Tgrtttytn t4554

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.
1
MODULE 6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
MODULE 6: MATERIALS ANDg
HARDWARE
y 66 CATEGORY
n
r
i
(DCAMa
PART
B1.1)
r
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
For Training Purposes Only
Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011
DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1
WARNING
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information con
tained herein is as
accurate as possible at the time of issue, and is subjected to ongoing amendment
s where necessary
according to any regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contai
ned in this document
is in variation with other official journals and/or documents, the latter must b
e taken as the overriding
document. The contents herein shall not be reproduced in any form without the ex
pressed permission
of ETD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS ...........................................................
................................................................................
....................... 1
6.1 FERROUS METALS..............................................................
................................................................................
.................... 5
6.2 NON-FERROUS METALS..........................................................
................................................................................
............. 21
6.3 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES........................................................
................................................................................
.......... 21
g
in
6.4 TYPES OF CORROSION .........................................................
................................................................................
............... 55
n
i
ra
6.5 FASTENERS ..................................................................
................................................................................
......................... 90
6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS............................................................
................................................................................
..................184
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
6.7 SPRINGS.....................................................................
................................................................................
...........................201
6.8 BEARINGS ...................................................................
................................................................................
..........................208
6.9 TRANSMISSIONS ..............................................................
................................................................................
....................212
6.10 CONTROL CABLES ............................................................
................................................................................
.................233
6.11 ELECTRICAL CABLES .........................................................
................................................................................
...............258
TABLE OF CONTENTS
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
6 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitation and other charact
eristics of structural metals is vital to properly construct and maintain any
equipment especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even slight
deviation of from design specification of interior materials result in the loss
of
both lives and equipment. The selection of the correct material for a specific r
epair job demands familiarity with the most common physical properties of
various metals.
g
in
Strength, weight, and reliability are three factors which determine the requirem
ents to be met by any material used in airframe construction and repair. The
material must possess the strength required by the dimensions, weight and use. T
here are five basic stresses which metals may be required to withstand.
These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
n
i
ra
Tension
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Tension
Tension
Deformation
Page 1
Tensile Strength
When a piece of sheet metal is pulled from each end, the resultant force is call
ed tension. The ability to withstand tension is called tensile strength, and is
measured in pounds per square inch.
Yield Strength
g
in
The ability of a metal to resist deformation is called yield strength.
Example:
n
i
ra
P
P
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A simplified
view of a
material
The same
material this
time with an
applied force
It breaks once the force
exceeds ultimate
strength of the material
When a tensile load is applied to a material, the material resists any deformati
on until its yield point is reached. However, once the yield point is reached, t
he
metal stretches, and its molecular structure changes enough to increase the meta
ls strength and therefore, resist further deformation. This continues until the
ultimate load is reached, at which time, the material breaks.
Page 2
Tension
g
in
n
i
ra
Tension
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Shear Strength
Shear strength describes a metals ability to resist opposing forces. A rivet that
holds two or more sheets of metal together, resisting the force of the sheet
trying to slide apart, is an example of shear load. When the rivets installed in
a joint have more strength than the metal surrounding them, the joint is said t
o
be loaded in shear.
Example:
P
Two simplified
view of materials
P
The two materials,
joined with other
materials, can
withstand certain
amount of force
without deformation
P
P
The joint breaks once
the force exceed
ultimate strength of the
material for the joint
Page 3
Compression
Tension
Tension
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Bearing Strength
Bearing strength is the ability of a joint to withstand any form of crushing or
excessive compressive distortion. Material under a compression load usually fail
s
by buckling or bending. The force at which something buckles while being compres
sed varies with an objects length, cross sectional area and shape.
Example:
P
A simplified
view of
materials
P
The same
material this
time with an
applied force
P
P
The material buckles once
the force exceed the
ultimate strength
Page 4
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS (DCAM 6.1 L1 & L2)
6.1 FERROUS METALS
PROPERTIES OF METALS
The various properties of metals can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests o
n sample pieces. The terminology, associated with these properties, is
outlined in the following paragraphs.
g
in
1. BRITTLENESS
The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will s
hatter under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.
n
i
ra
2. CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity.
Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
3. DUCTILITY
The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is
measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch
(elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metals ductil
ity.
4. ELASTICITY
The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the remova
l of any distorting force. The Elastic Limit is the greatest force that can be
applied without permanent distortion.
5. HARDNESS
The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressin
g a hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metals surface. The diameter
or depth of the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metals hardne
ss.
6. MALLEABILITY
The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fractur
e. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be
subsequently relieved by heat-treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool m
etal.
7. PLASTICITY
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed
. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.
8. TENACITY
The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load.
It is proportional to the maximum stress required to cause the metal to fracture
.
Page 5
9. TOUGHNESS
The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metals toughness is te
sted by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass.
10. STRENGTH
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be s
een from the following sub-paragraphs
g
in
10.1 TENSILE STRENGTH
The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal
n
i
ra
10.2 YIELD STRENGTH
The ability to resist deformation. After the metal yields, it is said to have pa
ssed its yield point.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
10.3 SHEAR STRENGTH
The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed on the shank o
f a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart in a
direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet.
10.4 BEARING STRENGTH
The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.
Page 6
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
The main alloying agents of steel are: Carbon has a major effect on steel propert
ies. Carbon is the primary hardening element in steel and allows heat treatment
of steel to occur. Hardness
and tensile strength increases as carbon content increases up to about 0.85% car
bon. Low carbon steel contains 0.1 to 0.3 % carbon. Low carbon
steels are used for the manufacture of safety wire and secondary structures. Med
ium carbon steel contains 0.3 and 0.5 % carbon. These steels are
employed where a machining processes are required or where surface hardness is d
esireable. High carbon steels contain 0.5-- 1.05% carbon. These
steels are used where extreme hardness is required, typical applications include
springs, files and cutting tools.
g
in
n
i
ra
Sulphur decreases ductility and weldability with increasing content. Sulphur lev
els are normally controlled to low levels. The only exception is free-machining
steels, where sulfur is added to improve machinability.
Manganese contributes to strength and hardness, but less than carbon. The increa
se in strength is dependent upon the carbon content. Increasing
the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability, but less than carbon.
Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.
Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less

effective than manganese in increasing as--rolled strength and
hardness. In low--carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface qua
lity.
Phosphorous increases strength and hardness and corrosion resistance but decreas
es ductility
Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.
Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and oxidati

on resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature strengt
h. As a hardening element, Chromium is frequently used with a toughening element
such as nickel to produce superior
mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased st
rength.
Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. Molybdenum may produce secondar

y hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It
enhances the creep strength of low--alloy steels at elevated temperatures.
Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel.
The addition of small amounts of Vanadium can significantly increase
the strength of steels.
Titanium is used to improve toughness

f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 7
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Alloying elements
Page 8
MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS
Designations given to most low alloy steels are based upon an AISI (American Iro
n and Steel Institute) system that refers to the chemical composition of the
alloy.
g
in
The first two digits refer to the specific primary alloying elements, the last t
wo digits (or the last three in a five-digit number) refer to the percentage of
carbon
contained in the alloy.
10XX -- refers to plain carbon steels (contain only carbon and manganese)
41XX -- refers to chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
43XX -- refers to nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
52100 -- refers to a chromium alloy with 1% carbon
93XX -- refers to a nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steel (with a differen
t ratio between these elements than is contained in the 43XX alloys).
For example, 4340 refers to a nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy containing .40% c
arbon.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
9Ni - 4Co.30C is a specific trade name assigned to a nickel-cobalt alloy with .3
0% carbon. The 9 and 4 refer to the nominal percentages of nickel and cobalt
in the alloy. The normally-used low alloy steels and their applicable strength r
anges are shown. Use of these alloys is limited to the strength ranges shown.
The European designations are slightly different. For further information refer
to the Metallic Material List in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) of the
specific aircraft manufacturer.
Page 9
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Material designations
Metalworking Processes
Page 10
After metal alloys are produced, they must be formed into useful shapes. Wrought
objects are those formed by physically working the metal into shape,
whereas cast items are formed by pouring molten metal into moulds. When it comes
to mechanically working metal into a desired shape, there are three
methods commonly used:
1. Hot-working
2. Cold-working
3. Extruding
g
in
n
i
ra
Hot Working
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Hot-working is the process of forming metal at an elevated temperature when it i
s in its annealed or soft condition. Almost all steel is hot-worked from the
ingot into a form which is either hot or cold worked to a finished shape. The in
got is then placed in a soaking pit to slow the cooling process until the molten
interior gradually solidifies.
Page 11
After soaking, then it is worked into its desired shape through rolling and forg
ing. Rolling consists of forming hot metal ingots with rollers to form sheets, b
ars
and beams. Forging is a process where in a piece of metal is worked at temperatu
re above its critical range. Forging is typically used to form shape through
either pressing or hammering.
g
in
Pressing
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Pressing is used to form large and heavy parts. Since a press is slow acting, it
s force is uniformly transmitted to the centre of the material being pressed. Th
is
affects the interior grain structure resulting in the best possible structure th
roughout.
Page 12
Drop Forging
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Drop forging is a hammering process whereby a hot ingot is placed between a pair
of formed dies in a machine called a drop hammer and a weight of several
tons is dropped on the form upper die. This results in the hot metal being force
d to take the form of the dies. Because the process is very rapid, the grain
structure of the metal is altered, resulting in significant increases in the str
ength of the finished part.
Page 13
Hammering
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Hammering is a type of forging that is usually used on small parts because it re
quires a metal worker to physically hammer a piece of metal into its finished
shape. The advantage of hammering is that the operator has control over both the
amount of pressure applied and the finishing temperature.
Forging is usually referred to as smith forging and is used extensively where on
ly a small number of parts are needed. In addition to the forming operation,
hammering hardens the metal.
Page 14
Cold Working
Cold-working is performed well below a metals critical temperature and ranges fro
m the manual bending of sheet metal for skin repairs to drawing seamless
tubing and wire. There are several cold-working processes; the two that are most
common are cold-rolling and cold-drawing.
g
in
Cold-Rolling
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Cold -rolling usually refers to the rolling of metal at room temperature.
Page 15
Cold Drawing
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Cold drawing is used in making seamless tubing, wire and other forms of stock.
Page 16
Extrusion
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Extrusion is the process of forcing metal through a die which imparts a required
cross- section to the metal. Metals such as lead, tin and aluminium may be
extruded cold, however most metals are heated. The advantage of the extrusion pr
ocess is its flexibility.
Example: Because of its workability, aluminium can be economically extruded to m
ore shapes and larger sizes than is practicable with other metals.
Many structural parts such as channels, angles, T-sections and Z-section are for
med by the extrusion process.
Page 17
Ferrous Metal (Iron)
Any alloy containing iron as its chief constituent is called ferrous metal. The
most common ferrous metal in aircraft structure is steel, an alloy of iron with
a
controlled amount of carbon added.
g
in
Iron is a chemical element which is fairly soft malleable and ductile in its pur
e form. It is silvery white in color and is quite heavy. Iron combines readily w
ith
oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more commonly known as rust. Iron poured fro
m a furnace into moulds is known as cast iron and normally contains more
than two percent carbon and some silicon.
n
i
ra
Cast iron has few aircraft applications because of its low strength to weight ra
tio. However, it is used in engines for items such as piston rings where its
porosity and wear characteristic allow it to hold a lubricant film.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 18
Steel
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is then f
orced through the molten metal where it combines with carbon and burns. The
molten steel is then poured into moulds where it solidifies into ingots. The ing
ots are placed in a soaking pit where they are heated to a uniform temperature
of about 2,200 F/ 1204.4 C. They are then taken from the soaking pit and passed th
rough steel rollers to form plate or sheet plate.
Much of the steel used in aircraft construction is made in electric furnaces, wh
ich allow better control of alloying agents then gas-fired furnaces. An electric
furnace is loaded with scrap steel, limestone and flux. The intense heat from th
e arcs melts the steel and the impurities mix with flux. Once the impurities are
removed, controlled quantities of alloying agents are added, and the liquid meta
l in poured into moulds.
Page 19
Stainless Steel
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Stainless steel is the classification of corrosion-resistant steels that contain
large amounts of chromium and nickel. Their strength and resistance to corrosio
n
make them well suited for high-temperature application such as firewalls and exh
aust system components.
The principal alloy stainless steel is chromium. The corrosion resistant steel m
ost often used in aircraft construction is known as 18-8 steel because of its
content of 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. Stainless steel may be roll
ed, drawn, bent or formed to any shape.
Page 20
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is m
olybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel and increases both its impact
strength and elastic limit. Molybdenum steels are extremely wear resistant and p
ossess a great deal of fatigue strength and its used in high-strength
structural members and engine cylinder barrels.
g
in
Chrome-molybdenum (chrome-moly) steel is the most commonly used in aircraft. Its
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) designation of 4130 denotes an
alloy of approximately 1 per cent molybdenum and 0.30 percent carbon. It machine
s readily, is easily welded by either gas or electric arc, and responds well
to heat treatment.
n
i
ra
Heat- treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tensile strength about four times t
hat of SAE 1025 steel, making for landing gear structure and engine mounts.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 21
Heat Treatment of Steel
Iron is an allotropic metal, meaning it can exist in more than one type of latti
ce structure, depending on temperature.
Pure molten iron begins to solidify at 2,800 F. Its structure at this point is k
nown as the Delta form. If cooled to 2,554 F, the atoms rearrange themselves
into a Gamma form. Iron in this form is nonmagnetic. When nonmagnetic gamma iron
in this form is cooled to 1,666 F, another change occurs and the iron
is transformed into a nonmagnetic form of Alpha structure.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Ferrite
g
in
n
i
ra
There are two basic forms of steel when it comes to heat treatment. They are fer
rite and austenite.
Austenite
Ferrite is an alpha solid solution of iron containing some carbon and exists at
temperature below the lower critical temperature. Above this lower critical
temperature, the steel begins to turn into austenite, which consists of gamma ir
on containing carbon. As the temperature increases the transformation of
ferrite into austenite until the upper critical temperature is reached.
Page 22
Below the alloys lower critical temperature, the carbon which exists in the steel
in the form of iron carbides is scattered throughout the iron matrix as a
physical mixture. When the steel is heated to its upper critical temperature, th
is carbon dissolves into matrix as a physical mixture.
g
in
Heat Treatment
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of me
tal in the solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serviceabl
e,
and safe for a definite purpose. By heat treating a metal can be made harder, st
ronger and more resistant to impact. Heat treating can also make a metal
softer and more ductile.
All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and coo
ling of metals. They differ however in the temperatures to which the metal is
heated and the rate at which it is cooled. A pure metal cannot be hardened by he
at treatment because there is little change in its structure when heated.
Page 23
Heat Treating Equipment
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Successful heat treating requires close control over all factors affecting the h
eating and cooling of metals. The furnace must be of the proper size and type
and must be so controlled that temperature are kept within prescribed for each o
peration. Even the atmosphere within the furnace affects the condition of the
part being heattreated. The quenching equipment and the quenching medium must be
selected to fit the metal and the heattreating operation.
There are many different types and sizes of furnaces used in heat treatment. Fur
naces are designed to operate in certain specific temperature ranges and
attempted use in other rangers frequently results in work of inferior quality. F
urnaces heated by electricity the heating elements are generally in the form of
wire or ribbon. Such furnaces commonly operate up to a maximum temperature of ab
out 2000 F.
Page 24
Heating
The object in heating is to transform parasite (a mechanical mixture of iron car
bide that exists in a finely mixed condition) to austenite as the steel is hated
through the critical range. Steel begins to appear dull red at about 1000 F and
as the temperature increases the colour changes gradually through various
shades of red to orange, to yellow and finally to white.
g
in
Soaking
n
i
ra
The temperature of the furnace must be held constant during the soaking period,
since it is during this period that rearrangement of the internal structure of
the steel takes place. The length of the soaking period depends upon the type of
steel and the size of the part. As a general rule, a soaking period of 30
minutes to 1 hour is sufficient for the average heat-treating operation.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 25
Cooling
Various rates of cooling are used to produce the desired results, still air is a
slow cooling medium, but is much faster than furnace cooling. Liquids are the
fastest cooling media and therefore used in hardening steels. There are three co
mmonly used quenching liquids brine, water and oil. Brine is the most severe
medium, water is next and oil is the least severe. Generally an oil quench is us
ed for alloy steels and brine or water for carbon steels.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Portable Quench Tank
Quenching Media
Quenching solutions act only through their ability to cool the steel. Most requi
rements for quenching media are met satisfactorily by water. The rate of cooling
is relatively rapid during quenching in brine, somewhat less rapid in water and
slow in oil. Brine usually is made of a 5 to 10 percent solution of salt (sodium
chloride) in water. In addition to its greater cooling speed, brine has the abil
ity to throw the scale from steel during quenching.
Page 26
STEEL APPLICATIONS
General
The base material iron is a chemical element which, in its pure form, is a very
soft, malleable and ductile metal which is easy to form and shape. It readily
combines with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust), and so is alloyed, primarily wit
h carbon, but also with other elements. When molten iron is alloyed with more
than 2% Carbon and poured into a mould, cast iron is formed. Cast iron has limit
ed uses in the aviation industry due to low strength to weight ratio and
brittleness.
g
in
n
i
ra
Iron is extracted from iron ore by mixing it with coke and limestone and heating
it in a furnace. The process extracts the oxygen from the ore, and allows the
iron to sink to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone reacts with any impurit
ies
in the molten iron and floats to the surface to form a slag.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
To make steel, the pure iron is remelted in a special furnace where carbon is in
troduced along with other alloying elements to achieve the desired
characteristics.
Description
Steel is an excellent engineering material with many applications. For aircraft
use, however, it does have some significant problems. The main restrictions are
its high density (approximately 3 times the density of aluminium) and its suscep
tability to corrosion. The corrosion of steel can be reduced by the addition of
certain alloying elements, but this can have significant effects on properties a
nd costs.
Between 9 and 16% (Airbus A320: 9% , Boeing B777: 11%) of an aircrafts structure
is alloy steel and stainless steel. The high strength and high modulus of
elasticity are the primary advantages of the high-strength steels. This is usefu
l for designs with space limitations such as with some landing gear components.
Alloy selection considerations include service temperature, strength, stiffness
fatigue properties and fabricability.
Page 27
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Steel Application
Page 28
TESTING OF MATERIALS
The mechanical properties of a material must be known before that material can b
e incorporated into any design. Mechanical property data is compiled from
extensive material testing. Various tests are used to determine the actual value
s of material properties under different loading applications and test condition
s.
g
in
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a
steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to stretch until it
eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension,
and the results are used to determine the strength of the material. To
ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens used must conform to stand
ard dimensions and finish as laid down by the appropriate Standards
Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc).
n
i
ra
The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relations
hip between the cross-sectional area and a specified "gauge length", of each
specimen, is constant. The gauge length, is that portion of the parallel part of
the specimen, which is to be used for measuring the subsequent extension
during and/or after the test.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load, which
the test piece is able to sustain, and dividing that figure by the original
cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the specimen. The value derived from this simpl
e calculation is called STRESS.
Stress
Load (N)
Original c.s.a. (mm 2 )
Note: The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and America
n) units of lbf/in2, tonf/in2 (also psi and tsi), or the European and SI units s
uch
as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Page 29
Example 1
A steel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N
. Calculate the tensile stress.
Stress
Load
Area
400
400
20 37 N / mm 2
2
2
r
2 5
Exercise 1
Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 m
m, when it is subjected to a load of 100 N.
g
in
n
i
ra
Example 2
A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0 5m2, is subjected to a load
of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in; (a) MN/m2 and (b) N/mm2
(a)
(b)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Stress
Load
Area
10
20MN / m 2
0 5
1N/mm 1 MN/m
2
2
So Stress 20 N/mm
2
As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the m
aterial extends in length. The amount of extension, produced by a given load,
allows the amount of induced STRAIN to be calculated. Strain is calculated by me
asuring the extension and dividing by the original length of the material.
Note: Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a rat
io of two lengths, it has no units.
Strain
Extension
Original Length
Exercise 2
Calculate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load
of 2,100N, has a stress of 60 N/mm2.
Note: When calculating stress in large structural members, it may be more conven
ient to measure load in Mega-Newtons (MN, or N6) and the area in square
metres (m2). When using such units, the numerical value is identical to that if
the calculation had been made using Newtons and mm2.
i.e.
A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = l MN/m2
Page 30
Example 3
An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to
tensile load until its length becomes 21 15 mm. Calculate the induced strain.
Extension 21 15 - 20 1 15 mm
Strain
g
in
Extension
1 15
0 0575 (no units)
Original Length
20
n
i
ra
Exercise 3
A tie rod 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate th
e strain.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 31
Load/Extension Diagrams
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load
and extension are continuously measured, the results can be used to produce a
Load/Extension diagram or graph (refer to Fig. 1). Obviously a number of differe
nt forms of graph may be obtained, depending on the material type and
condition, but the example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many me
tallic materials when stressed in tension.
Load/Extension Diagram
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig 1
The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0 an
d A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e. when the load is
removed the material will return to its original size and shape. In this region,
the extension is directly proportional to the applied load.
This relationship is known as Hooke s Law, which states:
Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress
causing it.
Page 32
Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material conti
nues to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B). In this region th
e
material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does no
t return to its original size and shape, but will retain some extension. After
point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to neck. The mat
erial continues to extend under reduced load until it eventually fractures at
point C.
g
in
Aircraft structural designers interest in materials does not extend greatly beyon
d the elastic phase of materials. Production engineers, however, are greatly
interested in material properties beyond this phase, since the forming capabilit
ies of materials are dependent on their properties in the plastic phase.
n
i
ra
An examination of a graph, obtained from the results of a tensile test on mild s
teel (refer to Fig. 2), shows that considerable plastic extension occurs without
any increase in load shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of in
creasing extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point B , is
known as the yield point and, if this level of stress is reached, the metal is sai
d to have yielded. This is a characteristic of mild steel and a few other,
relatively ductile, materials.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 33
UTS
Point B
Yield Point
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Load/Extension Diagram for Mild Steel
Fig. 2
If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it may be seen
that mild steel is capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Ten
sile
Stress (UTS) is reached. Severe necking then occurs and the material will fractu
re at a reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more load
after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material. Work-hardening of man
y materials is often carried out to increase their strength.
As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed
for other materials (refer to Fig 3), and their slopes will depend on whether
the materials are brittle, elastic or plastic.
Page 34
Point of Fracture
g
in
Plastic Region
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Small
Elongation
Zero
Elongation
Large
Elongation
(a)
(b)
(c)
Load/Extension Graphs for Brittle, Elastic and Plastic Materials
Fig. 3
(a) represents a brittle material (glass)
(b) represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity (high-carb
on steel
(c) represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g. soft al
uminium).
Page 35
Ductility
After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of materi
al ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic deformation wh
ich
occurred. The two indicators of ductility are:
Elongation
g
in
Reduction in area (at the neck)
n
i
ra
Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension o
f the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard measure of
ductility is to establish the percentage elongation after fracture.
Final Extension
100
Original Gauge Length
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Percentage elongation
Example 4
In a tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the
gauge marks at fracture were 176.1 mm. What was the percentage
elongation?
Elongation
Final Extension
176.1 - 150.5
100
100 17.009% 17%
Gauge Length
150 5
Proof Stress
Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be emplo
yed. The value chosen is the Proof Stress, which is defined as:
The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional elong
ation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge
length.
Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress i
s then referred to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress
respectively.
The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer t
o Fig 4) as follows:
Page 36
If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on
the extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph,
is
drawn until it intersects the non-linear portion of the curve. The corresponding
load is then read from the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this l
oad
by the original cross-sectional area.
0.1% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the
specimen s original length.
g
in
0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of
the original length.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Acquiring the Proof Stress from a Load/Extension Graph
Fig. 4
Page 37
Stiffness
Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress
causing that extension, it will provide a measure of stiffness/rigidity or flexi
bility.
Stress
is a measure of stiffness
Strain
ie .
g
in
This value, which is of great importance to designers, is known as the Modulus of
Elasticity, or Youngs Modulus, and is signified by use of the symbol E.
Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain has no units, the unit for
E is the same as Stress. i.e. lbf/in2, tonf/in2 (also psi and tsi), or the Euro
pean
and SI units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
n
i
ra
The actual numerical value is usually large, as it is a measure of the stress re
quired to theoretically double the length of a specimen (if it did not break fir
st).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A typical value of E for steel would be 30 x 106 psi. or 210,000 MN/m2
Relative stiffness values for some common materials (using Rubber as a datum), a
re:
Wood
2000 x
Aluminium
10,000 x
Steel
30,000 x
Diamond
171,000 x
Tensile Testing of Plastics
This is conducted in the same way as for metals, but the test piece is usually m
ade from sheet material. Although the basic load/extension curve for some
plastics is somewhat similar to metal curves, changes in test temperature or the
rate of loading can have a major effect on the actual results.
Even though the material under test may be in the elastic range, the specimen ma
y take some time to return to its original size after the load is removed.
Page 38
Compression Test
Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile te
sting, but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder.
The Load/Deflection graph in the elastic phase for ductile materials is similar
to that in the tensile test. The value of E is the same in compression as it i
s in
tension. Compression testing is seldom used as an acceptance test for metallic o
r plastic materials (except for cast iron).
g
in
Compression testing is generally restricted to building materials and research i
nto the properties of new materials.
n
i
ra
Hardness Testing
The hardness of materials is found by measuring their resistance to indentation.
Various methods are used, but the most common are those of the Brinell,
Vickers and Rockwell Hardness Tests.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
1. Brinell Test
In the Brinell Hardness Test (refer to Fig. 5), a hardened steel ball is forced
into the surface of a prepared specimen, using a calibrated force, for a specifi
ed
time. The diameter of the resulting indentation is then measured accurately, usi
ng a graduated microscope and, thus, the area of the indentation is calculated.
The hardness number is determined by reference to a Brinell Hardness Number (BHN
) chart.
Diameter (Area) of
resulting Indentation
The Brinell Hardness Test
Fig. 5
Page 39
2. Vickers Test
The Vickers Hardness Test is similar to the Brinell test but uses a square-based
diamond pyramid indenter (refer to Fig. 6). The diagonals, of the indentation,
are accurately measured, by a special microscope, and the Hardness Value (HV) is
again determined by reference to a chart.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Vickers Hardness Test
Fig. 6
Page 40
3. Rockwell Test
The Rockwell Hardness Test (refer to Fig. 7) also uses indentation as its basis,
but two types of indenter are used. A conical diamond indenter is employed
for hard materials and a steel ball is used for soft materials. The hardness num
ber, when using the steel ball, is referred to as Rockwell B (e.g. RB 80) and th
e
diamond hardness number is known as Rockwell C (e.g. RC 65).
g
in
Note: Whereas Brinell and Vickers hardness values are based upon the area of ind
entation, the Rockwell values are based upon the depth of the indentation.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Rockwell Hardness Test
Fig. 7
Page 41
No precise relationship exists between the various hardness numbers, but approxi
mate relationships have been compiled. Some comparative values between
Brinell Vickers and Rockwell are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
COMPARATIVE HARDNESS VALUES
MATERIAL
Aluminium alloy
Mild steel
Cutting tools
Note:
BHN
100
130
650
HV
100
130
697
ROCKWELL
B 57
B 73
C 60
g
in
n
i
ra
There is a good correlation between hardness and U.T.S. on some materials (e.g.
steels)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
4. Hardness Testing on Aircraft
It is not normal to use Brinell, Rockwell or Vickers testing methods on aircraft
in the hangar. There are, however, portable Hardness Testers, which may be
used to test for material hardness on items such as aircraft wheels, after an ov
er-heat condition, because the over-heat condition may cause the wheel
material to become soft or partially annealed.
Page 42
Impact Testing
The impact test (refer to Fig. 8) is designed to determine the toughness of a ma
terial and the two most commonly used methods are those using the Charpy
and Izod impact-testing machines.
g
in
Both tests use notched-bar test pieces of standard dimensions, which are struck
by a fast-moving, weighted pendulum. The energy, which is absorbed by the
test piece on impact, will give a measure of toughness. A brittle material will
break easily and will absorb little energy, so the swing of the pendulum (which
is
recorded against a calibrated scale) will not be reduced significantly. A tough
material will, however, absorb considerably more energy and thus greatly
reduce the recorded pendulum swing.
n
i
ra
Most materials show a drop in toughness with a reduction in temperature, though
some materials (certain steels in particular) show a rapid drop in toughness
as the temperature is progressively reduced. This temperature range is called th
e Transition Zone, and components, which are designed for use at low
temperature, should be operated above the materials Transition Temperature.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering the Transitio
n Temperature of steels
Page 43
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Test Piece
Impact Test
Fig. 8
.
Page 44
Other Forms of Material Testing
Although some of the more important forms of material testing have already been
discussed, there are several other forms of material testing to be
considered, not least important of which are those associated with Creep and Fat
igue Testing.
g
in
a.
Creep
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of
materials subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and
occurs even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the m
aterial.
n
i
ra
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelv
in), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it becomes more
rapid. For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature p
henomenon, associated with super-heated steam plant and gas turbine
technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep si
gnificantly at, or a little above, ambient temperatures and some aircraft
materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
b.
Creep in Metals
When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic de
formation. This is then followed by plastic strain, which occurs in three stages
(refer to Fig. 9):
Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time
as strain-hardening sets in.
Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value.
Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to ruptur
e. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the component, prior to
failure. The rate of creep is at a maximum in this phase.
Page 45
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Three Stages of Creep
Fig. 9
Page 46
c.
Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep
Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very
low stress, primary creep may occur, but this falls to a negligible value in the
secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/o
r temperature, however, the rate of secondary creep will increase and lead to
tertiary creep and inevitable failure.
g
in
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give relia
ble information for the design of structures, which must carry static loads over
long
periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data, determined from long-
time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are therefore essential.
n
i
ra
Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep t
ests are sometimes used as acceptance tests.
d. The Effect of Grain Size on Creep
Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boun
daries, creep resistance is improved by increased grain size, due to the
reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that
some modern, high-performance turbine blades are being made from
directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-crystal) castings.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
e.
Creep in Plastics
Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, beha
viour to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess lower thermal
properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, partic
ularly at elevated temperature, must take creep considerations into account.
f.
Fatigue
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures o
f engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modern
engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds
. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in many instances, has made the
fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, stati
c strength properties.
Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, coul
d cause failure in components, which were capable of safely carrying much
greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failu
re was likened to a progressive weakening of the material, over a period of
time and hence the attribution of the term fatigue. Very few constructional member
s are immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic
environment.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which a
ircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to
gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service beh
aviour, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close
as
possible to those existing in service.
Page 47
g.
Fatigue Testing
An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron girder, which could
safely sustain a mass of 12 tons, broke when a mass of only 3 tons was
raised and lowered on the girder some 3x106 times.
g
in
It was also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised
and lowered on to the beam, a colossal number (infinite) of times, without
causing any problem.
n
i
ra
Some years later, a German engineer (Wohler), did work in this direction and eve
ntually developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name
and continues to be used in industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is ro
tated in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles to the
axis of rotation (refer to Fig. 10). The rotation thus produces a reversal of st
ress for every revolution of the test piece.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-torsional, tens
ion-compression etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has
resulted in a better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon and its implication
s from an engineering viewpoint.
Test Piece made to vibrate or
oscillate against load (Stress
Cycles).
Test Piece
Load
Simple Fatigue Testing
Fig 10
Page 48
S-N Curves
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, whic
h shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S),
applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerat
ed before failure of the material.
g
in
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to Fig. 11), it can be se
en that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of str
ess
cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve
becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an
infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level.
n
i
ra
This limiting stress is called the Fatigue Limit and, for steels, the fatigue limi
t is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate
tensile strength (U.T.S.)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 49
Stress
(S)
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fatigue Limit
40 60 % UTS
Number of Cycles (N)
A S-N Curve for a Steel Material
Fig. 11
Page 50
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different characteristic from steel (re
fer to Fig. 12). In this instance there is no fatigue limit as such and it can b
e
seen that these materials will fail if subjected to an appropriate number of str
ess reversals, even at very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit
an endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted inst
ead.
It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a spec
ific life in mind and removed from service at the appropriate time. The
service fatigue lives of complete airframes or airframe members are typical exam
ples of this philosophy.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
An S-N Curve for an Aluminium Alloy
Fig. 12
Page 51
Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case wit
h metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a fatigue failure, wi
ll
increase as the maximum stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is, however
, generally no fatigue limit for these materials and some form of endurance
limit must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a hig
h- cycle fatigue mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue strength can result in
a 100-times life improvement.
g
in
n
i
ra
Causes of Fatigue Failure
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be ascert
ained), it would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue failure, due to lack
of suitable allowances in design, should not occur.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most sophisticate
d engineering product does not possess immunity from this mode of failure.
Such failures are often due to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or op
erating conditions, material, and manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:
An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an applie
d steady stress).
A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.

