w 2g
4fLV 2
or 0 + 0 + 40 = 0 + 0 + 0 +
2gD
4 0.006 8000 V 2
40 =
2 9.81 0.2
or V = 0.904m/s
Now apply Bernoullis equation to points A and C and assume datum line passing
through A:
p A VA2 p V2
+ + z A = C + C + z C + head loss due to friction from A to C
w 2g w 2g
Substituting pA/w and pC/w in terms of absolute pressure:
V2 4fLV 2
10.3 + 0 + 0 = 3.0 + c + (8 x ) +
2g 2gD
0.904 2 4 0.006 500 0.904 2
10.3 = 3.0 + + (8 x ) +
2 9.81 2gd
x = 3.24m
(ii) Discharge, Q = area velocity

= 0.2 2 0.904 = 0.0283m 3 /s
4
9.9 Transmission of Power by Pipeline
Power transmission through pipes by flowing water depends on;
(i) discharge
(ii) the total head available at the inlet of the pipe.
Consider a pipe AB connected to a tank as shown in Fig 9.13.

H A B

Fig 9.13

h.m.m.
 16

Let H = head of water available at the inlet of the pipe, m

L = length of the pipe, m
D = diameter of the pipe, m
V = velocity of water in the pipe, m/s
hf = loss of head due to friction
f = coefficient of friction
Weight of water flowing through the pipe per second,
W = wAV = wQ, (i)
D 2
(where A = )
4
Net head of water available at the outlet B, (neglecting minor losses),
hp = Total head at inlet- loss of head due to friction
= (H-hf) (ii)
4fLV 2
where h f =
2gD
Power supplied at the inlet = wQH (iii)
Power transmitted at the outlet of the pipe,
= weight of water per second head at outlet
= wQhp (iv)
Efficiency of transmission,
wQh p h p
= = (v)
wQH H

Efficiency of transmission,
hp H hf h
= = = 1 f (9.12)
H H H
or h f = (1 )H

Condition for maximum power transmission

From equation (iv), power transmitted at the outlet of the pipe,
wQ hp = wQ(H-hf) = wAV(H-hf)
d 2 4fLV 2
=w
V H
4 2 gD
4fLV 3
= wA HV
2gD
It is evident from the above equation that power transmitted depends upon the
velocity of water V if other parameters are kept constant.
Power transmitted will be a maximum when:
d (p)
=0
dV

h.m.m.
 17

d 4fLV 3
or
wA HV = 0
dV 2gD
4fLV 2
or wA H 3 =0
2gD
4fLV 2
or H 3 =0
2gD
4fLV 2
or H 3h f = 0 h f =
2gD
H = 3h f
H
or h f = (9.13)
3

Example: 9.6 A pipe of length 2000m is used for 150kW power transmission in which
water has a pressure f 4500kN/m2 at the inlet. Determine the diameter of the pipe and
efficiency of transmission if pressure drop over the length of pipe is 700kN/m2. Take f=
0.005.
Solution
Given: Length of pipe, L= 2000m
Coefficient of friction F= 0.005
Power transmitted, P= 150kW
Pressure at inlet, p= 4500kN/m2
Pressure drop= 700 kN/m2
Pressure head at inlet,
p 4500 10 3
H= = = 458.716m
w 9.81 10 3
Loss of head,
700 10 3
hf = = 71.356m
9.81 10 3
(i) Diameter of the pipe, D:
Head available at outlet of pipe = H h f = 458.716 71.356 = 387.36m
Power transmitted, P = wQ(H h f )kW
or 150 = 9.81Q387.36
where Q = discharge through the pipe (m3/s)
w = specific weight of water = 9.81kN/m3
Q = 0.0395 m3/s

But Q = AV = D 2 V
4
2
0.395 4 0.0503
or V = 2
= (i)
D D2

h.m.m.
 18

4fLV 2
Head lost due to friction, h f =
2gD
4 0.005 2000V 2 2.0387 V 2
or 71.356 = =
2 9.81 D D
Substituting value of V from equation (i),
2
2.0387 0.0503 5.158
71.356 = 2 =
D D D5
or D 5 = 7.229 10 5
D = 0.149m or 149mm
(ii) Efficiency of transmission, :
H h f 458.716 71.356
= = = 0.844 0r 84.4% :
H 458.716

9.10 Flow Through Nozzles

A nozzle is tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet end of a pipe,
as shown in Fig 9.14.