The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as expe
rienced in aircraft cabin pressurisation, during each take-off (e.g. daily), or
they may have a relatively short time interval, such as encountered during the a
erodynamic buffeting/vibration of a wing panel. The former example would be
considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-cycle fatigue.
In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to ca
use cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as
stress concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corros
ion, surface finish, material imperfections etc.
Vibration
Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and, be
cause most dynamic structures are subjected to vibration, this is
undoubtedly the most common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natura
l frequency at which they will freely vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large,
heavy, flexible components vibrate at a low frequency, while small, light, stiff
components vibrate at a high frequency.
Page 52
Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous), so
it is important to ensure that, over their normal operating ranges, critical
components are not vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating r
esonance.
The resonant frequency, of a component, is governed by its mass and stiffness an
d, on certain critical parts, it is often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tes
ts
to confirm adequate fatigue life before putting the product into service.
g
in
Fatigue Metallurgy
Under the action of fatigue stresses, minute, local, plastic deformation on an a
tomic scale, takes place along slip planes within the material grains. If the
fatigue stresses are continued, then micro cracks are formed within the grains,
in the area of the highest local stress, (usually at or near the surface of the
material). The micro cracks join together and propagate across the grain boundar
ies but not along them.
A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (refer to Fig. 13):
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Nucleation
Propagation (crack growth)
Ultimate (rapid) fracture.
Page 53
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Nucleation
Propagation (crack growth)
Ultimate (rapid) fracture
The Three Stages of Fracture
Fig. 13
Page 54
The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:
An area, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are pre
sent and are centred around the starting point of the crack. These ridges
are sometimes called conchoidal lines or beach marks or arrest lines.
A rougher, typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when
the cross-section is no longer capable of carrying its normal, steady load.
g
in
The arrest lines are, normally, formed when the loading is changed, or the loadi
ng is intermittent. However, in addition to these characteristic and informative
marks, there are similar, but much finer lines (called striations), which literall
y show the position of the crack front after each cycle. These striations are
obviously of great importance to metallurgists and failure investigators when at
tempting to estimate the crack initiation and/or propagation life. The striation
s
are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes are required to
count them.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to weaken the mate
rial sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not surprising, therefo
re, to
find that the nucleation phase takes a relatively long time.
However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentrati
on (present at the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack to propagate
relatively quickly, and gaining in speed as the crack front not only increases i
n size, but also reduces the component cross-sectional area.
A point is eventually reached (known as the critical crack length ) at which th
e remaining cross-section is sufficiently reduced to cause a gross overloading
situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to fail
ure, with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%. This is one of th
e
major reasons for operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in detect
ing fatigue cracks in components before a failure occurs.
Fatigue Promoters
As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local stren
gth, the nucleation site will be:
dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution
located at or near the surface or
centred on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions, d
islocations and the like
Page 55
a. Design
Apart from general stressing, the geometry of a component has a considerable inf
luence on its susceptibility to fatigue. A good designer will therefore
minimise stress concentrations by:
avoiding rapid changes in section and
g
in
using generous blend radii or chamfers to eliminate sharp corners
b. Manufacture
While the designer may specify adequate blend radii, the actual product may stil
l be prone to fatigue failure if the manufacturing stage fails to achieve this
sometimes-seemingly unimportant drawing requirement.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Several other manufacturing-related causes of premature fatigue failure exist, t
he most common of which are:
Inherent material faults: e.g. cold shuts, pipe, porosity, slag inclusions etc.
Processing faults: e.g. bending, forging, grinding, shrinking, welding, etc.
Production faults: e.g. incorrect heat-treatment, inadequate surface protection,
poor drilling procedures, undue force used during assembly, etc
In-service damage: e.g. dents, impact marks, scratches, scores, tooling marks et
c.
c. Environment
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the compon
ent is operating in a corrosive medium. Steel (normally), has a welldefined fati
gue limit on the S-N curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a corrosive en
vironment, not only does the general fatigue strength drop
appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve (e.g. the fa
tigue failure stress continues to fall as the number of cycles increases).
Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or e
levated temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue strength.
Page 56
Fatigue Preventers
If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, then several methods of i
mprovement are available, in the form of:
Quality.
Correct and eliminate any failure-related manufacturing or processing shortcomin
gs.
Material.
Select a material with a significantly better fatigue strength, or corrosion-res
istance or corrosion-protection if relevant.
g
in
Geometry.
a) Increase the size (c.s.a.) to reduce the general stress level or modify the l
ocal geometry to reduce the change in section (large radius).
n
i
ra
b) Modify the geometry to change the vibration frequency or introduce a damping
feature, to reduce the vibration amplitudes.
c) Improve the surface finish or put a compressive stress in the skin (e.g. shot
peen or cold expand).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
a. Cold Expansion (Broaching)
Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a tensile, alternati
ng stress. If the most fatigue-prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a
compression stress applied (refer to Fig. 14), they are significantly more resis
tant to fatigue failure.
The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Curr
ent NDT procedure) and the surface finish is further improved by reaming (and
checked once again).
A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localised area
of residual (compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a
significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the fastener hole
Page 57
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Area around hole pre-stressed
in compression
Tapered Mandrel pulled
through fastener hole
Cold Expansion of Fastener Hole
Fig.14
Page 58
Do s and Dont s Preventing Fatigue Failures
DO
Be careful not to damage the surface finish of a component by mishandling.
Use the right tools for assembling press-fit components etc.
Maintain drawing sizes and tolerances.
Keep the correct procedures (e.g. don t overheat when welding).
Avoid contact or near contact of components that might cause fretting when touch
ing.
DON T
Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps etc.
Score the surface.
Leave sharp corners or ragged holes.
Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit.
Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state.
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM)
Obviously it is extremely important, that the level of fatigue, imposed on an ai
rcraft structure (and associated components), be monitored and recorded so that
the respective fatigue lives are not exceeded. Several methods have been develop
ed to assist in the vital tasks involved with SHM
a.
Fatigue Meters
Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monito
r the fatigue history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a
check to be made on the moment in time when the aircraft exceeds the design limi
ts imposed on it.
b.
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structur
es. Strain gauges are thin-foil, electrical, resistor elements, bonded
to the aircraft structure. Their resistance varies proportional to the applied s
tress loading.
Page 59
c.
Fatigue Fuses
Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fa
il at different fatigue stresses. The electrical current, flowing
through the fuse, will vary and thus, provide an indication of the stress level.
g
in
d.
Intelligent Skins Development
Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be desig
ned and built with a variety of sensors and systems embedded into
the structure and skin. This would mainly be restricted to structures manufactur
ed from composite materials. One major benefit of this is to allow
the structure to monitor it s own loads and fatigue life.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i. Smart Structures
The generic heading Smart Structures actually covers three areas of development:
Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators, signal-pr
ocessing and adaptive control systems built in
Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in, or beneat
h, the structural skin
Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fibre optic sensors

Smart Structures perceived benefits include:
Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity
Reduced life cycle costs
Reduced inspection costs
Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased knowledg

e of composite material characteristics
From a military point of view an improvement in Stealth characteristics.

A fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could:
Assess structural integrity.
Pinpoint structural damage.

Page 60
Process flight history.