H V
v

Pipe dia. D Nozzle dia. d

Fig 9.14
The total energy at the end of the pipe consists of pressure energy and
kinetic energy. By fitting a nozzle at the end of the pipe, the total energy is
converted into kinetic energy. Nozzles are used where higher velocities of flow
are required, such as at the end of a penstock in case of Pelton wheel turbine or
at the end of a hose of a fire extinguisher.
For the nozzle shown,
Let H = height of water level in the reservoir above centerline of the nozzle
L = length of the pipe
D = diameter of the pipe
d = diameter of the nozzle
V = velocity of flow in the pipe
v = velocity of flow at outlet of nozzle
hf = loss of head due to friction in the pipe
f = coefficient of friction for the pipe
Loss of head due to friction in the pipe,
4fLV 2
hf =
2gD
Head available at the end of the pipe (or at the base of the nozzle),
= head at inlet of pipe - head lost due to friction

h.m.m.
 19

4fLV 2
= H-hf = H
2gD
Neglecting minor losses and assuming losses in the nozzle are negligible:
Total head at inlet of pipe = total head (energy) at the outlet of the
nozzle+losses
v2
But total head at outlet of nozzle = kinetic head =
2g
v2 v 2 4fLV 2 4fLV 2
H= + hf = +
h f = 2gD
2g 2g 2gD
From continuity equation in the pipe and outlet of nozzle,
av
AV = av or V =
A
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get

2
v 2 4fL av v 2 4fLa 2 v 2 v 2 4fLa 2
H= + = + = 1 +
2g 2gD A 2g 2gD A 2 2g DA 2
2gH a2
v= 2 (9.14)
4fL A
1 +
D
Discharge through nozzle, Q = av

Power Transmitted Through Nozzle

Mass of liquid at outlet of nozzle/s, m = av

1 1 1
Kinetic energy of the jet at the outlet of the nozzle = mv 2 = (av )v 2 = av 3
2 2 2
1
Power available at the outlet of the nozzle = av 3 watts
2
Power available at the inlet of the pipe = wQH
Efficiency of power transmission from the nozzle,
power available at the outlet of nozzle
=
power available at the inlet of pipe
1
av 3
= 2
wQH
But w = g and Q = av
1
av 3 2
v 1
= 2 =
g av H 2gH 4fL a 2
1+
D A 2

h.m.m.
 20

2gH
v= (9.15)
4fL a 2
1+
D A2

Condition for Maximum Power Transmission Through Nozzle

Energy head available at the end of the nozzle,
4fLV 2
H-hf = H
2gD
As the water flows out of nozzle, this energy head is converted into kinetic
energy head.
Ignoring losses in the nozzle,
v2
H-hf =
2g
Power available at outlet of the nozzle,
v2 1 1
P = wav = av 3 = av v 2
2g 2 2
2
where v = 2g(H-hf)
1 4fLV 2
P = av 2g H
2 2gD
4fLV 2
or P = wav H (9.16)
2gD
From continuity equation,
av
AV = av or V=
A
Substitute value of V in Equation (9.16),
4fL a 2 v 2
P = wav H
2gD A 2
dp
Power transmitted will be a maximum when =0
dv
d 4fL a 2v2
or wav
H = 0
dv D 2g A 2
d 4fL a v
2 3
or wa Hv 2 = 0
dv D 2g A
4fL a2 v 2 2
or H 3 v2 = 0 2 = V
D 2g A

4fLV 2
or H-3hf = 0 h f =
2gD

h.m.m.
 21

H
hf = (9.17)
3
Equation (9.17) indicates that the power transmitted by a nozzle is maximum
when the head lost due to friction in pipe is equal to one-third the total head
supplied at the inlet of the pipe.

Diameter of the Nozzle for Maximum Power Transmission

Total head available at reservoir,
v2
H = hf +
2g
But H = 3h f
v2 v2
3h f = h f + or 2h f =
2g 2g
2 4fLV 2 v 2
or =
2gD 2g
From continuity equation,
av
AV = av or V=
A
2 2
2 4fL a v v2
2 =
2gD A 2g
A 2 8fL A 8fL
or 2
= or = (9.18)
a D a D

Equation (9.18) gives the ratio between the areas of the supply pipe and the
nozzle for maximum power transmission through the nozzle.
Substituting the values of A and a in Equation (9.18) and simplifying:
2
2
4 D 8fL
=
d2 D
4
D 4 8fL
or 4
= or D5=8fLd4
d D
1/ 4
D5

d = (9.19)
8fL
Thus for maximum power transmission through a nozzle, the diameter of the
nozzle is given by Equation (9.19)

Example: 9.7: A nozzle is fitted to a pipe of diameter 100mm and 300m long, the
coefficient of friction being o.o1. If the head available at the head of the nozzle is 120m,
determine the diameter of the nozzle and the maximum power transmitted by a jet of
water discharging freely out of the nozzle.

h.m.m.
 22

Solution
Given: Length of pipe, L= 300m
Coefficient of friction f = 0.01
Head of water, H= 120m
Diameter of the pipe, D= 100mm=0.1m
(i) Diameter of the nozzle for maximum power, d:
1/ 4
D5 0.105
1/ 4

d = = = 0.0254m
8fL 8 0.01 300
Or d = 25.4mm
(ii) Maximum power transmitted by the jet, P:
H
For maximum power transmission, head lost due to friction =
3
120
Available head, h = 120 = 80m
3
Velocity of water through the nozzle,
v = 2gh = 2 9.81 80 = 39.618m / s
Power, P = wQH = wavH ( Q = av )