Composite laminates, containing embedded fibre optic sensors can be used for SHM
, including fatigue monitoring and flight envelope
exceedance monitoring and their advantages include:
Cover a greater area of structure
Not prone to electrical interference
Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies Increased knowledge of stru
ctural loads aids designers
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 61
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS NON-FERROUS (DCAM 6.2 L1 & L2)
6.2 NON-FERROUS METALS
Metal used on todays aircraft contains no iron. The term that describes metals wh
ich have elements other than iron as their base is non-ferrous.
Aluminium, copper, titanium and magnesium are some of the more common non-ferrou
s metals used in aircraft construction and repair.
g
in
Aluminium and Its Alloys
Pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction. H
owever, its strength increases when it is alloyed or mixed with other compatible
metals.
n
i
ra
Example:
Aluminium is mixed with copper or zinc, the resultant alloy is as strong as stee
l with only one third of the weight, and the corrosion resistance possessed by
the aluminium carries over to the newly formed alloy.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Aluminium is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction.
It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength-to-weight rat
io
and its comparative ease of fabrication. Aluminium alloys, although strong are e
asily worked because they are malleable and ductile. They may be rolled into
sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter.
Most aluminium alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction ranges from 0.016
to 0.096 inches in thickness, while some of the larger aircraft use sheet
stock which may be as thick as 0.356 inch.
The various types of aluminium may be divided into two general classes:
1. The casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold or die
castings)
2. The wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing or forging)
Of these two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used for stringers, bulkhea
ds, skin, rivets and extruded section.
Page 21
Aluminium Casting Alloys
Aluminium casting alloys are divided into two basic groups:
1. The physical properties of the alloys are determined by the alloying elements
and cannot be changed after the metal is cast
2. The alloying elements make it possible to heat treat the casting to produce t
he desired physical properties.
g
in
The casting alloys are identified by a letter preceding the alloy number. When a
letter precedes a number, it indicates a slight variation the composition of th
e
original alloy.
n
i
ra
Example:
In casting alloy 214, the addition of zinc to improve its qualities is indicated
by the letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation A214.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When castings have been heat treated, the heat treatment and the composition of
the casting is indicated by a letter T, followed by an alloying number.
Example:
In sand casting alloy which has several different compositions and tempers and i
s designated by 355-T6,
Aluminium alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods:
1. Sand mould
2. Permanent mould
3. Die cast
In casting aluminium, it must be remembered that in most cases different types o
f alloys must be used for different types of castings.
Sand and permanent mould castings are parts produced by pouring molten metal int
o a previously prepared mold, allowing the metal to solidify or freeze ad
then removing the part. The permanent mould process is a later development of th
e sand casting process, the major difference being in the material from
which the moulds are made.
The advantage of this process is that there are fewer openings (called porosity)
than in sand casting. The sand and the binder, which is mixed with the sand
to hold it together, give off a certain amount of gas which causes porosity in a
sand casting. The permanent mould castings are used to obtain higher
mechanical properties, better surfaces, or more accurate dimensions.
Page 22
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Wrought Aluminium
Wrought aluminium and wrought aluminium alloys are divided into two general clas
ses: non-heat-treatable alloys and heat-treatable alloys.
Non-heat treatable alloys are those in which the mechanical properties are deter
mined by the amount of cold-work introduced after the final annealing
operation. The mechanical properties obtained by cold working are destroyed by a
ny subsequent heating and cannot be restored except by additional cold
working.
For heat-treatable aluminium alloys the mechanical properties are obtained by he
at treating to a suitable temperature, holding at that temperature long
enough to allow the alloying constituent to enter into solid solution and then q
uenching to hold the constituent in solution. In the wrought form, commercially
pure aluminium is known as 1100. It has a high degree of resistance to corrosion
and is easily formed into intricate shapes. It is relatively low in strength,
however and does not have the strength required for structural aircraft parts.
The most widely used alloys in aircraft construction are hardened by heat treatm
ent rather than by cold-work. The heat-treatable alloys will turn black due to
the copper content, whereas the others will remain bright. In the case of clad m
aterial, the surface will remain bright, but there will be a dark area in the mi
ddle
when viewed from the edge.
Page 23
Alclad Aluminium
The terms Alclad and Pureclad are used to designate sheets that consist of an alum
inium alloy core coated with a layer of aluminium to a depth of
approximately 5 percent on each side. The pure aluminium coating affords a dual
protection for the core, preventing contact with any corrosive agents, and
protecting the core electrolytically by preventing any attack caused by scratchi
ng or from other abrasion.
g
in
Magnesium and Its Alloys
n
i
ra
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its wrought form is available in s
heets, bars, tubing and extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest metals
having sufficient strength and suitable characteristic for use in aircraft struc
tures. Magnesium is highly susceptible to corrosion and tends to crack. The
corrosion problem is minimized by treating the surface with chemicals that form
an oxide film to prevent oxygen from reaching the metal. Another important
step in minimizing corrosion is to always use hardware such as rivets, nuts, bol
ts, and screw than are made of compatible material.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Magnesium burns readily in a dust or small particle form. Caution must be exerci
sed when grinding and machining magnesium. If a fire should occur,
extinguish it by something it with dry sand or some other dry material that excl
uded air from the metal and cools its surface. If water is used, it will only
intensify the fire.
Titanium and Its Alloys
Titanium and its alloys are lightweight metals with very high strength. Pure tit
anium weights 163 pounds per cubic inch which is about 50 % lighter than
stainless steel. In addition to its light weight and high strength, titanium and
its alloys have excellent corrosion resistance characteristic, particularly to
the
corrosive effects of salt water.
Because of its high strength to weight ratio, titanium is now used extensively i
n the civilian aerospace industry. Although rare on commercial aircraft, modern
jet transports now utilize alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titanium in struct
ural areas.
Page 24
Nickel and Its Alloys
As an aircraft engineer / technician, we need to be familiar with two nickel all
oys. They are monel and inconel.
g
in
n
i
ra
Monel
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Monel contains about 68% nickel and 29% copper, with small amounts of iron and m
anganese. It can be welded and has very good machining
characteristics. Certain types of monel, especially those containing small perce
ntages of aluminium are heat-treatable to tensile strengths equivalent to steel.
Monel works well in gears and parts that require high strength and toughness, as
well as for parts in exhaust systems that require high strength and corrosion
resistance at higher temperature.
K- Monel
K- Monel is a non-ferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper and aluminium.
It is produced by adding a small amount of aluminium to the Monel formula.
It is corrosion resistant and capable of being hardened by heat treatment. K- Mo
nel has been successfully used for gears and structural members in aircraft
which are subjected to corrosive attacks. This alloy is non-magnetic at all temp
erature. K- Monel sheet has been successfully welded by both oxy-acetylene
and electric arc welding.
Page 25
Inconel and its Alloys
High strength, high temperature alloys containing approximately 80 percent nicke
l, 14 percent chromium and small amounts of iron and other elements are
commonly referred to as inconel. Inconel alloys are frequently used in turbine e
ngines because of their ability to maintain their strength and corrosion
resistance under extremely high temperature conditions.
g
in
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance. Often, a test is used to
differentiate between unknown metal samples. A common test involves applying
one drop of cupric chloride and hydrochloric acid solution to the unknown metal
and allowing it to remain for 2 minutes. At the end of the dwell period, a shiny
spot indicates that the material is inconel, whereas a copper-colored spot ident
ifies stainless steel.
n
i
ra
Brass
Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron, le
ad, manganese, nickel, and phosphorous. Brass with a zinc content of 30 to
35 percent is very ductile, but that containing 45 percent has relatively high s
trength.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc.It has
excellent corrosionresistant qualities in salt water. This metal has an
ultimate tensile strength. Its strength can be increased by head treatment. It i
s used in making bolts and nuts, as well as part that come in contact with salt
water.
Page 26
Copper and Its Alloys
Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as structural materials in aircraft
construction. Due to its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, however,
copper is the primary metal used for electrical wiring.
g
in
Copper is one of the most widely distributed. It is the only reddish colored met
al and is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. In aircraft, copper
is
used primarily in the electrical system for bus bars, bonding and as lock wire.
n
i
ra
Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper base alloys. Th
is alloy contains about 97 percent copper, 2 percent beryllium and sufficient
nickel to increase the percentage of elongation. The resistance of beryllium cop
per to fatigue and wear make it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearing
bushings
Bronze
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin. A true bronze consists of up to 25 p
ercent tin and along with brass, is used in bushing, bearings and fuel metering
valves. Bronzes with less than 25 percent tin are used in items such as tube fit
ting in aircraft.
Page 27
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium falls between aluminium and stainless steel in term of elasticity, dens
ity and elevated temperature strength. It has melting point of from 2,730 F to
3,155 F. It is light, strong and resistant to stresscorrosion cracking. Titanium
is approximately 60 percent heavier than aluminium and about 50 percent
lighter than stainless steel.
g
in
The ultimate yield strength of titanium drops rapidly above 800 F. The absorptio
n of oxygen and nitrogen from the atm temperature above 1000 F makes
the metal so brittle on long exposure. Titanium does have some merit for shorttim
e exposure up to 3000 F where strength is not important. Aircraft firewalls
demand this requirement.
n
i
ra
Titanium is non magnetic and has an electrical resistance comparable to that of
stainless steel. In aircraft construction and repair, titanium is used for
fuselage skins, engine shrouds, firewalls, longerons, frames, filting, air ducts
and fasteners. Titanium is used for making compressor disks, spacer rings,
compressor blades and vanes through bolts, turbine housing and miscellaneous har
dware for turbine engines.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Titanium in appearances is similar to stainless steel. One quick method to ident
ify titanium is the spark test.
Titanium Designations
The A - B C classification of titanium alloys was established to provide a conve
nient and simple means of describing all titanium alloys.
Titanium and titanium alloys possess three basic types of crystals:
1. A (alpha) All around performance, good weldability; tough and strong in both
cold and hot conditions, and resistant to oxidation.
2. B (beta) Bend ability; excellent bent ductility; strong in both cold and hot
conditions, but vulnerable to contamination.
3. C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances) Strong when cold and
warm, but weak when hot; good bend ability; moderate
contamination resistance; excellent forge ability.
Page 28
Heat-Treatment of Aluminium Alloys
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS MUST BE OBEYED WHENEVER YOU ARE INVOLVED WITH HEAT-TREATMENTS
.
WARNING:BATHS, OVENS AND FURNACES ALL PRESENT DANGERS FROM CORROSIVE AGENTS, HEA
T AND ELECTROCUTION
EXERCISE EXTREME CAUTION WITH THESE METHODS AND WEAR ADEQUATE PROTECTIVE CLOTHIN
G (APRONS, FACE MASKS,
GOGGLES AND GLOVES) WHERE NECESSARY AND ENSURE THE CORRECT FIRE-FIGHTING APPLIAN
CES ARE AVAILABLE.
g
in
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and subsequent co
oling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal harder,
stronger and more resistant to impact but it can also make the metal softer and
more ductile for working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are achieved at the expense
of others when, for example, a hardened material usually becomes more
brittle.
n
i
ra
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time
and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main heattreatments, wh
ich are referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The procedures for heat-treating aluminium alloys are critical if correct proper
ties are to be obtained.
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are used:
a muffle furnace
or a salt bath
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an inner chamber in whi
ch the aluminium alloy is placed.
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would evaporate long before th
e required temperatures were reached. The salts (usually nitrate of soda or
similar) are solid at room temperature, but become liquid when they are electric
ally heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid spattering or
spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to avoid spattering) can then be
submerged within the heated liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath
is to avoid any adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.
Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on temperatures are
specified (typically plus or minus 5C).
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to avoid delay betwe
en removing from the heating source and quenching. Most quench tanks
contain cold water but hot water is sometimes specified (especially for heavy se
ctions e.g. large forgings). Limits are also stipulated for the permissible peri
od
between heating and quenching which is known as the lag-time (typically 10 secon
ds max.). If these lag-times are exceeded, material properties or corrosion
resistance may be adversely affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is
too slow this may also affect the corrosion resistance.
Page 29
Thorough washing of the material is essential after salt bath heat-treatment to
remove any salt residue.
There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may be carried out
on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the material is clad with pure
aluminium, for corrosion resistance (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments
is imposed.
g
in
This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material, into the pu
re aluminium cladding, which would significantly reduce its corrosion resistance
.
Solution Treatment
Solution treatment is sometimes called re-crystallisation H.T. This operation serv
es to distribute the copper uniformly throughout the aluminium (i.e. to create
a solid solution). The heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven
or, more commonly (to obtain better overall heating), in a bath of special,
molten salts. However, although the aluminium can accommodate 5% or so of copper
in solid solution at high temperature, this condition is unstable at lower
temperatures and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the co
pper slowly comes out of solution and separates into local islands of copper
aluminide.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the copper becomes trapp
ed in solution , making the aluminium very strong.
Age-Hardening
The gradual formation of the copper alumide islands (also referred to as slip), caus
es an increase in hardness and strength and these properties reach
maximum values after several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the t
ime lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed age-hardening.
Although copper may be the major alloying element (in the 2000 series alloys) othe
r elements, including magnesium and manganese can also be present.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-stre
ngth metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7%
Zinc, is also able to be age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the alum
inium/ copper type and is the highest-strength aluminium alloy in general
use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications such as Main Spars, Landing
Gear and Mainplane Attachment brackets etc..
Annealing
Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to
be worked without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will gradually occur
and 24 hours is the normal limit for working after annealing, although this can
be extended if the material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the
ageing process. A temperature of -5C will provide approximately 2 days delay while
one of -20C will provide approximately 1 weeks delay in the agehardening process
The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -20C.
Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the temperature of the al
loy to between 340C and 410 C. The alloy is then cooled slowly at about
10 C per hour (rates will differ with each particular alloy), until it reaches a p
re-determined temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool naturally.
Page 30
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an aircraft struct
ure while in the annealed state, since material properties and corrosion
resistance will be severely affected.
Note: Alloys, in the annealed state, are very prone to corrosion.
g
in
Precipitation Treatment
Solution-treated aluminium alloys are comparatively soft, immediately following
quenching although, with time, the metal gradually becomes harder and gains
strength.
n
i
ra
When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching, the hardening pro
cess (natural ageing), and can take from several hours to several weeks. An
aluminium/copper alloy, for example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes o
f quench, but is at maximum strength after four or five days.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
We have already discussed how the natural ageing process can be drastically reta
rded (allowing the metal to be kept in a soft condition until required for use),
by storing the alloys at sub-zero temperatures (refrigeration) for prescribed pe
riods of time.
Alternatively, following quenching, by re-heating the metal to a lower temperatu
re than that employed for the solution treatment and allowing it to soak at that
heat for a period of time, the ageing process (and, thus, the hardening of the a
lloy) can be accelerated. This process is referred to as artificial ageing or
precipitation treatment.
Page 31
Identification of Heat-Treated Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys that have been subjected to heat-treatment are usually identifi
ed by markings that indicate the heat-treatments involved. Three typical
identification systems are those of the British Standards Institute (BS), the Mi
nistry of Supply (MoS), and the American systems as can be seen in Table 5.
g
in
Table 5
IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
BS System
M
O
OD
T
W
WP
Meaning
As manufactured state
Annealed state
Annealed and lightly drawn
Solution-treated, no precipitation required
Solution-treated, can be precipitated
Solution-treated and precipitation treated
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
MoS
System
A
N
W
WP
American
System
T3
T4
T6
T8
T9
Meaning
Annealed state
Solution-treated, no precipitation required
Solution-treated, and requires precipitation
Solution-treated and precipitation treated
Meaning
Solution-treated and cold worked
Solution-treated only (naturally aged)
Solution-treated and artificially aged
Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially aged
Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold worked
An example of one of these marking systems would be an alloy with the designatio
n 2024-T4, which indicates an aluminium/copper alloy that has been
solution-treated only, and then naturally aged
Page 32
Apart from these systems, many other exist world-wide, but the British systems a
re, broadly, confined to three basic ones for light alloys.
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series the
prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys and
prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys.
British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series)
e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 spec.
LM - indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly abbreviated t
o L71, L72, L 73 etc.
Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
a) L159 DURAL*
Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
b) L163 ALCLAD
Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
*DURAL is, actually, a Trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy, originally manufa
ctured by the Duren Aluminium Company (Germany), but it tends to
be used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of manufactur
e.
D.T.D. Specifications: - these are material identification numbers issued by the
Directorate of Technical Development (a Ministry Department) for
specialised applications. i.e. when widespread use is not anticipated.
If such a material finally becomes commonly used, a British Standards specificat
ion is compiled and issued.
Page 33
Hardness Tests
The Brinell Hardness System
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Brinell hardness system is one of the most widely used systems for indicatin
g the hardness of metals and alloys.
The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to impress a spherical penetr
actor into the surface of a sample. The amount of force used is approximately
3,000 kilograms of steel and 500 kilograms for non-ferrous metals. The force is
hydraulically applied by a hand pump and read on a pressure gauge.
When the sample is removed from the tester, the diameter of the impression is me
asure with a special calibrated microscope. This diameter is converted into
a Brinell number by using a chart.
Page 34
The Rockwell Hardness System
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Rockwell hardness tester gives the same information the Brinell tester gives
, except that it measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the
material rather than the diameter of the impression. The Rockwell tester uses th
ree types of penetrators:
a) A conical diamond
b) 1/16 inch ball
c) 1/8 inch ball
There are also three major loads:
a) 60 kilograms
b) 100 kilograms
c) 150 kilograms
The two most commonly used Rockwell scales are:
i.
ii.
B-scales for soft metals, which uses a 1/16 inch ball penetrator100kg major load
C-scales for hard metals, which uses the conical diamond penetrator and a 150kg
major load
Page 35
Tensile Testing
Tensile tests are usually carried out on wire, strip, or machined samples with e
ither circular or rectangular cross section. Test pieces are screwed into or
gripped in jaws and stretched by moving the grips apart at a constant rate while
measuring the load and grip separation. In the tensile strength test, the
material is pulled until it breaks.
g
in
Impact Strength Testing
n
i
ra
Impact strength is measured by allowing a pendulum to strike a grooved machined
test piece and measuring the energy absorbed in the break. Impact
resistance measures the material toughness.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 36
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC (DCAM 6.3 L2)
6.3 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Composite structures differ from metallic structures in several ways:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Excellent elastic properties
Ability to be customized in strength
Damage tolerance characteristics
Sensitivity to environmental factors
g
in
n
i
ra
Composites require a vastly different approach from metals with regards to their
design, fabrication and assembly, quality control and maintenance.
One main advantage to using a composite over a metal structure is its high stren
gth-to-weight ratio. Weight reduction is a primary objective when designing
structures using composite materials.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Composite strength depends upon the types of fibres and bonding materials used,
and how the part is engineered to distribute and withstand specific
stresses. In aircraft construction, most currently produced composites consist o
f a reinforcing material to provide the structural strength, joined with a matri
x
material to serve as the bonding substance.
The three main parts of a fibre-reinforced composite are:
a) The fibre
b) The matrix
c) The interface or boundary between the individual elements of the composite
Fibres
Reinforcing fibres provide the primary structural strength to the composite stru
cture when combined with a matrix. The following are the five most common
types of reinforcing fibres used in aircraft construction.
Page 21
1. Fibreglass (Glass Cloth)
Fibreglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass that are spun toget
her and woven into cloth. Many different weaves of fibreglass are available.
The disadvantages of fibreglass are that it weighs more and has less strength th
an most other composite fibres. Fibreglass is an excellent reinforcing fibre
currently used in advance composite application.
g
in
Two most common types of fibreglass are:
a)
b)
n
i
ra
S-glass
E-glass
S-glass is produced from magnesia-aluminasilicate and is used where a very high
tensile strength fibreglass is needed.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
E-glass known as electric glass because of its high resistivity to current flow, i
s produced from borosilicate glass and is the common type of fibreglass used
for reinforcement.
Fibreglass is usually a white gleaming cloth. The widespread availability of fib
reglass and its low cost make it one of the most common reinforcing fibres
utilised in aircraft non-structural composites.
Page 22
2. Aramid ( Kevlar )
Aramid is an organic aromatic-polymide polymer, commercially known as Kevlar. Ar
amid exhibits high tensile strength, exceptional flexibility, high tensile
stiffness, low compressive properties and excellent toughness. The tensile stren
gth of Kevlar composite material is approximately four times greater than
alloy aluminium.
g
in
Aramid fibres are non-conductive and produce no galvanic reaction with metals an
d the advantage is its strength-to-weight ratio, it is very light compared to
other composite materials. Aramid-reinforced composite also demonstrate excellen
t vibration-damping characteristics in addition to a high degree of shelter
and fatigue resistance.
Aramid is ideal for use in aircraft parts that are subject to high stress and vi
bration.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Example:
Some advanced helicopter designs have made use of aramid materials to fabricate
main rotor blades and hub assemblies. Flexibility of the aramid fabric
allows the blade to bend and twist in flight, absorbing much of the stress.
Aramid fibre is usually characterised by its yellow colour, and as with most rei
nforcing fibres.
Page 23
3. Carbon/Graphite
Carbon fibres are produced in an inert atmosphere by the pyrolysis of organic fi
bres such as rayon, polyacrylonitrile and pitch. The term carbon is often
interchangeable with the term graphite.
Carbon fibres are typically carbonised at approximately 2400o F and composed of
93% to 95% carbon.
g
in
Graphite fibres are produced at approximately 3450oF to 5450oF and are more than
99% carbon.
n
i
ra
Advantages to carbon/graphite materials are in their high compressive strength a
nd degree of stiffness. Carbon fibre is cathodic while aluminium and steel
are anodic.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Carbon promotes galvanic corrosion when bonded to aluminium or steel, and specia
l corrosion control techniques are needed to prevent this occurrence.
Carbon/graphite materials are kept separate from aluminium components.
Americans refer to carbon fibres as graphite while Europeans refer to it as carbon
fibre. Carbon/graphite is a black fibre that is very strong, stiff and used
primarily for rigid strength characteristic. Fibre composites are used to fabric
ate primary structural components such as the ribs and skin surfaces of the
wings.
Page 24
4. Boron
Boron fibres are made by depositing the element boron onto a thin filament of tu
ngsten. The resulting fibre is approximately 0.004 inches in diameter, has
excellent compressive strength and stiffness and extremely hard.
Boron is not commonly used in civil aviation because it can be hazardous to work
with, and is extremely expensive. Many civil aviation manufacturers are
utilizing hybrid composite materials of aramid and carbon/graphite instead of bo
ron.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 25
5. Ceramic
Ceramic fibres are used where a high-temperature application is needed. This for
m of composite will retain most of its strength and flexibility as temperatures
up to 2200oF. Tiles on the Space Shuttle are made of a special ceramic composite
that dissipate heat quickly. Some firewalls are also made of ceramic-fibre
composites.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 26
1. Warp
The warp of threads in a section of fabric run the length of the fabric as it co
mes off the roll. Warp direction is designated as 0o. There are typically more
threads woven into the warp direction than the fill direction, making it stronge
r in the warp direction. Warp is critical in fabricating or repairing composites
,
insertion of another colour or type of thread at periodic intervals identifies t
he warp direction.
g
in
2. Weft
Weft or fill threads of the fabric are those that run perpendicular 90o to the w
arp fibres. The weft/fill threads interweave with the warp threads to create the
reinforcing cloth.
3. Selvage Edge
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
The selvage edge of the fabric is the tightly woven edge parallel to the warp di
rection, which prevents edge from unravelling. The selvage edge is removed
before the fabric is utilised. The weave of the selvage edge is different from t
he body of the fabric and does not have the same strength characteristics as the
rest of the fabric.
4. Bias
o
The bias is the fibre orientation that runs at a 45 angle (diagonal) to the warp
threads. The bias allows for manipulation of the fabric to form contoured
shapes. Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias but seldom along the warp
or fill.
Page 27
Matrix Systems
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The function of the matrix in a composite is to hold the reinforcing fibres in a
desired position. It also gives the composite strength and transfers external
stresses to the fibres.
A wide range of resin systems are used for the matrix position of fibre reinforc
ed composites. Resin is an organic polymer used as a matrix to contain the
reinforcing fibres in a composite material. Resin matrix systems are a type of p
lastic and include two general categories:
a) Thermoplastic
b) Thermosetting
Thermoplastic and thermosetting resins by themselves do not have sufficient stre
ngth for use in structural applications.
Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part into the desired shape. However,
this shape is not necessary permanent. If a thermoplastic resin is reheated, it
will soften and could easily change shape.
Thermosetting resins use heat to form and irreversibly set the shape of the part
. Thermosetting plastics, once cured, cannot be reformed even if they are
reheated. Most structural airframe applications are constructed with thermosetti
ng resins.
Page 28
Polyester Resins
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Polyester resins, an early thermosetting matrix formula, are mainly used with fi
breglass composites to create non-structural applications such as fairings,
spinners and aircraft trim.
Polyester resins give fibreglass cohesiveness and rigidity. Polyester resin/fibr
eglass composites do not offer sufficient strength to fabricate primary structur
al
members. As the polyester resin shrinks, it produces an increasingly tight grip
on the embedded metal.
Page 29
Epoxy Resins
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Most of the newer aircraft composite matrix-formulas utilize epoxy resins, which
are thermoset plastic resins. Epoxy resin matrices are two-part systems
consisting of a resin and catalyst.
The catalyst acts as a curing agent by initiating the chemical reaction of the h
ardening epoxy. Epoxy resin systems are well known for their outstanding
adhesion, strength and resistance to moisture and chemicals.
Not every type of epoxy resin is suitable for every type structure or repair. Ma
ke sure to use the proper resin called for in the manufacturers repair manual.
Some of the properties of epoxy which make it useful for bonded structures are i
ts low shrinkage percentage, high strength-to-weight ratio and ability to
adhere to an almost endless variety of materials.
Epoxies may be used in place of polyester resins for almost any application. The
y also have a long shelf life. Unmixed, epoxies generally kept for almost a
o
year at 72 F.
Adhesives
Resins come in different forms. Resins used for laminating are generally thinner
, to allow proper saturation of the reinforcing fibres. Others are used for
bonding and are typically known as adhesive. Adhesive resins and catalysts are a
vailable either in pre-mixed quantities or in separate containers.
Page 30
Pre-impregnated Materials
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Process of pre-preg
g
in
Pre-preg carbon fibre
Pre-impregnated fabrics, commonly known as pre-preg, are fabrics that have the res
in system already saturated into the fabric. Fabrics are pre-impregnated
with the proper amount and weight of a resin matrix to eliminate the mixing and
application details such as proper mix ratios and application procedure.
One limitation to pre-impregnated materials is that they must be stored in a fre
ezer to prevent the resin from curing. Pre-preg fabrics cannot be left out of th
e
cold for prolonged periods, and must warmed slightly before use to achieve bette
r workability. A disadvantage associated with pre-impregnated materials is
that they are usually purchased in full roll quantities. The roll may exceed its
shelf life before used. Although the material may appear to be good condition,
it
cannot be used for aircraft application once the shelf life has expired.
Page 31
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 32
Methods of Curing
Composite matrix systems cure by chemical reaction. Some matrix systems can cure
at room temperature while others require heat to achieve maximum
strength. Failure to follow the proper curing requirements and improper use of t
he curing equipment can cause defects in the repair.
g
in
Room Temperature Cure
Some types of composite repairs may be cured at room temperature 65o 80oF over a
time period of 8 24 hours depending on the type of resin used. In
some cases, room temperature curing can be accelerated by applying low heat 140o
160oF.
Full cure strength is not usually achieved for five to seven days. Room temperat
ure cures are used on non-structural or lightly loaded parts.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Heat Curing
Most advanced composites utilised resins that require high temperatures during t
he curing process in order to develop full strength. The repair of parts that
use theses types of resins must also cure at high heat settings 250o 750oF to re
store the original strength. The amount of heat applied must be controlled by
monitoring the surface face temperature of the repair, overheating can cause sev
ere damage.
Heat curing can be accomplished using several different methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heat lamps are not recommended due to the uncontrolled heating of the part. Heat
lamps may localize the heat in one spot causing uneven curing.
Heat guns must be controlled with the temperature monitor. Heat guns can produce
heat up to 750oF when left on continuously. Excessive heat can
evaporate resins, leaving dry areas in the part.
Oven curing offers controlled and uniform heating of all repair surfaces. Some e
vens incorporate vacuum ports to provide pressure while curing.
Autoclaves are customarily used in the manufacturing of composites, rather than
in repair.
Hot patch bonding utilizes a flexible silicon heating-blanket that incorporates
a temperature control. This is the preferred method of curing, due to the
controlled even heating of the part.
Page 33
Composite Inspection
Composite inspection techniques and non-destructive testing (NDT) methods typica
lly involve the use of multiple methods to accurately determine the
airworthiness of the structure. Many metal inspection and NDT methods transfer t
o composite applications. Composite structures require ongoing inspection
intervals along with non-scheduled damage inspection and testing.
g
in
When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be thoroughly inspected to
determine the extent of the damage, which often extends beyond the
immediate apparent defects. Proper inspection and testing methods help determine
the classification of damage which is, whether the part must be replaced.
The manufacturers structural repair manual outlines inspection procedures damage
classification factors and recommended repair methods.
n
i
ra
Some of the more common composite inspection and testing methods are visual insp
ection, tap testing and ultra sonic testing along with several other more
advanced NDT methods.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method in aviation. Pil
ots, ground creq and maintenance technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a
daily basis. Method of inspection is generally used to detect resin-rich areas,
resin starvation, edge delamination, fibre break-out, cracks, blistering and oth
er
types of surface irregularities.
A strong light and magnifying glass are useful tools for visual inspection. Shin
ing strong light through the structure, called backlighting helps in the
identification of cracked or broken fibres, and in some cases delamination. Back
lighting does not detect entrapped water. In addition, to properly inspect a
composite using the backlight method, you must strip the surface of all paint.
Tap Test
The tap test is one of the simplest methods used to detect damages in bonded par
ts. The laminated part is tapped with a coin or small metallic object, such
as a tap hammer to detect delamination.
The tap test is an acoustic test, one in which you listen for sound differences
in the part and is not the most accurate test method. The tap test detects
delaminations close to the surface in addition to transitions to different inter
nal structures.
A properly prepared, undamaged laminated area produces a sharp, even pitch as co
mpared to a delaminated area, which produces a dull sound. However
changes in the thickness of the part, reinforcements, fasteners and previous rep
airs may give false reading when using the tap test. Tap testing will not
indicate delamination well below the surface in thick parts.
Page 34
Ultrasonic Inspection
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
An ultrasonic tester is useful for detecting internal damage such as delaminatio
ns, core crush and other subsurface defects. Two common methods of
ultrasonic testing include the pulse echo and through transmission methods.
In the pulse echo method, the test generates ultrasonic pulses, sends them throu
gh the part and receives the return echo. The echo patterns are displayed on
an oscilloscope. The through transmission method uses two transducers. One transdu
cer emits ultrasonic waves through the part and the other receives
them.
Page 35
Radiography
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Normal View of Riveted Sheet of Metal
g
in
X-ray View of Same Riveted Sheet of Metal
Radiography or X-ray inspection is used to detect differences in the thickness o
r physical density when compared to the surrounding material of a composite.
Radiography also detects entrapped water inside honeycomb core cells. In additio
n to detecting the actual defect, it can also detect the extent and size of the
damage. Radiography or X-ray inspection will also detect foreign objects in the
composite structure if the objects density is different from the composite
structure.
Composite Repair
The newer advanced composites use stronger fabrics and resin matrices, which can
not be repaired in the same way as fibreglass.
To repair an advanced composite structure using the materials and techniques tra
ditionally used for fibreglass repairs may not result in an airworthy repair.
Depending on the manufacturer of the aircraft, classification of damage is usual
ly placed in one of the categories:
1.
2.
3.
Negligible damage may be corrected by a simple procedure with no flight restrict
ions
Repairable damage damage to the skin, bond or core that cannot be repaired witho
ut placing restriction on the aircraft or structure.
Non-repairable damage a composite structure that is damaged beyond limits must b
e replaced unless a structurally sound repair can be designed
by a structural engineer.
Page 36
6.3.2 Wooden Structures
Introduction
The first airplane built by the Wright brothers was made of wood. Wood was used
on early aircraft because of its availability and relatively high strength to
weight ratio. The cost of the additional hand labour needed for wood constructio
n and maintenance, caused wood aircraft to become almost entirely
superseded by those of all metal construction.
g
in
n
i
ra
Refer to Figure 20
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 20: Wooden Aircraft
Page 37
Wood
Wood is not as strong as steel or aluminium, but the construction can be designe
d that the necessary strength is achieved with corresponding savings in
weight.
g
in
Many designers prefer to use wooden spars in acrobatic aircraft because wood wil
l better withstand the bending loads imposed during aerobatics. Unlike
metal, wood does not weaken from fatigue.
n
i
ra
Types of Wood
Wood and adhesive materials used in aircraft repair should meet aircraft quality
standards and be purchased from reputable distributors to ensure such
quality.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Sitka spruce is the reference wood used for aircraft structures because of its:
uniformity
strength
excellent shock resistance qualities.
Refer to Figure 21 and Table 9
Page 38
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 21: Sitka Spruce
Page 39
Species of Wood
Sitka Spruce
Douglas Ft
White Pine
Strength Properties, Compared
Remarks
to Spruce
100%
Excellent for all causes. Considered as
standard for this table.
Exceeds spruce
May be used as substitute for spruce in
same size. Difficult to work with hand
tools. Gluing satisfactory.
85% - 96%
Excellent working qualities and uniform in
properties, but somewhat low in hardness
and shock-resisting capacity. Gluing
satisfactory.
Slightly exceeds spruce
Less uniform in texture than spruce. May
be used as direct substitute for spruce.
Gluing satisfactory.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Western Hemlock
g
in
Table 9: Wood Properties
Page 40
Construction of Wooden Airframe Structure
Woodworking is a skill that is easily learned by the novice who usually has a ba
sic knowledge of wood construction and some of the necessary tools.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
-+
Figure 22: Wood Structure
Figure 23 : Wing wood Structure
Strong, rigid, light weight truss or framework wooden structures have been in us
e since the 1920s and are probably the easiest structural type to build. Wood
is used in fabricating spars, building ribs, floorboards, instrument panels, win
g tip bows, longerons and stringers, leading edges, etc.
Wood is easily formed into shapes making it the obvious choice for wing tip bows
, leading edges, and wing walkways. The easiest wing to build is rectangular
with a constant aerofoil section, constant thickness and constant chord, commonl
y known as a plank wing.
Page 41
Types of Defects in Wood Material (Refer to Figure 24)
Following are several examples of wood defects:
a) Checks
A lengthwise separation or crack of the wood that extends along the wood grain.
It develops during drying and is commonly caused by differences in radial
and tangential shrinkage or because of uneven shrinkage of the tissues in adjace
nt portions of the wood.
g
in
n
i
ra
b) Shakes
A separation or crack along the grain, the greater part of which may occur at th
e common boundary of two rings or within growth rings
c) Heartwood
The inner core of a woody stem or log, extending from the pith to the sap, which
is usually darker in colour. This part of the wood contains dead cells that no
longer participate in the life processes of the tree
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
d) Knot
That portion of a branch or limb that is embedded in the wood of a tree trunk, o
r that has been surrounded by subsequent stem growth.
Figure 24: Several Wood Defects
Page 42
Aircraft Adhesives / Glues
The adhesive used in aircraft structural repair plays a critical role in the ove
rall finished strength of the structure.
The maintenance technician must only use those types of adhesives that meet the
performance requirements necessary for use in aircraft structures.
Not every type of glue is appropriate for use in all aircraft repair situations.
Because of its importance, use each type of glue in strict accordance with the a
ircraft and adhesive manufacturer s instructions.
g
in
Types of Adhesives
n
i
ra
1. Casein Glue
Most older airplanes were glued with casein glue, which was a powdered glue made
from milk.
Casein glue deteriorates over the years after it is exposed to moisture in the a
ir and to wide variations in temperature.
Many of the more modern adhesives are incompatible with casein glue.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
2. Plastic resin glue
This type of glue usually comes in a powdered form. Mix it with water and apply
it to one side of the joint.
Apply a hardener to the other side of the joint, clamp the two sides together an
d the adhesive will begin to set.
Plastic resin glue rapidly deteriorates in hot, moist and under cyclic stresses,
making it obsolete for all aircraft structural repairs.
3. Resorcinol glue
It s a two-part synthetic resin glue consisting of a resin and a hardener and is
the most water-resistant of the glues used. The glue is ready for use as soon a
s
the appropriate amount of hardener and resin has been thoroughly mixed. Resorcin
ol adhesive are one of the most common types of glue used in aircraft
wood structure repair.
4. Phenol-formaldehyde glue
It s the most commonly used in the manufacturing of aircraft-grade plywood.
This glue requires high curing temperatures and pressures making it impractical
for use in the field.
5. Epoxy resins
These are two-part synthetic resins that generally consist of a resin and a hard
ener mixed together in specific quantities. Epoxies have excellent working
properties.
Page 43
Inspection of Wood Structure
Most wood damage is caused by conditions such as moisture, temperature, and sunl
ight.
Because wood is an organic material, it is subject to mildew and rot unless prot
ected from moisture.
Keep wood airplanes in well ventilated hangars and take special care to ensure t
hat all of the drain and ventilation holes remain open.
If a ventilation hole becomes obstructed, changes in air temperature will cause
moisture to condense inside the structure, which will cause the wood to
deteriorate.
g
in
n
i
ra
When inspecting a wood structure aircraft, move it into a dry, well-ventilated h
angar. One of the first steps is to check the moisture content of the wood using
a moisture meter. If the moisture content is high, dry the wood structures befor
e inspecting further.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Wooden structures of the aircraft need to be dry to be able to effectively deter
mine the condition of the bonded joints. The following are several inspection
methods and associated equipment employed for inspecting wooden structures.
1. Moisture Metering
Use to determine the moisture content of wood structure.
Wood that is too wet or too dry may compromise the strength and integrity of the
structure.
A moisture meter reads the moisture content through a probe that is inserted int
o a wooden member.
When water is ingress in wood it is recognizes by grayish stain
2. Tapping
The wood structure may be inspected for structural integrity by tapping the susp
ect area with a light plastic hammer or screwdriver handle.
Tapping should produce a sharp, solid noise from a solid piece of wood. If the w
ood area sounds hollow or feels soft, inspect further.
3. Probing
If soft, hollow wood is found during the tap test, probe the suspect area with a
sharp metal tool to determine whether the wood is solid. Ideally, the wood
structure should feel firm and solid when probed.
Page 44
4. Prying
Use prying to determine whether a bonded joint shows signs of separation. Light
prying is sufficient to check the integrity of a joint.
If there is any movement between the wood members of the joint, a failure of the
bond is confirmed.
g
in
5. Smelling
Smell is a good indicator of musty or moldy areas. When removing the inspection
panels, be aware of any odors that may indicate damage to the wood
structure. Odor is an essential indicator of possible wood deterioration. Musty
and moldy odors reveal the existence of moisture and possible wood rot.
n
i
ra
6. Visual Inspection
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Visual inspection techniques are used to determine any visible signs of damage.
Both internal and external visual examinations are imperative to a complete insp
ection of the wood structure.
Repair of Wooden Structure
The basic criterion for any aircraft repair is that the repaired structure must
not only be as strong as the original structure, but the rigidity of the structu
re and
the aerodynamic shape must also be equivalent.
Materials used for the repair of a wooden structure should be the same as the or
iginal unless they have become obsolete. If substitutions are made, they
must produce a repair that meets the basic requirements of the manufacturer and
the authority.
Page 45
Plywood Skin Repair
Aircraft that incorporate plywood skins normally carry a large amount of stress
from the flight load.
Therefore, repairs to plywood skins are made in strict accordance with the recom
mendations of the aircraft manufacturer.
There are several types of plywood patches repair
g
in
a) Splayed Patch (Refer to Figure 25)
n
i
ra
Small holes in thin plywood skin may be repaired by a splayed patch.
This type of patch is used if the skin is less than or equal to 1/10 inch thick
and the hole can be cleaned out to a diameter of less than 15 thickness (15T)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 25: Splayed patch
b) Surface Patch
c) Plug Patch
d) Scarfed Patch
Page 46
Fabric Orientation
When working with composite fibres, it is important to understand the constructi
on and orientation of the fabric because all design, manufacturing and repair
work begins with the orientation of the fabric. Some of the terms used to descri
be fibre orientation are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Warp
Weft / Fill
Selvage edge
Bias
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 47
Fabric Covering
It is important to understand the construction and orientation of fabric materia
l because all design, manufacturing and repair work begins with the orientation
of the fabric. Fabric structure relies on the proper placement and use of the re
inforcing fabric to produce a strong covering
Some of the terms used to describe fabric orientation are warp, weft / fill, sel
vage edge and bias.
g
in
1. Warp
n
i
ra
The warp of threads in a section of fabric run the length of the fabric as it co
mes off the roll. Warp direction is designated as 0. There are typically more
threads woven into the warp direction than the fill direction, making it stronge
r in the warp direction. The warp is critical in creating or repairing fabric
coverings. The fabric must be applied with the warp parallel to the direction of
flight.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
2. Weft / Fill
The Weft / Fill threads of the fabric are those that run perpendicular 90 to the
warp fibres. The weft threads interweave with the warp threads to create the
reinforcing cloth.
3. Selvage Edge
The selvage Edge of the fabric is the tightly woven edge parallel to the warp di
rection, which prevents edge from unravelling. The selvage edge is removed
before the fabric is utilized. The weave of the selvage edge is different from t
he body of the fabric and does not have the same strength characteristic as the
rest of the fabric.
4. Bias
The Bias is the fibre orientation that runs at a 45 angle (diagonal) to the warp
threads. The bias allows for manipulation of the fabric to form contoured
shapes. Fabric can often be stretched along the bias, seldom along the warp or f
ill.
Page 48
Finishing Materials
Several finish materials that increase the durability and appearance of fabric a
re used in covering processes. These items provide additional rigidity of the
fabric, which helps to transfer the aerodynamic lift provided by the covering in
to the structure of the aircraft. Inspection hole and drainage grommets, as well
as tapes and lacing cords, are vital components to a quality fabric-covered stru
cture.
g
in
Reinforcing Tape
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Reinforcing tape is a flat woven cotton material that is available in - inch, 3/
8 - inch and -inch widths, with a strength of 150 pounds per half-inch of width.
This tape is used under rib-lacing cord or other fabric-attaching devices from p
ulling through the fabric covering. Reinforcing tapes made from polyester are
also available in the same widths as cotton tape. The polyester is less suscepti
ble to deccus from moisture and mildew and has more strength than the fibre
tape.
Surface Tape
Surface tape is made of the same material as the covering fabric and is used ove
r all seams, ribs, around corners, along the trailing edges, around the tips
and along the trailing edge of all surfaces. The purpose of the tape is to blend
the covering around contours and irregularities to make for smoother surface
finish. In addition, the tape aids to prevent the airstreams during flight.
Surface tapes are available in a bias cut or straight cut. Straight cut tape has
a weave that runs parallel to its edges and is primarily used over flat surface
s
such as on top of wing ribs. Bias cut tapes are constructed so that the weave of
the fabric runs at a 45 angle to the edge. The bias weave provides for better
contouring around curves such as those found on the rudder or wing tip bows.
Page 49
Machine-Sewing Threads
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
20/4 PLY THREAD
g
in
YARN
Machine sewing threads are used primarily to sew lengths of fabric to form large
blankets or to form an envelope to slip over wing or other surface. These
threads are available in gradeA cotton or polyester.
Hand-Sewing Thread
Cotton thread is used for hand sewing stitches. This thread is generally supplie
d without any coating but should be lightly waxed beeswax before being used.
Polyester hand sewing thread is commonly uncoated with multiple plies and has a
tensile strength of over 15 pounds.
Drainage Grommets and Inspection Rings
Drainage grommets are small doughnut-shaped plastic, aluminium or brass rings th
at are installed in numerous locations on the aircraft.
Typical installation position include the lowest point on the bottom of the wing
and fail surfaces, toward the rear of each rib bay and on the fuselage fabric a
t
the lowest point of each compartment. Grommets are usually installed when the se
cond coat of dope is applied to fabric, while the dope is still wet.
When all the finishing coats have cured, the centre of the grommet is cut out wi
th a sharp knife blade to allow any moisture within the structure to drain out
and to ventilate the inside of the structure to minimize condensation. Larger in
spection hole grommets, or inspection rings are installed on the fabric over any
location where access to the interior structure may be needed.
Page 50
Organic Fabric Materials
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A common organic fabric covering material is grade-A cotton. This material meets
the Aeronautical Material Specification.
The cloth has between 80 and 84 threads per inch in both the warp (the direction
along the length of the fabric) and the weft directions (the direction along th
e
width) and weighs about four ounces per square yard. In the process of manufactu
ring grade- A cotton fabric, the natural material is mercerized by dipping
the threads in a hot caustic soda solution to give them sheen and to increase th
eir strength.
Cotton intermediate-grade fabric has a much finer weave than grade A cotton, wit
h up to 94 threads per inch allowed in both the warp and fill directions
.
A very fine-weave cotton fabric called glider fabric has up to 110 threads per i
nch in warp and fill and meets specification. This fabric is designed for use on
glider and sailplanes.
Irish linen, produced in the British Isles, is another organic fabric. Since thi
s fabric was originally milled by the British, it was designed to meet British
specification. This fabric is stronger than grade-A cotton, with strength.
Page 51
Inorganic Fabric Materials
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Man-made inorganic fabric that is produced from synthetic polyester has quickly
become one of the most popular aircraft covering materials. Polyester fibres,
woven into cloth with different weights, are sold under trade names such as Ceco
nite, Polyfiber and Superflite.
The fibres used to make the material have been passed through rollers and are wo
ven so that the number of fibres in the warp direction is equal to the
number in the fill direction. When the material is finished it is delivered in a
n unshrunk condition. Once heat is applied during the installation process, the
unshrunk fabric will constrict back to its original length and size.
Other inorganic fibre-covering systems use fibreglass filaments woven into cloth
which will not decay with moisture or mildew and has virtually unlimited life.
Fibreglass cloth has previously been approved as reinforcement over in sound con
dition, but treated fibreglass has become an approved direct replacement
for grade-A cotton.
Page 52
Determining Fabric Strength
One of the most important duties that an aircraft technician must perform is to
determine the airworthiness of the fabric covering by checking its strength.
Due to the expense and time involved, most aircraft are re-covered only when the
strength of the fabric drops below the minimum airworthy value. The
strength of the fabric is a major factor in the airworthiness of an airplane, it
s condition is determined during each 100-hour, annual or other required
airworthiness inspection.
g
in
There are a variety of methods available to determine fabric-covering strength.
Some of these methods can be done in the field using a simple testing
apparatus.
n
i
ra
Seyboth Tester
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
To determine fabric strength, a Seyboth tester is often used by maintenance tech
nicians working in the field. These testers are sometimes called a punch
tester because of their method of operation. These tools provide a direct indicat
ion of the strength of the fabric.
This instrument, a spring-loaded housing, holds a shaft, which has a flared poin
t at one end with a hardened steel tip in its centre. The opposite end of the
shaft is marked with red, yellow and green bands. When pressure is applied to th
e tip, the bands become exposed at the top of the housing.
To use the tester, hold it vertically over the covering surface and press straig
ht into it until the tip penetrates the fabric. The point on the instrument must
break
the fabric and enter far enough to allow the shaft face to make full contact.
A small amount of pressure moves the red band out of the housing to indicate tha
t the fabric is weak. The yellow band indicates that the fabric is stronger,
and the green band indicates the condition of good quality fabric. After the tes
t is complete, cover the hole in the fabric with a small circular patch.
Since the Seyboth tester punches holes in the fabric during each test, another t
ype of tester that does not leave holes is the Maule tester.
Page 53
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Maule Test Instrument
A Maule tester is similar to the Seyboth tester in that it measures the amount o
f pressure applied directly to the fabric.
This tester consists of a tubular housing containing a calibrated spring. When p
ressed against the fabric, pressure is measured and indicated on a scale.
If fabric fails, the Maule tester penetrates the fabric prior to reaching the sp
ecified point on the strength scale. It the fabric has adequate strength, the te
ster
will not penetrate the fabric and a repair is not required.
Page 54
REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERINGS
If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and unecon
omical to make satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and
location of damage to the fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the re
pair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but extensive damage is often
made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the replacement of large
fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to
distortion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re--cover the
component.
g
in
Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage sho
uld be ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose
objects such as stones, remains of birds, insects, etc, and any structural damag
e made good. Using thinners, all dope should be removed from the fabric
surrounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since doped fa
bric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.
n
i
ra
If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and unecon
omical to make satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and
location of damage to the fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the re
pair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but extensive damage is often
made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the replacement of large
fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to
distortion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re--cover the
component. Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the
damage should be ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loo
se objects such as stones, remains of birds, insects, etc, and any structural
damage made good. Using thinners, all dope should be removed from the fabric sur
rounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since
doped fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Herring--Bone Stitch. The herring--bone stitch (also known as the ladder or basebal
l stitch) should be used for repairing straight cuts or tears which
have sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown opposite, with a lock kno
t every 150 mm (6 in).
o
There should be a minimum of two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to th
e inch) and the stitches should be 6 mm (0.25 in) from the
edge of the cut or tear.
o
After the stitching has been completed, 25 mm (1 in) wide serrated tape should b
e doped over the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric
patch should then be doped over the whole repair, ensuring that the edges of the
patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering
and that they overlap the repair by 37 mm (1.5 in). The original doping scheme s
hould then be restored.
Page 55
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Herring-bone (Baseball) Stitch
Page 56
Repairs with Woods Frames. On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears with jagg
ed edges, which cannot be stitched as described in the previous
paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method described for inspec
tion panels previously. Repairs of up to 50 mm (2 in) square may
be made, provided they are clear of seams or attachments by a distance of not le
ss than 50 mm (2 in). The affected area should be cleaned with
thinners or acetone and repaired in the following manner.
o The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged fabric a
nd, if the frame is of the square type, the edges should be
parallel to the weft and warp of the covering. When the dope has dried, the dama
ged portion of the fabric should be cut out and the aperture
covered by a fabric patch.
o If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose shee
t 0.8 mm (0.030 in) thick with minimum frame width of 25 mm
(1 in); in the case of the square type of frame the minimum comer radii should b
e 12 mm (0.5 in). In some special cases, aircraft
manufacturers use 2 mm plywood complying with British Standard V3 for the manufa
cture of the frames, in which case it is important to
chamfer the outer edges of the frame to blend with the aerofoil contour.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 57
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Repair of L-Shaped Tear
Page 58
Repair by Darning. Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by

darning provided the hole is not more than 50 mm (2 in) wide at any
point. The stitches should follow the lines of the warp and weft and should be c
losely spaced as shown in the adjacent figure. The whole repair should
be covered with a serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an overlap of 37
mm (1.5 in) from the start of the dam.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Repair by Darning
g
in
Page 59
Repair by Insertion. For damage over 100 nun (4 in) square, insertion repairs ar
e generally used, either of the two methods described below being
suitable.
o Normal Insertion Repair. The damaged area of the fabric should be cut out to f
orm a square or rectangular hole with the edges parallel to the
weft and warp. The comers of the hole should then be cut diagonally, to allow a
12 mm (0.5 in) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and
this should be held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.
o The patch should be made 25 mm (1 in) larger than the cut--out area and its ed
ges should be folded under for 12 mm (0.5 in) and tacked in
position in a manner similar to that described in the previous paragraph. In thi
s condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to,
or slightly smaller than, that of the cut--out area.
o The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut--out area with a
few tacking stitches and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch of n
ot less than two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as show
n in the figure opposite. A 25 mm (1 in) wide tape
should then be doped over the seams.
o For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated
edges, should be doped in position ensuring that the patch
overlaps the edge of the tape by 31 mm (1.25 in). Where the size of the insertio
n patch is more than 225 mm (9 in) square, a 75 mm (3 in)
wide fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the corner
s and doped in position. The original finish should then be
restored.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Normal Insertion Repair
Page 60
o
Alternative Insertion Repair. An alternative repair is shown opposite. This cons
ists of cutting away the damaged fabric as described
previously but, in this case, the edges of the aperture as well as the edges of
the insertion patch are turned upwards. The insertion patch is
attached to the fabric cover by stitching along the folded--up edges as near to
the contour of the component as practicable (i.e. about 1 mm
(0.0625 in) above the surface) using the boot stitch described previously (Stage
1 of the figure opposite). The edges are then doped down
(Stage 2 of the figure opposite) and the repair covered with a doped--on fabric
patch.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Alternative Insertion Repair
Page 61
o
Boot Stitch. A single, well--waxed No.18 linen thread to BS F34 should be used f
or the boot stitch. The stitches should be made as shown in
the figure adjacent and the ends of both threads tied together in a lock knot ev
ery 150 mm (6 in), and at the end of a seam.
Boot Stitch
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 62
DOPING
INTRODUCTION
Fabric has been used from the early days of the aeroplane as a covering for fuse
lages and aerofoils. It still continues to provide good service for light aircra
ft
but must be protected from deterioration by the application of a dope film. Natu
ral fabrics, such as cotton or linen, deteriorate in use as a result of the effe
cts
of sunlight, mildew and atmospheric pollution. Man--made fibres resist some of t
hese agents better than natural fabrics but still require protection. The dope
film then achieves the following functions:
Tautening of natural fabrics