= 103 9.81 0.02542 39.618 80W =15.755kW
4
Or P =15.755 kW

9.11 Moody Diagram

Head loss due to friction in steady uniform flow is given by Darcy-Weisbach
equation as;
LV 2
hf = ( =4f) (i)
2gD
where is a non-dimensional coefficient, which for turbulent flow can be shown to
VD
be a function of k/D, the relative roughness, and Reynolds number Re ( R e = ); k

is the effective roughness size of the wall.
For laminar (or viscous) flow, (Re 2100), hf can be obtained theoretically in
the form of Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
32LV
hf = (ii)
gD 2
Equating equations (i) and (ii);
LV 2 32LV
=
2gD gD 2
32LV 2gD 64
= =
gD 2 LV 2 gD
64 VD
or = R e = ; =
Re
In the case of turbulent flow, experimental work on smooth pipes by

h.m.m.
 23

Blasius (1913) yielded the relationship;

0.3164
= 1/ 4
(iii)
Re
Later work by Prandtl and Nikuradse on smooth and artificially roughened
pipes revealed three zones of turbulent flow:
(i) Smooth turbulent zone in which the frictional factor , is a function of
Reynolds number only and expressed by;
1 R
= 2 log e (iv)
2.51
(ii) Transitional turbulent zone in which is a function of both k/D and Re.
(iii) Rough turbulent zone in which is a function of k/D only and expressed
by;
1 3 .7 D
= 2 log (v)
k
Equations (iv) and (v) are known as the Karman-Prandtl equations.
Colebrook and White (1939) found the function resulting from addition of the
rough and smooth equations (iv) and (v) in the form;
1 k 2.51
= 2 log + (vi)
3.7 D R e
fitted observed data on commercial pipes over the three zones of turbulent flow. The
Colebrook- White equation was first plotted in the form of R e diagram by
Moody, and hence is generally referred to as the Moody Diagram.
Combining the Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook- White equations, (i) and (vi),
yields an explicit expression for the velocity V:
k 2.51
V = 2 2gDS f log + (vii)
3.7D D 2gDS f
Example: 9.8: A uniform pipeline, 5000m long, 200mm in diameter and roughness size
0.03mm, conveys water at 150C between two reservoirs as shown in Fig 9.15, the
difference in water level between which is maintained constant at 50m.In addition to the
2 2
entry loss of 0.5 V , a valve produces a head loss 10 V . Determine the steady
2g 2g
discharge between the reservoirs using: (a) the Colebrook-White equation (b) the Moody
diagram. Take the kinematic viscosity of water at 150C as 1.1310-6m2/s.

A
2
V
Velocity head =
2g
B

Valve

Fig 9.15

h.m.m.
 24

Solution
Apply Bernoullis equation to A and B:
H = entry loss + velocity head + valve head loss + friction head loss
V2 V2 V 2 LV 2
= 0 .5 + + 10 + (i)
2g 2g 2g 2gD
(a) Colebrook-White equation;
1 k 2.51
= 2 log + (ii)
3 .7 D R e
Solve equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously to obtain solution to the
problem.
Direct substitution of from equation (i) into (ii) yields a complex
implicit function in velocity V which can only be evaluated by trial or
graphical interpolation.
A simpler computational procedure is obtained if terms other than frictional
head loss in equation (i) are initially ignored. Then equation (vii) can be
used to obtain an approximate value of velocity V.

h k 2.51
Thus V = 2 2gD f log + (iii)
L 3.7D hf
D 2gD
L
h 50
But hf = H =50; f = = 0.01
L 5000
0.03 10 -3 2.51 1.13 10 6
V = 2 2 9.81 0.2 0.01 log +
3.7 0.2 0.2 2 9.81 0.2 0.01
= 1.564m/s
Terms other than friction loss in equation (i) can now be evaluated.
V2
hm = 11.5 = 1.435m , where hm denotes sum of minor head losses.
2g
A better estimate of hf is thus hf = 50-1.435 = 48.565m
Again from equation (iii), V=1.541m/s
Repeating until successive values of V are sufficiently close yields;
V=1.541m/s, hf = 48.61m, and hm = 1.39m, so that Q = AV= 48.41l/s
Convergence is usually rapid since friction loss usually predominates.

(b) Use of Moody Chart

This involves determination of Darcy friction factor. Minor losses need not
be neglected initially. However the solution is still iterative and an estimate of
the mean velocity is needed.
Estimate V=2.0m/s
VD 2 0 .2
Re = = 6
= 3.54 10 5
1.13 10

h.m.m.
 25

k 0.03 10 3
Relative roughness, = = 0.00015
D 0.2
From Moody chart, = 0.015
Rearranging equation (i);
2gH
V= (iv)
L
11.5 +
D
A better estimate of the velocity is given by;
2 9.81 50
V= = 1.593m / s
0.015 5000
11.5 +
0 .2
1.593 0.2
Revised R e = 6
= 2.82 10 5
1.13 10
Hence =0.016 and equation (iv) yields V=1.54m/s
(Further changes in due to small change in V will be undetected in Moody
diagram)
Thus accept V= 1.54m/s, and Q = 48.41l/s

h.m.m.