Waterproofing
Airproofing
Lightproofing.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
MATERIALS
g
in
The basic film consists of dope but other materials are used in its application,
as described in the following paragraphs.
Dopes. Dope consists of a number of resins dissolved in a solvent to permit appl

ication by brush or spray. This formulation is then modified with
plasticisers and pigments to add flexibility and the required colour (see opposi
te). There are two types of dope in use, namely, cellulose nitrate and
cellulose acetate butyrate. The former is usually known simply as nitrate dope a
nd the latter as butyrate or CAB dope. The main difference between
the two types of dope is the film base. In nitrate dope a special cotton is diss
olved in nitric acid, whilst in butyrate dope cellulose fibres are dissolved
in acetic acid and mixed with butyl alcohols. The plasticisers in the two dopes
are also different, as are the resin balance and solvent balances. Dope
must be stored under suitable conditions, and has a tendency to become acid with
age; if old dope is used for refinishing an aircraft it will quickly rot
the fabric. Only fresh dope should be used, preferably buying it for the job in
hand.
Dope--Proof Paints. Due to the nature of the solvents used in dope, many paints
will be attacked and softened by it. Dope--proof paint is therefore
used to coat structure which will be in contact with the doped fabric. In the ca
se of wooden structure, spar varnish provides a good dope--resistant
finish and an epoxy primer is suitable for metal structures.
Aluminium Dope. To make the fabric lightproof and so prevent damage from ultra--
violet radiation, an aluminium dope is used. This is usually
supplied ready mixed but can be prepared by mixing aluminium paste or powder in
clear dope but it is essential that the materials are obtained from
an approved supplier and mixed in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
Page 63
Thinners. Dopes are formulated in such a way that the solid constituents are sus
pended in the appropriate solvents. It will normally be necessary to
thin or reduce the dope to make it suitable for spraying. It is important that o
nly the thinners recommended by the manufacturer of the dope is used.
The amount of thinners is determined from the manufacturers recommendations and i
s modified by experience to take account of the equipment
used and the atmospheric conditions.
g
in
The viscosity can be measured by using a viscosity cup which contains a small ho
le in the bottom. In use, the cup is dipped into the dope and the
flow of fluid is timed from when the cup is lifted from the container to the fir
st break in the flow. In this way subsequent batches of dope can be mixed
to exactly the same viscosity as the first batch. It is important that nitrate a
nd butyrate dopes are mixed only with their own specialised thinners. A
retarder, or anti--blush thinners, is a special type of thinners with slow-- dry
ing solvents. By drying more slowly they prevent the temperature drop and
consequent moisture condensation that cause blushing in a dope finish. In use, t
he retarder replaces some of the standard thinners and can be used
in a ratio of up to one part retarder to four parts of thinners. The use of more
retarder than this is unlikely to achieve the desired result.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Cleaning Agent. Methyl--ethyl--ketone (MEK) is an important, relatively low cost
, solvent similar to acetone. It is widely used as a cleaning agent to
remove wax and din and to prepare surfaces for painting or re--doping. It is als
o useful as a solvent for cleaning spray guns and other equipment.
Page 64
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Dope Constituents
Page 65
Fungicides. Since natural fabrics can be attacked by various forms of mildew and
fungus, it may be necessary to provide protection for cottons and
linens when doping. This is achieved by having a fungicide added to the first co
at of dope. The dope is usually supplied ready mixed but can be
prepared by using a fungicidal paste obtained from an approved supplier. If the
latter course is necessary, the fungicidal paste should be mixed with
the clear dope in accordance with the manufacturers instructions; all fungicides
are poisonous and therefore, standard precautions should be taken
to prevent any ill effects. Since mildew or mould form on the inside of the fabr
ic, it is important to ensure that this first coat of dope completely
penetrates the fabric.
Tack Rags. A tack rag is a rag slightly dampened with thinners and is used to wi
pe a surface after it has been sanded to prepare it for the application
of the next coat. Proprietary cloths are also available.
Sandpaper. Sanding is carried out using wet--or--dry paper. This is a waterproof

sandpaper that will remain flexible and not clog. The grades most
likely to be used are 280, 360 and 600, the last mentioned being the finest grad
e.
Drainage Eyelets and Inspection Rings. Openings in the fabric cover for drain ho
les and inspection panels are always reinforced with eyelets or
grommets and inspection rings. These are made from cellulose nitrate sheet and a
re doped into position.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 66
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The storage and use of dopes is covered by various Government regulations made u
nder the Factories Act.
The hazard with the use of dopes comes about because of the flammability of the
solvents that are used. The solvents have a low flash point and the
vapour produced is heavier than air. Accumulations of vapour are readily ignited
producing a serious fire which can spread very rapidly.
One of the most common causes of ignition is a spark produced by the discharge o
f static electricity. For example, during the course of doping, the
fumes from the solvents will accumulate inside the structure. When the dope has
dried, subsequent dry sanding and dusting will build up a static
charge on the surface. If the operator is wearing rubber soled shoes he will be
at the same electrical potential as the surface and nothing will happen.
Should the charge on the operator now be lost through his touching some metal pa
rt of the spray shop, for example and he then touches some metal
part of the structure being doped the static charge will jump to earth creating
a spark and igniting the fumes. The best way to prevent this type of
problem is to eliminate the static charge altogether by grounding the structure
being doped. A wire connected from the structure to a clean metal part
of the spray shop will do the job satisfactorily. Clothing that is made of synth
etic fibres will build up a static charge more readily than that made from
cotton. Leather soled shoes will allow any static charge to be dissipated to gro
und. When spraying nitrate dope ensure that the spray gun, the
operator and the structure being doped are all grounded together.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The standard of housekeeping in the spray shop is an important aspect of safety.

If the floor becomes contaminated with dried nitrate dope
overspray, subsequent sweeping will produce a static charge with the attendant r
isk of ignition and possible explosion. To clean the floor, it should be
doused well with water and then swept whilst it is still wet. Since dopes will n
ot be the only materials used in a spray shop, it should be noted that
spontaneous combustion can be the result of a mixing of dope and zinc chromate o
versprays.
The fumes created during the spraying process are hazardous to health as well as
being a fire risk. Proper operator protection must be provided as
recommended in the dope manufacturers technical literature. At the first sign of
any irritation of the skin or eyes, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough,
the operator should stop work and seek medical advice.
Electrical equipment to be used in the spray shop must be of such a nature that
it cannot ignite the vapours that will be present. Lead Lamps must be
of the explosion--proof variety and dopes must not be mixed using stirrers drive
n by portable electric drills.
Page 67
WORKING CONDITIONS
In order to accomplish a proper dope job, it is important to control both the te

mperature and humidity of the air in the spray shop. In addition to this it
is necessary to maintain sufficient air flow through the shop to remove the heav
y vapours caused by atomisation and evaporation of the solvents
used.
To maintain a suitable air flow through the spray shop it is necessary to instal
l a fan at floor level since the vapours produced are heavier than air.
The fan must be explosion proof, as must be all other electrical equipment insta
lled in the area. The rate of air flow is dictated by the size of the spray
shop and is the subject of various Government regulations. The discharge of the
vapours may also be the subject of further requirements and the
advice of the Factory Inspectorate should be sought. The air inlet to the spray
shop should preferably be in an adjoining room, or at least behind a
suitable baffle, in order to reduce draughts to a minimum. If the inlet is in a
separate room then the air temperature can be raised to that required
before entering the spray shop.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Many problems associated with doping can be traced to incorrect temperatures of

the air or the dope. If the dope has been left overnight in a cold
place then it will take many hours to bring it to the room temperature. Overnigh
t heating of the spray shop is the most satisfactory method to prepare
for doping since it usually results in more uniform temperatures throughout the
shop. Rapid heating tends to result in stratified heating with the ceiling
being considerably hotter than the floor level. Air temperature should be mainta
ined between approximately 21 and 26C (70 to 79F) for best
results. If the temperature is too low the rapid evaporation of the solvents wil
l lower the temperature of the surface to the point where moisture will
condense and be trapped in the finish. Too high a temperature causes very rapid
drying of the dope which can result in pin holes and blisters. The
only satisfactory way to operate is to constantly monitor and control the air te
mperature as necessary.
In addition to the proper control of air temperature, the humidity of the air mu
st also be controlled. The desirable range of air humidity is 45 to 50.
Satisfactory work can be produced with air humidity as high as 70 or as low as 2
0, depending upon other variables such as temperature and air flow,
but the control of the dope application at extremes is always more difficult.
Humidity should be measured with a hygrometer and although direct reading instru
ments are available, the wet and dry bulb type is still the most
common. In this instrument two thermometers are mounted side by side, the bulb o
f one being kept wet by water evaporating through a wick. To take
a reading of humidity, both thermometers should be read and the difference betwe
en them noted; the wet bulb thermometer will be lower. After
finding the dry bulb reading in the table opposite, a reading should be taken ac
ross to the column headed with the depression of the wet bulb. The
relative humidity as a percentage is given at the intersection of the two lines.
Example. Assuming a dry bulb reading of 17C and a wet bulb reading
of 14C, the depression of the wet bulb, that is the amount by which the reading o
f the wet bulb is reduced below that of the dry bulb, is 3C. Reading
across from 17C in the dry bulb column to the depression column headed 3C indicate
s a relative humidity of 72.
Page 68
In order to produce a satisfactory dope film, it is vitally important that all b

rushes, spray equipment and containers should be scrupulously clean. It is
important that oil and water traps in the air lines are properly cleaned and tha
t air reservoirs are drained of accumulated moisture. Pressure pots and
spray guns should be thoroughly cleaned with thinners before the dope hardens. I
f passages have become obstructed with dried dope, the equipment
should be dismantled and the parts soaked in MEK or a similar solvent. Packings
and seals should never be soaked in solvents or they will harden
and become useless.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 69
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
Page 70
PREPARATION PRIOR TO DOPING
Before the component is moved into the spray shop, normal housekeeping tasks sho
uld be carried out. All dirt, dust and dried overspray should be removed,
bearing in mind the safety precautions stated previously. Then the working condi
tions of temperature and humidity should be achieved with the dope and
other materials being brought to the correct temperature.
o
The structure has been painted with dope--proof paint where required
o
Correct and secure attachment of the fabric to the structure
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
An inspection should be made of the fabric--covered component to verify the foll
owing points:-
o
Correct allowance for tautening of the cover where this is of a natural fabric s
uch as cotton or linen. If the cover is too slack, no amount of
doping will rectify this. If it is too tight, a lightweight structure, such as a
control surface, could easily be distorted
o
All dust has been removed from the fabric
o
The fabric has reached the temperature of the air in the spray shop.
o
Plastics components, such as windows and windscreens, are adequately protected a
gainst solvent attack; newspaper is not satisfactory
for this purpose.
With the dope at the correct temperature, it should be mixed and then thinned to
a suitable consistency for brush or spray application as
appropriate. Whilst the dope is in storage the solid materials tend to settle an
d the purpose of mixing is to bring these materials back into
suspension. To mix any dope satisfactorily, half the contents of the tin should
be poured into a clean tin of the same size. The remaining material
should be stirred until all the solid material is in suspension, paying particul
ar attention to the bottom of the tin. The contents of the first tin should
then be poured into the second tin and a check made that all pigment has been lo
osened from the bottom. Finally, the dope from one tin should
be poured into the other and back again, until it is thoroughly mixed.
Page 71
APPLICATION TO NATURAL FABRIC
The best looking and most durable film is produced by using multiple coats of a
dope that is low in solids. A large number of thin coats, however, requires a
great deal of time and modern dope schemes tend to use fewer, but thicker, coats
than the earlier schemes. The dope scheme is a schedule listing the
number and order of coats of each type of dope. Typical examples of schemes deta
iled in British Standard BS X26 are given in the tables here and opposite.
The standard aircraft doping scheme is 752, but 751 is used on light structures
that would be distorted by overtautening and 753 is used where an extra taut
cover is required.
g
in
n
i
ra
Priming Coats. This name is given to the first coats applied to the raw fabric.
The first coat of dope provides the foundation for all the subsequent
coats and as such its mechanical attachment to the fabric is very important. Thi
s mechanical attachment is formed by the dope encapsulating the
fibres of the fabric. Nitrate dope has much better properties with regard to enc
apsulating the fibres and is therefore preferred for the first coat. The
dope should be thinned by 25 to 50 and applied by brush. The dope should be work
ed into the fabric to ensure adequate penetration, but not to
the point where it drips through to the opposite surface. Since organic fabrics
are subject to attack by mildew, a fungicide should be added to the
dope used for this first coat.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When applying the first coat of dope to the wings, the entire wing should first
be doped on both sides aft of the front spar. The dope should be
allowed to shrink the fabric before doping the leading edge. In this way the fab
ric will tauten evenly and adjust itself over the leading edge cap
without forming wrinkles.
After the dope has dried for a minimum of 1 hour, the tapes, drainage eyelets or
grommets and inspection panel rings may be applied. A heavy
coat of nitrate dope should be brushed on where required and the tape laid into
it, working it down to the surface and rubbing out any air pockets
as the tape is laid. A further coat of clear dope is brushed over the top of the
tapes. Drainage eyelets or grommets and inspection rings are
attached in a similar fashion at this time. To ensure the best adhesion, eyelets
or grommets and rings may be soaked in dope thinners for no
more than two minutes to soften them. Inspection rings are best reinforced with
a circular pinked-- edge patch, a little larger than the ring, doped
over the top. The holes in eyelets or grommets and rings are opened with a sharp
, pointed knife after doping is complete. The taping is followed
by another coat of clear dope which may be butyrate and may be applied by spray
gun.
Filling Coats. When the first butyrate coat has fully dried, the fabric will fee
l rough due to the short fibre ends (the nap) standing up. This nap
should be very lightly sanded off, using dry sandpaper, to leave a smooth finish
. The surface should then be rinsed clean with water and dried
thoroughly. Two full wet cross--coats of butyrate dope should now follow; a cros
s--coat is a coat of dope sprayed on in one direction and then
covered with a second coat at right angles to it before the first coat dries. Th
ese in turn should be followed with one good cross--coat of
aluminium dope after lightly sanding the clear dope to encourage adhesion. The a
luminium coat is in its turn lightly wet sanded to produce a
smooth surface and the residue rinsed off with water. Once the aluminium coat ha
s dried, it should be checked for continuity by shining a light
inside the structure. The film should be completely lightproof.
Page 72
Finishing Coats. The finishing coats of pigmented butyrate dope may now be spray
ed on. The number of coats will be determined as a balance
between quality and cost but should not be less than three. A high gloss finish
is obtained by lightly sanding each coat when dry and spraying
multiple thin coats rather than several thick coats. The use of a retarder in th
e colour coats will allow the dope to flow out and form a smoother
film. The final coat should be allowed to dry for at least a month before it is
polished with rubbing compound and then waxed. The surface should
be waxed at least once a year with a hard wax to reduce the possibility of oxida
tion of the finish.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 73
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
NOTE: A tolerance of +/- 20% is permissable on any of the weights given in these
tables.
Page 74
APPLICATION TO POLYESTER-FIBRE FABRIC
Polyester--fibre fabrics are being increasingly widely used for covering aircraf
t because of their long life and resistance to deterioration. For this reason it
is
extremely important that the dope film is of the highest quality so that its lif
e will match that of the fabric.
g
in
Priming Coats. Tautening of the fabric cover is not a function of the dope film
where synthetic fabrics are used, although all dopes will tauten to some
extent. Polyester--fibre fabrics are heat shrunk when the structure is covered.
The most notable difference in doping a synthetic cover is the difficulty,
when compared with natural fabrics, of obtaining a good mechanical bond between
the dope and the fibres of the material.
Unlike natural fibres the polyester filaments are not wet by the dope and the se
curity of attachment depends upon them being totally encapsulated by
the first coat of dope. The first coat must be nitrate dope thinned in the ratio
of two or three parts of dope to one part of thinners. This coat is then
brushed into the fabric in order to completely encapsulate every fibre. The dope
should form a wet film on the inside of the cover but it should not be
so wet that it drips through to the opposite side of the structure. The initial
coat should be followed by two more brush coats of nitrate dope thinned to
an easy brushing consistency.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Certain additives are approved by the material manufacturer for use with the fir
st coat for improving adhesion to the fabric. However, since polyester
is not organic, there is no need for a fungicide to be added to the first coat o
f dope.
Filling Coats. Taping and attaching of drainage eyelets or grommets and inspecti
on rings follows the same procedure as for natural fabrics. The
priming coats should be followed by spraying two full--bodied cross--coats of cl
ear butyrate dope. After these coats have completely dried they should
be lightly sanded (400 grit) and cleaned thoroughly with a tack rag. One full cr
oss--coat of aluminium dope should then be sprayed on and lightly wet
sanded when dry, the residue being rinsed off with water. This coat should be te
sted to verify that it is lightproof by shining a light inside the structure.
Finishing Coats. The finishing coats should now be applied in the same manner as
for natural fabrics. It should be noted that with a properly finished
polyester cover the weave of the fabric will still show through the dope film. B
ecause the fibres are continually moving, any attempt to completely hide
them will result in a finish that does not have sufficient flexibility to resist
cracking.
Page 75
APPLICATION TO GLASS-FIBRE FABRIC
Glass--fibre fabric has a loose weave which tends to make it difficult to apply
to aircraft structures. To overcome this problem it is pre--treated with butyrat
e
dope and the covering and doping must be carried out in accordance with the manu
facturers installation instructions.
g
in
Priming Coats. Nitrate dope must not be used under any circumstances with this t
ype of fabric. The first coat of clear butyrate dope is sprayed on with
the dope being thinned only enough to permit proper atomisation. The atomising p
ressure must be set to the lowest possible that will permit proper
atomisation without the dope being blown through the fabric. The coat should be
heavy enough to thoroughly wet the fabric and soften the dope in the
fabric, but must not be so heavy that it causes the dope to run on the reverse s
ide of the fabric. If the dope is allowed to run in this way an orange
peel finish will develop and the fabric will not tauten properly.
n
i
ra
After the first coat has dried, further coats of butyrate dope should be sprayed
on, each a little heavier than the one before it, until the weave fills and
the fabric tautens; this may take as many as five coats. Tapes, drainage eyelets
or grommets and inspection rings are applied in a coat of butyrate
dope.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Filling Coats. Once the fabric is taut and the weave has been filled, two full--
bodied brush coats of clear butyrate dope should be applied and allowed
to dry thoroughly. The film should then be very carefully sanded, making sure th
at it is not sanded through to the fabric. Whilst the fabric is not
damaged by ultra--violet radiation, the clear dope can deteriorate as a result o
f exposure and therefore, a coat of aluminium dope should be sprayed
on for protection and lightly wet--sanded smooth. After the aluminium dope has b
een sanded, the residue should be removed by washing with water
and then the surface thoroughly dried.
Finishing Coats. The application of the finishing coats is carried out in the sa
me manner as for natural fabrics. Several thin, wet coats of coloured
butyrate dope will allow the surface to flow out to a glossy finish.
DOPING PROBLEMS
The production of a doped finish that is both sound and attractive is dependent
upon a great deal of care and attention being paid to detail at each stage of
the finishing process. In spite of this, problems do occur and the following par
agraphs detail some common ones and their possible causes.
Adhesion. There are two basic areas in which adhesion may be poor; between the f
abric and the first coat of dope and between the aluminium coat
and subsequent coats. Adhesion to the fabric, particularly polyester fabric, is
largely dependent upon the technique used to ensure the encapsulation
of the fibres. Adhesion to the aluminium coat may be impaired if too much alumin
ium powder was used or if the surface was not thoroughly cleaned
after sanding. The use of a tack rag to finally clean a surface before applying
the next coat is always recommended.
Page 76
Blushing is a white or greyish cast that forms on a doped surface. If the humidi
ty of the air is too high, or if the solvents evaporate too quickly, the
temperature of the surface drops below the dew--point of the air and moisture co
ndenses on the surface. This water causes the nitrocellulose to
precipitate out. Moisture in the spray system or on the surface can also cause b
lushing. Blushing can be controlled by reducing the humidity in the air
(raising the temperature by several degrees may achieve this) or by using a reta
rder in the place of some of the thinners. A blushed area can be
salvaged by spraying another coat over the area using a retarder instead of some
of the thinners; the solvents attack the surface and cause it to flow
out.
Bubbles or Blisters are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all the
solvents have had time to evaporate. This may happen if a heavy coat
of dope is applied over a previous coat that had not fully dried.
Dull Finish. The gloss of butyrate dope may be improved by the addition of up to
20 retarder in the last coat. Excessive dullness may be caused by
holding the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope settles as a sem
i--dry mist. Small dull spots may be due to a porous surface under the
area.
Fisheyes. These are isolated areas which have not dried due to contamination of
the surface with oil, wax or a silicone product. Cleanliness is
important, especially when refinishing a repair. All wax should be removed using
a suitable solvent before attempting to re--dope the surface.
Orange Peel. This is caused by insufficient thinning of the dope or holding the
spray gun too far from the surface. It can also be caused by too high an
atomising pressure, use of thinners that is too fast drying or by a cold, damp d
raught over the surface.
Pinholes. These are smaller versions of a blister. Apart from the causes listed
in the Bubbles or Blister paragraph, they can be caused by water or oil
in the spray system. An air temperature that is too high can also be a cause.
Roping. This is a condition in which the surface dries as the dope is being brus
hed, resulting in an uneven surface. This is common when the dope is
cold and has not been brought up to the temperature of the spray shop. When appl
ying dope with a brush, it should not be overbrushed. The brush
should be filled with dope then stroked across the surface and lifted off. The p
ressure applied to the brush should be sufficient to ensure the proper
penetration of the dope.
Rough Finish. Dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding and too low a w
orking temperature can all cause a rough finish.
Runs and Sags. This type of defect is caused by too thick a coat, especially on
vertical surfaces. This can be the result of incorrectly adjusted spray
equipment or incorrect technique.
Wet Areas. This is a larger version of the defect described in the Fisheyes paragr
aph.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 77
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The weight of the dope applied to the fabric is an indication that the scheme ha
s been correctly applied. In the BS X26 doping schemes the weight
per unit area is given and should be checked by doping a test panel at the same
time as the structure. The fabric is weighed before doping and then
again after doping, the difference being the weight of the dope film. United Sta
tes Military Specifications call for a minimum dope weight of 161 g/m2
(4.75 oz/yd2). A tolerance of +/-20% may be applied to the weights given in BS X
26.
When an aircraft is re--covered and re--doped it is essential that it is re-- we

ighed and a new Weight Schedule raised
After the re--covering, repair and doping of control surfaces it is essential th

at the static balance of each surface is checked against the
manufacturers requirements. Addition of weight aft of the hinge line without corr
ection of the static balance is likely to cause flutter of the control
surface.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 78
CORROSION (DCAM 6.4 L1 & L3)
6.4 TYPES OF CORROSION
Corrosion is a very general term and may appear in a variety of forms, depending
on the metal involved and the corrosion-producing agents present.
Oxidation
g
in
One of the simpler forms of corrosion is dry corrosion or, as it is most generally
known, oxidation.
n
i
ra
When a metal such as aluminium is exposed to a gas containing oxygen a chemical
reaction takes place on the surface between the metal and the gas. Two
aluminium atoms join three oxygen atoms to form aluminium oxide (AL2 O3 ). If th
e metal is iron or steel, two atoms of iron join three atoms of oxygen to form
iron oxide, or rust (Fe2 O3 )
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The best way to protect iron from dry corrosion is to keep oxygen from coming in
to contact with its surface. This is done temporarily by covering the surface
with oil or grease or permanently with a coat of paint. Aluminium alloy can be p
rotected from oxidation by the formation of an oxide film on its surface. The
protection afforded by an aluminium oxide coating is the principal reason for cl
adding (Alclad) aluminium alloy used in structural applications.
Page 79
Uniform Surface Corrosion
Where an area of unprotected metal is exposed to an atmosphere containing batter
y fumes, exhaust gases, or industrial contaminants, a uniform over the
entire surface occurs. This dulling of the surface is caused by microscopic amou
nts of the metal being converted into corrosion salts. If these deposits are not
removed and the surface protected against further action, the surface become so
rough that corrosion pits form.
g
in
Corrosion sometimes spreads under the surface and cannot be recognised by either
roughening of the surface or by a powdery deposit. A common type of
uniform surface corrosion is caused by the reaction of metallic surface with atm
ospheric contaminants. Reactive compounds from exhaust gases, as well as
fumes from storage batteries, frequently cause uniform surface corrosion.
n
i
ra
The amount of damage caused by uniform surface corrosion is ordinarily determine
d by comparing the thickness of the corroded metal with that of an
undamaged specimen.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Corrosion
Corrosion and its control are of primary importance to all aircraft operators. C
orrosion weakens primary structural members, which must then be replaced or
reinforced in order to sustain flight loads.
Corrosion is a natural phenomenon which attacks metal by chemical or electrochem
ical action and converts it into a metallic compound, such as an oxide,
hydroxide or sulphate. Substances that cause corrosion are called corrosive agen
ts. Water or water vapour containing salt combine with oxygen in the
atmosphere to produce the most prominent corrosive agents. Additional corrosive
agents include acids, alkalis and salt.
The appearance of corrosion varies with various metals.
Examples:
On aluminium alloys and magnesium it appears as surface pitting and etching, oft
en combined with a grey or white powdery deposits.
On copper and copper alloys corrosion forms a greenish film and on steel a reddi
sh rush.
There are two general classifications of corrosion, chemical and electro chemica
l, both types involve two simultaneous changes. The metal that is attacked or
oxidized suffers an anodic change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and suffer
s a cathodic change.
Page 80
Chemical Corrosion
Pure chemical corrosion results from direct exposure of bare surface to caustic
resulting liquid or gaseous agents. The most common agents causing direct
chemical corrosion include:
g
in
1. Spilled battery acid or fumes from batteries
2. Residual flux deposits resulting from inadequate cleaned, welded, brazed or s
oldered joints.
3. Entrapped caustic cleaning solutions.
n
i
ra
Electrochemical Corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion is similar to the electrolytic reaction that takes pla
ce in dry cell battery.
When the number of electrons matches the number of protons in an atom, the atom
is said to be electrically balanced. If there are more or fewer electrons
than protons, the atom is said to be charged and is called ion, but if there are
more protons than electrons it is a positive ion.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Metals are arranged to show the relative ease with which they ionize in what is
called the electrochemical series.
The earlier a metal appears in the series, the more easily it gives up electrons
. In other words, a metal that gives up electrons is known as an anodic metal
and corrodes easily. On the other hand, metals that appear later in the series d
o not give up electrons easily and are called cathodic metals.
Pitting Corrosion
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium is pitting. Pitting
first appears as a white powdery deposit. It starts on the surface of a
material and then extends vertically into the material.
This type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which dec
rease the material strength. They penetrate deeply into the metal and cause
damage completely out of proportion to the amount of metal consumed.
Page 81
Galvanic Corrosion
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
This common type of corrosion occurs any time two dissimilar metals make electri
cal contact in the presence of an electrolyte.
Example:
Galvanic corrosion can take place where dissimilar metal skins are riveted toget
her, or where aluminium inspection plates are attached to the structure with
steel screws.
When metals of the same galvanic grouping are joined together, they show little
tendency for galvanic corrosion. But metals of one group corrode when they
are held in contact with those in another group.
Page 82
Filiform Corrosion
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen concentration cell corrosion or c
revice corrosion which occurs on metal surface having an organic coating
system. It is recognized by its fine threadlike lines under a polyurethane ename
l finish.
Filiform corrosion often results when the wash primer used on a metal has not be
en properly cured. A wash primer is a two-part metal preparation material in
which phosphoric acid converts the surface of the metal into a phosphate film th
at protects the metal from corrosion, and provides an excellent bend for paint.
Filiform corrosion shows itself as a puffiness under the paint film and is first
noticed around rivet heads and along the lap joint of skins. When the paint fil
m is
broken, you will notice that the puffiness was caused by the growth of the powde
ry salts of corrosion. There is no cure for filiform corrosion short of strippin
g
all the paint, removing the corrosion, treating the metals surface and refinishin
g the aircraft.
Filiform can be prevented by storing aircraft in an environment with relative hu
midity below 70 percent, using coating systems having a low rate of diffusion fo
r
oxygen and water vapours, and by washing aircraft to remove acidic contaminants
from the surface, such as those created by pollutant in the air.
Page 83
Intergranular Corrosion
This type of corrosion is an attack along the grain boundaries of an alloy and c
ommonly results from a lack of uniformity in the alloy structure.
Aluminium alloys and some stainless steels are particularly susceptible to this
form of electro-chemical attack. The lack of uniformity is caused by a change
that occurs in the alloy during heating and cooling.
g
in
Intergranular corrosion may exist without visible surface evidence. Very severe
intergranular corrosion may sometimes cause the surface of a metal to
exfoliate. This is a lifting or flaking of the metal at the surface due to delamin
ation of the grain boundaries caused by the pressure of corrosion residual
product build up.
n
i
ra
Intergranular corrosion occurs within the metal itself, rather than on the surfa
ce; therefore it is quite difficult to detect without ultrasonic or eddy-current
equipment.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 84
Stress Corrosion
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Stress corrosion occurs when mental is subjected to a tensile stress in the pres
ence of a corrosive environment. The stresses in the metal can come from
improper quenching after heat treatment, or from an interference fit of a fasten
er. Stress corrosion cracking is found in most metal systems; however it is
particularly characteristic of aluminium, copper, certain stainless steel and hi
gh-strength alloy steels.
Since stress corrosion can occur only in the presence of tensile stresses, one m
ethod for preventing this type of corrosion in some heat-treated aluminium
alloy parts is to shot-peen the surface to provide a uniform compressive stress
on the surface. Common locations for stress corrosion to form are between
rivets in a stressed skin, around pressed-in bushings and tapered pipe fittings.
If stress corrosion is severe enough; it may be visible through careful visual
inspection. However, dye penetrate inspection is required to find the actual ext
ent of the crack.
Page 85
Fretting Corrosion
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When two surfaces fit tightly together but can move relative to one another, cor
rosion occurs. This type of corrosion is the result of the abrasive wear cause
by the two surfaces rubbing against each other. This rubbing, known as fretting,
prevents the formation of protective oxide film, exposing active metal to the
atmosphere.
When this type of corrosion makes its appearance on the surface, the damage is u
sually done and the parts must be replaced.
Fretting corrosion occurs around rivets in a skin and is indicated by dark depos
its around around the rivet heads streaming out behind, giving the appearance
of rivet smoking. Rivets showing this sign of fretting must be drilled out and r
eplaced.
Page 86
Organic Growths
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Water which condenses in fuel tanks produces relatively minor corrosion problems
. Microbial growth occurs at the interface of water and fuel, where the
fungus feeds on the fuel. The fungus typically attaches itself to the bottom of
the tank and looks like a brown deposit the tank coating when the tank is dry.
The fungus growth may start again when water and fuel are present.
This water contains microscopic animal and plant life called microbes. These org
anic bodies live in the water and feed on the hydrocarbon fuel.
The dark insides of the fuel tank promote their growth, and in very short period
s of time these tiny creatures multiply and form a scum inside the tank. This
scum can grow to cover the entire bottom of a tank and hold water in contact wit
h the tank structure.
If the scum forms along the edge of the sealant in an integral fuel tank, the se
alant can pull away from the structure, causing a leak and an expensive
resealing operation. It is virtually impossible to prevent the formation of this
scum as long as microbes are allowed to live in fuel. The most successful solut
ion
to the problem has been to use an additive in fuel which kills these organic gro
wths and prevents the formation of the corrosion-forming scum.
Page 87
MICROBIAL CORROSION
Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi or moulds. Micro-organisms
occur nearly everywhere. Those organisms causing the greatest corrosion
problems are bacteria and fungi.
g
in
Bacteria may be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to
live. They accelerate corrosion by oxidizing sulphur to produce sulphuric acid.
Bacteria living adjacent to metals may promote corrosion by depleting the oxygen
supply or by releasing metabolic products. Anaerobic bacteria, on the other
hand, can survive only when free oxygen is not present. The metabolism of these
bacteria requires them to obtain part of their sustenance by oxidizing
inorganic compounds, such as iron, sulphur, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The re
sultant chemical reactions cause corrosion.
n
i
ra
Fungi are micro-organisms that feed on organic materials. While low humidity doe
s not kill microbes, it slows their growth to prevent corrosion damage. Ideal
growth conditions for most micro-organisms are temperatures 68-104F (20--40C) and
relative humidity85--100%.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
It was once thought that fungal attack could be prevented by applying moisture-p
roofing coatings to nutrient material or by drying the interiors of
compartments with desiccants. However, some moisture-proofing coatings are attac
ked by mould, bacteria or other microbes, especially if the surfaces on
which they are used are contaminated.
Microbial growth occurs at the interface of water and fuel, where the fungus fee
ds on the fuel. Organic acids, alcohols and esters are produced by growth of
the fungus. These by-products provide even better growing conditions for the fun
gus. The fungus typically attaches itself to the bottom of the tank and looks
like a brown deposit on the tank coating when the tank is dry. The fungus growth
may start again when water and fuel are present.
The spore form of some micro-organisms can exist for long periods while dry, and
become active when moisture is present. When desiccants become
saturated and unable to absorb moisture passing into the affected area, micro-or
ganisms can begin to grow. Dirt, dust and other airborne contaminants are
the least-recognized contributors to microbial attack. Unnoticed, small amounts
of airborne debris may be sufficient to promote fungal growth.
Microbial corrosion can be minimized with a maintenance programme which includes
programmed draining of water from fuel tank traps, followed by
inspection for milky white products that indicate microbial growth is present, t
ank inspections, total removal of microbial growth and application of biocide wi
th
effected soak periods.
Page 88
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Microbial Corrosion
Page 89
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
CORROSION (DCAM REF 6.4 L1 & L3)
Factors Affecting Corrosion
Many factors will affect the cause, type, speed of attack, and seriousness of me
tal corrosion. Some are beyond the control of the aircraft designer or
maintenance engineer while some of them can be controlled.
g
in
Climatic
n
i
ra
The environmental conditions under which the aircraft is operated and maintained
cannot normally be controlled. The following factors will effect the rate at
which corrosion will occur.
Marine environments (exposure to salt water) will increase rate of corrosion.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Moisture laden atmosphere as against a dry atmosphere. The USA store hundreds of
aircraft in a desert (dry) atmosphere for emergency war use.
Temperature considerations i.e. Hot climate against cold climate. High temperatu
res will increase the rate of corrosion (all chemical reactions occur
faster at higher temperatures).
The worst conditions would exist in a hot, wet, maritime environment.
Size and Type of Metal
Some metals corrode more easily than others. Magnesium corrodes readily, whilst
Titanium is extremely corrosion-resistant because it oxidises readily. Thick
structural sections are also more susceptible than thin sections, because variat
ions in physical characteristics are greater. Such sections are also likely to
have been cold worked and are, therefore, more susceptible to stress corrosion.
Corrosive Agents
Foreign materials, that may adhere to metal surfaces, and, consequently result i
n corrosion, can include:
Soil and atmospheric dust
Oil, grease and engine exhaust residues
Salt water and salt moisture condensation
Spilled battery acids and caustic cleaning solutions
Welding and brazing flux residues
Page 90
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Common Metals and Corrosion Products
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosi
on products whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical
corrosion products, common to materials used in aircraft construction.
g
in
Iron and Steel
The most common, and easily-recognisable, form of corrosion is red rust. The ini
tial oxide film, formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In
the presence of water, or in a damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (i
ndustrial atmosphere) or salt (marine environment) is present, thick layers of
hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour from brown to black. Rust pr
omotes further corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a type of
oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an electro
lytic cell with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed
only by abrasive blasting or by immersion in rust-removing solutions.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not ad
versely affect the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an
indication that adequate maintenance procedures have not been followed.
Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It
may vary from general etching of the surface, to the localised, intergranularat
tack, characteristics of some strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment.
The corrosion products are white to grey and are powdery when dry.
Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive blasting, or by
chemical methods.
In general, pure aluminium sheet and alclad surfaces have good corrosion resistanc
e, except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its
alloys need protection and high-strength aluminium alloys are always given a sub
stantial protective treatment.
Page 91
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous, compared to the base meta
l. When the failure of protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs,
the corrosive attack tends to be severe in the exposed areas, and may penetrate
totally through a magnesium structure in a very short time. Any corrosion, on
magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-stren
gth aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not
suffer intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of Mag
nesium Alloys.
Titanium
g
in
n
i
ra
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metal
s to avoid dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys
can suffer stress corrosion at temperatures above 300 C when in the presence of sa
lt and fatigue cracks can develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all t
emperatures above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures
higher than approximately 120C)). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plate
d onto the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel parts (and cadmiumcontaminated sp
anners) are used with titanium. Great care must be taken to ensure that these co
nditions never occur if at all possible.
Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion. Tarnishing has no s
erious consequences in most applications. Long-term exposure to industrial or
marine atmospheres gives rise to the formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo
or verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer selective removal
of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft construction, copper-based alloys are fr
equently cadmium-plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion.
Cadmium and Zinc
Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are ap
plied. Both confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is
normally chosen for use in the aircraft industry, as it is more durable under se
vere corrosive conditions such as in marine and tropical environments. Both
metals produce white corrosion products.
Page 92
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Nickel and Chromium
Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used
for its wear-resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the
corrosive atmosphere. The degree of protection is proportional to the thickness
of the coating. Once the underlying steel is exposed (through loss of the
coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually accelerate
the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more anodic than the protective
coating.
g
in
Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in
industrial and marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.
n
i
ra
Corrosion Removal
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
General treatments for corrosion removal include:
Cleaning and stripping of the protective coating in the corroded area.
Removal of as much of the corrosion products as possible.
Neutralisation of the remaining residue.
Checking if damage is within limits
Restoration of protective surface films
Application of temporary or permanent coatings or paint finishes.
Cleaning and Paint Removal.
It is essential that the complete suspect area be cleaned of all grease, dirt or
preservatives. This will aid in determining the extent of corrosive spread. The
selection of cleaning materials will depend on the type of matter to be removed.
Solvents such as trichloroethane (trade name Genklene) may be used for oil, grease
or soft compounds, while heavy-duty removal of thick or dried
compounds may need solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
General purpose, water-removable stripper is recommended for most paint strippin
g. Adequate ventilation should be provided and synthetic rubber surfaces
such as tyres, fabric and acrylics should be protected (remover will also soften
sealants). Rubber gloves, acid-repellent aprons and goggles, should be worn
by personnel involved with paint removal operations. The following is the genera
l paint stripping procedure:
Page 93
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Brush the area with stripper, to a depth of approximately 0.8 mm 1.6 mm (0.03 in
0.06 in). Ensure that the brush is only used for paint stripping.
Allow stripper to remain on the surface long enough for the paint to wrinkle. Th
is may take from 10 minutes to several hours.
Re-apply the stripper to those areas which have not stripped. Non-metallic scrap
ers may be used.
Remove the loosened paint and residual stripper by washing and scrubbing the sur
face with water and a broom or brush. Water spray may assist, or
the use of steam cleaning equipment may be necessary.
Note. Strippers can damage composite resins and plastics, so every effort should
be made to mask these vulnerable areas.
g
in
n
i
ra
Corrosion of Ferrous Metals
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous oxide rust to be
deposited. Some metal oxides protect the underlying base metal, but rust
promotes additional attack by attracting moisture and must be removed.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any un-protected hardware. Its presence is not
immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a need for maintenance and will
suggest possible further corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most pract
ical means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete removal of
corrosion products by mechanical means.
Abrasive papers, power buffers, wire brushes and steel wool are all acceptable m
ethods of removing rust on lightly stressed areas. Residual rust usually
remains in pits and crevices. Some (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be use
d to neutralise oxidation and to convert active rust to phosphates, but they
are not particularly effective on installed components.
High-Stressed Steel Components
Corrosion on these components may be dangerous and should be removed carefully w
ith mild abrasive papers or fine buffing compounds. Care should be
taken not to overheat parts during corrosion removal. Protective finishes should
be re-applied immediately.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious indications, since the pr
oducts are white and voluminous. Even in its early stages, aluminium
corrosion is evident as general etching, pitting or roughness.
Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which provides a hard shell, t
hat, in turn, may form a barrier to corrosive elements. This must not be
confused with the more serious forms of corrosion.
Page 94
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in the presence of d
issolved salts. Considerable attack can take place before serious loss of
strength occurs. Three forms of attack, which are particularly serious, are:
Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing.
Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress.
Intergranular attack characteristic of certain improperly heat treated alloys.
g
in
Treatment involves mechanical or chemical removal of as much of the corrosion pr
oducts as possible and the inhibition of residual materials by chemical
means. This, again, should be followed by restoration of permanent surface coati
ngs.
n
i
ra
Alclad
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
WARNING: USE ONLY APPROVED PAINT STRIPPERS IN THE VICINITY OF REDUX BONDED JOINT
S. CERTAIN PAINT STRIPPERS
WILL ATTACK AND DEGRADE RESINS. USE ADEQUATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT WHEN
WORKING WITH
CHEMICALS. USE ONLY THE APPROVED FLUIDS FOR REMOVING CORROSION PRODUCTS. INCORRE
CT COMPOUNDS WILL
CAUSE SERIOUS DAMAGE TO METALS.
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of the protective alu
minium layer by mechanical methods, as the core alloy metal may be
exposed, therefore, where heavy corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it
must be removed by chemical methods wherever possible.
Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate remover (usually a p
hosphoric-acid based fluid) applied, normally with the use of a stiff bristled
brush, to the corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been removed.
Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be used to flood the area and remov
e all traces of the acid, then the surface should be dried thoroughly.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium coating remains intact
is by the application of one drop of diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area.
If the alclad has been removed, the alumium alloy core will show as a black stai
n, whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a white stain
.
The acid must be neutralised and the area thoroughly washed and dried before a p
rotective coating (usually Alocrom 1200 or similar) is applied to the
surface.
Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable primer, followed b
y the approved top coat of paint.
Page 95
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Magnesium Alloys
The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by the use of chromic/s
ulphuric acid solutions (not the phosphoric acid types), brushed well into
the affected areas. Clean, cold water is employed to flush the solution away and
the dried area can, again, be protected, by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a
similar, approved, compound.
g
in
Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will co
rrode most metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy
wood and most other fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be follow
ed when working with such spillages.
n
i
ra
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bay
s should be well ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with a
ntiacid paint. Vigilance is required of everyone working in the vicinity of batt
eries, to detect (as early as possible) the signs of acid spillage. The correct
procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as follows:
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to spr
ead the acid.
If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care th
at electrical equipment is suitably protected from the water.
If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight) solutio
n of bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.
Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if ac
id has been cleaned up.
Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plate
d finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have
been damaged.
Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.
Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nick
el-Iron (Ni-Fe) type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium
Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate). The compartments of these batteries should als
o be painted with anti-corrosive paint and adequate ventilation is as
important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health and Safety proc
edures are, again, imperative.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the
same basic steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alka
li
is neutralised with a solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in wat
er.
Page 96
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Mercury Spillage
WARNING: MERCURY (AND ITS VAPOUR) IS EXTREMELY TOXIC. INSTANCES OF MERCURY POISO
NING MUST, BY LAW, BE
REPORTED TO THE HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE. ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS RELATING TO
THE SAFE HANDLING OF
MERCURY MUST BE STRICTLY FOLLOWED.
g
in
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the battery spillages and
prompt action is required to ensure the integrity of the aircraft structure.
n
i
ra
While contamination from mercury is extremely rare on passenger aircraft, source
s of mercury spillage result from the breakage of (or leakage from)
containers, instruments, switches and certain test equipment. The spilled mercur
y can, quickly, separate into small globules, which have the capability of
flowing (hence its name Quick Silver) into the tiniest of crevices, to create dama
ge.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an amalgam with metals),
causing intergranular penetration and embrittlement which can start cracks and
accelerate powder propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening
of the aircraft structure.
Signs of mercury attack on aluminium alloys are greyish powder, whiskery growths
, or fuzzy deposits. If mercury corrosion is found, or suspected, then it must
be assumed that intergranular penetration has occurred and the structural streng
th is impaired. The metal in that area should be removed and the area
repaired in accordance with manufacturers instructions.
Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the follow
ing operation:
Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:
Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up
Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
Calcium polysulphide paste.
Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
Page 97
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Neutralise the spillage area, using Flowers of Sulphur.
Try to remove evidence of corrosion.
The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all glo
bules have been removed and to check extent of corrosion damage.
Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated shoul
d be removed and replaced.
Note: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt
to clean contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.
g
in
Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe t
hat has suffered mercury contamination.
n
i
ra
Permanent Anti-Corrosion Treatments
These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the component, as dis
tinct from coatings, which may be renewed as a routine servicing operation.
They give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive attack better than
the metal to which they are applied.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Electro-Plating
There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of:
Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the coating is anodic and so, if
base metal is exposed, the coating will corrode in preference to the base
metal. Commonly called sacrificial protection, an example is found in the cadmiu
m (or zinc) plating of steel.
Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or chromium on steel) than the base metal. The
nobler metals do not corrode easily in air or water and are resistant to
acid attack. If, however, the basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally th
rough electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting corrosion of the
base metal or the corrosion may spread beneath the coating.
Sprayed Metal Coatings
Most metal coatings can be applied by spraying, but only aluminium and zinc are
used on aircraft. Aluminium, sprayed on steel, is frequently used for hightemper
ature areas. The process (aluminising), produces a film about 0.1 mm (0.004 in)
thick, which prevents oxidation of the underlying metal.
Cladding
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad) has already been
discussed, as has the problem associated with the cladding becoming
damaged, exposing the core, and the resulting corrosion of the core alloy
Page 98
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Surface Conversion Coatings
These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes the immediate surfa
ce layer into a film of metal oxide, which has better corrosion resistance
than the metal. Among those widely used on aircraft are:
Anodising of aluminium alloys, by an electrolytic process, which thickens the na
tural, oxide film on the aluminium. The film is hard and inert.
g
in
Chromating of magnesium alloys, to produce a brown to black surface film of chro
mates, which form a protective layer.
Passivation of zinc and cadmium by immersion in a chromate solution.
n
i
ra
Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special purposes, notably the
phosphating of steel. There are numerous proprietary processes, each
known by its trade name (e.g. Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Locations of Corrosion in Aircraft
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than others. The rate
of deterioration varies widely with aircraft design, build, operational use and
environment. External surfaces are open to inspection and are usually protected
by paint. Magnesium and aluminium alloy surfaces are particularly
susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners, faying surfac
es and where protective coatings have been damaged or neglected.
Exhaust Areas
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine and piston eng
ines, are subject to highly corrosive influences. This is particularly so where
exhaust deposits may be trapped in fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such dep
osits are difficult to remove by ordinary cleaning methods.
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be removed for cleanin
g and examination. All fairings, in other exhaust areas, should also be
thoroughly cleaned and inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be
applied to critical areas, to facilitate easier removal of deposits at a later
date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits.
Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents
The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by dust and eroded by
rain. Heat-exchanger cores and cooling fins may also be vulnerable to
corrosion.
Page 99
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive environment, to o
bstructions and crevices in the path of cooling air. These must be treated as
soon as is practical.
Landing Gear
Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water and gravel, and re
quire frequent cleaning and touching-up. Careful inspection should be given
to crevices, ribs and lower-skin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear
assemblies should be examined, paying particular attention to magnesium
alloy wheels, paintwork, bearings, exposed switches and electrical equipment.
g
in
n
i
ra
Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication will be require
d, whilst ensuring that bearings are not contaminated, either with the cleaning
water or with the water-dispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
Bilge and Water Entrapment Areas
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to collect, the
se drains can become blocked by debris, such as sealant or grease. Inspection of
these drains must be frequent. Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms m
ust be very carefully inspected for corrosion, as these are usually the
worst places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion. The protection in these
areas must also be carefully inspected and renewed if necessary.
Recesses in Flaps and Hinges
Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed-brake recesses, where wate
r and dirt may collect and go unnoticed, because the moveable parts are
normally in the closed position. If these items are left open, when the aircraft is
parked, they may collect salt, from the atmosphere, or debris, which may be
blowing about on the airfield. Thorough inspection of the components and their a
ssociated stowage bays, is required at regular intervals.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar metal corrosion, b
etween the steel pins and the aluminium tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the
hinges of access doors and panels that are seldom used.
Magnesium Alloy Skins
These give little trouble, providing the protective surface finishes are undamag
ed and well maintained. Following maintenance work, such as riveting and
drilling, it is impossible to completely protect the skin to the original specif
ication. All magnesium alloy skin areas must be thoroughly and regularly inspect
ed,
with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners and paint finishes.
Page 100
DCAM PART 66 CAT B2
Aluminium Alloy Skins
The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally machined, usually
in main-plane structures. Due to the alloys and to the manufacturing
processes used, they can be susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosi
on. Small bumps or raised areas under the paint sometimes indicate
exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires removal of all exfoliated me
tal followed by blending and restoration of the finish.
g
in
Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions
Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal layers of spot-welded skin
s and moisture, entering the seams, may set up electrolytic corrosion
that eventually corrodes the spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally,
spot-welding is not considered good practice on aircraft structures.
n
i
ra
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb sandwich panels should
be sealed to exclude water or dirt. Water should not be permitted to
accumulate in the structure adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb
sandwich panels and box structures is difficult and generally requires that
the structure be dismantled.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Electrical Equipment
Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the corrosion in bat
tery compartments. Spray, from electrolyte, spreads to adjacent cavities and
causes rapid attack on unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended
to all vent systems associated with battery bays.
Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive to the effects o
f corrosion and need close inspection.
Miscellaneous Items
Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can, over a period o
f time, lead to mechanical problems and system failure. Corrosion-resistant
cables, can also be affected by corrosive, marine environments.
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should result in a thoroug
h inspection of the internal strands and, if any damage is found, the cable
should be rejected.
Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bell-cranks, sheaves an
d in other places where the cables flex, as there is more chance of corrosion
getting inside the cables when the strands are moving around (or being moved by)
these items.
Page 101
FASTERNERS (DCAM 6.5 L2)
6.5 FASTENERS
The installation of fasteners is one of the usual procedures used to attached co
mponents or assemblies to aircraft structures.
Screw Threads
g
in
A screw thread is the ridge produced by forming on a cylindrical or conical surf
ace, a continuous helical groove of uniform section.
Refer to Figure 43
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 43: Screw Threads
Page 102
Screw Nomenclature
Objective:
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to explain screw threads. Scr
ew threads are identified by their profile. Some examples are: 1. Metric Thread
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
2. Metric Fine Thread
3. Whitworth Thread
g
in
4. Trapezoidal Thread
5. Buttress Thread
6.
Round Thread
Page 103
Thread Forms, Dimensions and Tolerances for Standard Threads used in Aircraft
Objective:
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to identify the thread form.
g
in
Screw Thread Terminology
1. Major Diameter
The diameter of in imaginary cylinder, coaxial with the screw line and touching
the CRESTS of an external or ROOTS of an internal thread.
n
i
ra
2. Minor Diameter
The diameter of an imaginary, coaxial with the screw centre line and touching th
e ROOTS of an external or the CRESTS of an internal thread.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
3. Effective Diameter
The diameter of an imaginary cylinder, coaxial with screw centre line, the diame
ter being such that where it intersects the thread form, the distance between
the intersections on the adjacent flanks equals 1/2 pitch.
4. Pitch
The distance measured parallel to the screw axis between corresponding points on
consecutive thread forms.
5. Lead
The axial distance advanced by the screw in one revolution, the lead equals the
pitch for single start threads. On multiple start threads the lead is the same
multiplied by the pitch as the number of starts.
6. Flank
The surface of the thread which connects the root and the crest.
7. Flank Angle
The angle between the flank of the thread and a line drawn perpendicular to the
thread centre line (axis).
8. Thread Angle
This is the included angle between the flanks of the thread form twice the flank
angle.
Page 104
9. Length of Engagement
The axial distance over which two mating threads are designed to make contact.
10. Root
That part of the surface of the thread which connects adjacent flanks at the bot
tom of the thread.
g
in
11. Crest
That part of the surface of the thread which connects adjacent flanks at the top
of the thread.
n
i
ra
12. Truncation
A truncation thread is one having flat crests.
13. Depth of Thread
The distance between the root and the crest, measured at right angles to the cen
tre line (axis).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Refer to Figures 44 and 45
Page 105
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 106
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 107
Coarse Pitch
Few threads per inch.

Has stronger threads, but a slightly weaker core diameter than a fine pitch thre
ad of the same crest diameter.
Owing to its greater lead, a coarse pitch thread gives a more rapid action.
g
in
Fine Pitch
Many threads per inch.

This type of thread normally used on fastening devices of aircraft construction.
Advantages are; the fine pitch thread gives a stronger core diameter, tighter gr
ip, finer adjustment, and is more resistant slackening under vibration.
n
i
ra
Refer to Figure 46
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 46: Coarse Pitch and Fine Pitch
Effective Diameter Tolerance
This is derived from a three-part formula, which takes account of diameter, pitc
h and length of engagement
Major Diameter Tolerance
With external threads the tolerance on major diameter is derived solely from a f
ormula based on pitch.
Minor Diameter Tolerance
The minor diameter tolerance on external threads is related directly to the effe
ctive diameter tolerance.
Page 108
1. Unified Thread
The unified system or screw thread introduced by Canada, USA and the UK was prov
ided to give a common standard between the three countries. The range
of threads include:a) U.N.C.
Unified coarse pitch thread with progressive pitch sizes (i.e. pitch varies with
the diameter).
b) U.N.F.
Unified fine pitch thread with progressive pitch sizes.
c) U.N.E.F.
Unified extra fine pitch with progressive pitch sizes.
d) U.N.
Unified thread with constant pitch (regardless of diameter).
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
e) U.N.S.
Unified thread or special, pitch/diameter not included above
g
in
Page 109
f) U.N.J.
A recent addition to the unified series and is designed for increases fatigue st
rength where stress levels are high. It features an enlarged root radius on the
external thread and is particularly useful for aircraft applications.
Sizes are quoted in fractions of an inch above 1/4".
Size below 1/4" are designated by a number related to its size, followed by a nu
mber indicating the threads per inch (T.P.I) E.g. 4-40 UNC
Refer to Figure 50
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 50: 4-40 UNC
Notes:
The symbol used for visual identification of Unified thread is the circle; usual
ly three circles with their borders touching.
This symbol is marked on the part or adjacent to the component, so that it will
be visible after assembly
Page 110
Types of Threads
2. Whitworth (BS 84.1956).
This is a form of thread designed by Sir Joseph Whitworth in the middle of the 1
9th century and represents one of the first attempts to standardise threads and
make them inter-changeable.
g
in
It is a symmetrical V shaped thread form with threads of 55, rounded equally at cre
sts and roots. They have been standardizes by 3 different series of
threads, all of Whitworth form. These are:
British Standard Whitworth (B.S.W.)
British Standard Fine (B.S.F.)
British Standard Pipe (B.S.P.)
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In the B.S.W. and B.S.F. series, the range of diameters are much the same, but a
s its name implies, the pitches in the B.S.F. range are finer for the same
diameters in the B.S.W. range.
The diameters referred to are the major diameters, measured over the crests of t
he thread.
In the case of the B.S.P. threads, the nominal diameter is the internal diameter
of the pipe with which it is associated, so that the major diameter is always
larger than the nominal diameter.
The general relationship between these threads is illustrated in Figure 47, wher
e the relative pitches, together with the major diameters in the B.S.P. range
are given for a representative selection of nominal sizes
Refer to Figure 47
Page 111
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 47: Whitworth Tables and Specifications
Page 112
3. British Association (B.A.) (BS93.1951)
The B.A. was introduced by the British Association when the need was felt for a
series of small threads for use in the scientific instrument industry. It has
since been widely applied in British Engineering products of all classes. Today,
its greatest uses are in the field of radio and other electrical equipment.
The threads are dimensioned in metric units
Each thread is designated with a number between 0 and 25.
The largest is 0 BA (0 BA = 6mm).
The major diameter of the 25 BA is 0.25 mm (0.010").
The form of the BA thread is illustrated below and differs from the Whitworth in
thread angle of 47
g
in
n
i
ra
Refer to Figure 48
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 48: British Association
Page 113
4. Metric Thread (BS 1095)
The metric thread is very widely used on the European continent. The thread angl
e is 60 and is truncated.
Any metric pitch can be associated with any diameter as desired, but there are v
arious standard series in force in different countries. The series in general
use in Britain is tabulated in Specification BS 1095.
Generally speaking, variations in standard between countries only effect threads
at the extremes of the range, below 6 mm and above 80 mm diameter.
g
in
Refer to Figure 49
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 49: Metric Thread
Page 114
5. American National Thread
The American Thread is another 60 angle thread which is truncated, (same as Metri
c Thread) There are 2 standard series; the Coarse (A.N.C.) and Fine
(A.N.F.).
These correspond to the B.S.W. and B.S.F. series, most sizes of the A.N.C. threa
d having the same pitches as the B.S.W. range, although the A.N.F. series
is size for size, finer than the B.S.F. range.
g
in
These American thread sizes are expressed in inches and fractions from 1/4" upwa
rds. Sizes below 1/4" are designated by numbers from 12 and below, the
form of the thread remaining the same.
No.1 is the finest thread in the coarse series (0-073" diameter. 64 T.P.I.) No.
0 is the finest in the fine series (0.060", 80 T.P.I.)
The designating number corresponds to the same basic major diameter in both seri
es.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 115
Aircraft Fasteners
Identification
Most items of aircraft hardware are identified by their specification number of
trade name. Threaded fasteners are usually identified by:
1. AN (Air Force-Navy)
2. NAS (National Aircraft Standard)
3. MS (Military Standard)
g
in
n
i
ra
Quick-release fasteners are usually identified by factory trade names and size d
esignations.
Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling or replacement of air
craft parts that must be taken apart and put back together at frequent
intervals.
Bolts and screws are two types of fastening devices which give the required secu
rity of attachment and rigidity. Bolts are used where great strength is
required and screws are used where strength is not the deciding factor.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for fastening or h
olding and each has a head on one end and screw threads on the other.
A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long grip length
or unthreaded portion, where as a screw has a longer threaded section and
may have no clearly defined grip length.
A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning the nut on the bolt, but the h
ead of the bolt may or may not be designed for turning. A screw is always
tightened by turning its head.
Page 116
Thread Type and Fits
Aircraft bolts, screws and nuts are threaded in either the:
1.
2.
3.
4.
American National Coarse (NC)
American National Fine (NF)
American Standard Unified Coarse (UNC)
American Standard Unified Fine (UNF)
g
in
n
i
ra
The difference between the American National series and the American Standard Un
ified series is the American National series has more threads per inch
than the American Standard Unified series.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Example:
On a one inch diameter bolt, the NF thread specifies 14 threads per inch ( 1-14N
F), while the UNF thread specifies 12 threads per inch (1-12 UNF).Both
thread types are designated by the number of times the threads rotate (number of
turns) around a 1-inch length of given diameter bolt or screw.
Threads are also designated by class of fit from one to five. The class of threa
d indicates the tolerance allowed in manufacturing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Class 1 thread is a loose fit
Class 2 thread is a free fit
Class 3 thread is a medium fit
Class 4 thread is a close fit
Class 5 thread is a tight fit
Page 117
A Class 1 fit allows you to turn the nut all the way down using only fingers. Wi
ng nuts are a good example of Class 1 fit. A Class 4 and 5 fit requires a wrench
to turn a nut down from start to finish. Aircraft bolts are usually fine threade
d with a Class 3 fit. Whereas screws are typically a Class 2 or 3 fit.
Bolts and nuts are also produced with right-hand and left-hand threads. A right-
hand thread tightens when turn clockwise, a left-hand thread tightens when
turned counter clockwise.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 118
Bolts
The bolts, used in the construction of aerospace components and structures, have
evolved into a bewildering range of materials, shapes and sizes, all of
which are dictated by the applications for which the items have been designed
Standards and systems have been established, to provide identification of the ma
ny different forms of threaded devices, in order to ensure that only the
correct items are installed in the relevant locations.
g
in
It is stressed here, that only the approved design materials may be used for aer
ospace components and, while a selection of some of the bolts are presented
in these course notes, by way of introduction, the relevant AMM, SRM and IPC wil
l be the sole authority for deciding the correct type of bolt that is to be used
in a particular application.
n
i
ra
British Bolts
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
An extensive range of bolts and screws is provided for, in the specifications dr
awn up by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC). The following
abbreviations (some of which have, already, been discussed are in common use:
AGS
AS
Al. Al.
BA
BSF.
HTS.
HTSS.
LTS.
SS
UNC.
UNF.
Aircraft General Standard
Aircraft Standards
Aluminium Alloy
British Association
British Standard Fine
High Tensile steel
High Tensile Stainless Steel
Low Tensile Steel
Stainless Steel
Unified National Coarse
Unified National Fine.
Page 119
Identification of BS Unified Bolts
British Standard Unified (BS Unified) bolts are identified by the use of an alph
a-numeric code, which provides information relating to the type, material,
surface finish, length, diameter and any other important characteristics of the
threaded device
Table 9 shows a (very small) selection of aircraft standard bolts and screws wit
h a (shortened) description of the type of device and the materials from which i
t
is made.
g
in
Reference to the table shows that the code A102 signifies a hexagonal-headed bol
t which is made of high-tensile steel, while the code A175 represents a
100 countersunk-headed bolt, made from an aluminium alloy.
Table 9
Examples of Code Numbers for Unified Threads
Description
Material
Hex. Headed Bolt
HTS.
Hex. Headed Bolt
SS
Hex. Close Tolerance. Bolt
HTS
Shear Bolt
HTS
100 Countersunk. Head. Bolt
SS
100 Countersunk. Head. Bolt
Al Al
100 Countersunk. Head. Screw
HTS
Pan Head. Screw
HTS
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Standard No.
A102
A104
A111
A112
A174
A175
A204
A205
Other methods of indicating that an item has a Unified thread are:
Three contiguous (touching) circles marked in a convenient position (machine ite

ms).
Note: Due to the difficulty in applying the identifying marks to individual item
s, it is planned to merely mark the packets in which the threaded devices
are marketed, so that some, or all, of the identification marks will not be seen
on the items (particularly screws). Great care must, therefore, be taken
to ensure that the items being used are correctly identified and to the approved
standard.
A shallow recess in the head of a bolt, equal to the nominal diameter of the thr
ead (cold forged items).
A dog point (small protrusion) on the threaded shank end (usually applies to screw
s).
Page 120
Further numbers and letters are added to the identifying code, to provide inform
ation relating to the length (usually of the plain shank or gripping portion) an
d
to the diameter of the items. The length is given by a number, which signifies i
ncrements of tenths of an inch, so that a 5 would represent a bolt with a plain
shank of 0.5 in, while the number 12 would signify the plain shank as being 1.2
in long
Reference to Table 10, will show how the diameter of an item is designated by th
e addition of another letter to the system, so that a bolt, with the code
marking of A102 9 E, would signify a Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made
from high-tensile steel, with a plain shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter
of in.
Code
Y
Z
A
B
C
D
E
G
Table 10
EXAMPLES OF BS UNIFIED BOLT CODES
Diameter
Code
Diameter
0-80 UNF
J
3/8" UNF (UNJF)
2-64 UNF
L
7/16" UNF (UNJF)
4-40 UNC
N
1/2" UNF (UNJF)
6-32 UNC
P
9/16" UNF (UNJF)
8-32 UNC
Q
5/8" UNF (UNJF)
10-32 UNF UNJF)
S
3/4" UNF (UNJF)
1/4" UNF (UNJF)
U
7/8" UNF (UNJF)
5/16" UNF (UNJF)
W
1" UNF (UNJF)
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Note: In the earlier UK system (which may be encountered on older, or home-const
ructed, light aircraft), bolts more than inch diameter are normally BSF,
whilst bolts less than inch diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these ite
ms also use a number to represent their nominal length and a letter code
(as can be seen in Table 11) to identify their diameter.
Page 121
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile
Steel) or a raised ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation
of
their particular designations.
Table 11
EXAMPLES OF BA AND BSF BOLT AND SCREW CODES
Code
Size
Code
Size
A
6 BA
P
9/16" BSF
B
4 BA
Q
5/8 BSF
C
2 BA
S
3/4" BSF
E
1/4 BSF
U
7/8" BSF
G
5/16" BSF
W
1" BSF
J
3/ 8" BSF
X
12 BA
L
7/16" BSF
Y
10 BA
N
1/2" BSF
Z
8 BA
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 122
American Bolts
American aircraft bolts and nuts are threaded in the NC (American National Coars
e), the NF (American National Fine), the UNC (Unified National Coarse),
and the UNF (Unified National Fine) thread series. The item is often coded to gi
ve the diameter of the threaded portion and the number of threads per inch
(tpi).
g
in
Aircraft bolts may be made from HTS, Corrosion-Resistant Steel or Aluminium Allo
y. Head types may be hexagonal, clevis, eyebolt, internal wrenching and
countersunk (refer to Fig. 43) and head markings may be used to indicate other f
eatures such as close tolerance, aluminium alloy, CRS or other types of
steel.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Examples of Aircraft Bolts
Fig 43
Page 123
Identification of AN Standard Bolts
While there are several different US Standards, there is only need to discuss on
e type for the purpose of these course notes, as the others are very similar.
AN bolts come in three head styles, Hexagon Head, Clevis and Eyebolts and Table
12 provides an indication of the various code numbers in use.
AN No.
3 20
Table 12
EXAMPLES OF AN STANDARD BOLTS (EARLY SERIES)
Type
Material
Process
Thread Size
Bolt, hex.
Head
Steel
Cadmium
Plated Nil
Anodised
No. 10 to
1
Thread
Type
n
i
ra
UNF
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
CRS
Al. Al.
No. 6 to
1
g
in
21 36
Bolt, Clevis
Steel
Cadmium
Plated
UNF
42 36
Bolt, Eye
Steel
Cadmium
Plated
No. 10 to
9/16
UNF
73 81
Bolt, hex.
Drilled head
Steel
Cadmium
Plated
No. 10 to
UNF or
UNC
173 186
Bolt, close tolerance
Steel
Cadmium
Plated
thread &
head
No. 10 to 1
UNF
Note: The later series uses a different number system
Page 124
For identification purposes the AN number is used to indicate the type of bolt a
nd its diameter. In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and
presence of a split pin or locking wire hole as follows:
Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the AN number indicates threa
d diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = with
subsequent numbers indicating the diameter in 1/16 increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of diameter and an AN14 is a hexagon headed
bolt of 7/8 (14/16) diameter.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 125
Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is measur
ed from under the head of the first full thread (refer to Fig. 44) and is
quoted in 1/8 increments as a dash number.
The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the first figure inche
s, so that an AN4 12 is a diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1 long.
Drilled
Shank
Steel
CRS
Steel, Close Tolerance
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Diameter
Aluminium Alloy
Drilled Head,
(Except AN 73 81)
Drilled Head, AN
73 -81
Aluminium Alloy,
Close Tolerance
g
in
n
i
ra
Length
L
CRS, Close Tolerance
Grip
Head Markings for AN Bolts
Fig. 44
Page 126
Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the
threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:
Drilled shank
= normal coding
e.g. AN24 15
Un-drilled shank
= A added after dash No.
Drilled head only
= H added before dash No.
(replacing dash) A added e.g. AN25H15A
after dash No.
Drilled head and shank
e.g. AN24 15A
= H added before dash No.
g
in
n
i
ra
e.g. AN25H15
Material: The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plat
ed steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are
placed after the AN number as follows:
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
C
= Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S. e.g. AN25C15
DD
= Aluminium Alloy
e.g. AN25DD15
Thread: Where the bolt is supplied as either UNF or UNC threads, a UNC thread is
indicated by placing an A in place of the dash, e.g. AN24A15
Page 127
Special-to-Type Bolts
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 AN20 (refer to Fig.45), is an all purpose s
tructural bolt used for applications involving tension or shear loads where a
light drive fit is permissible.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Eye Bolt
Clevis Bolt
Special-to-Type Bolts
Fig. 45
Page 128
Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16 diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller
than are not used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as
follows:
Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more accurately than the standar
d bolt. They may be hexagon headed (AN173 AN186) or have a
100 countersunk head (NAS80 NAS86). They are used in applications where a tight d
rive fit is required (the bolt requires the use of a 340g - 400g
(12oz 14 oz) hammer to drive it into position.
Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495) these are fabricated from high-s
trength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The
head is recessed to allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing o
r removing the bolt. In Dural-type material, a heat-treated washer must
be used to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head.
Clevis Bolts: The head of a clevis bolt is round and either slotted, for a stand
ard screwdriver, or recessed, for a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of
bolt is used only for shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted as
a mechanical pin in a control system.
Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles
and the bolt is used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be
drilled for safetying.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 129
Metric Bolts
The identification of a Metric bolt is by the use of the diameter in millimetres
, immediately after the capital letter M. In this way, M6 represents a 6 mmdiamete
r bolt. The length is also shown in millimetres, so the bolt M6 -15 will be a 6
mm- diameter bolt, which is 15 mm long. The basic terminology, for
identifying bolts of the Metric system, involves the nominal length, the grip le
ngth and diameter (refer to Fig. 46).
n
i
ra
Length
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Grip
g
in
Diameter
Metric Bolt Terminology
Fig. 46
Page 130
Nuts
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
All nuts used in aircraft construction must have some sort of locking device to
prevent them from loosening and falling off. Many nuts are held on a bolt by
passing a cotter pin through a hole in the bolt shank and through slots or caste
llation in the nut.
Aircraft nuts are made in a variety of shaped and sizes. They are made of cadmiu
m-plated, carbon steel, stainless steel or anodized 2024 -T aluminium
alloys. There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. A
self-locking nut locks onto a bolt on its own while a non self-locking nut relie
s on
either a cotter pin, check nut or lock washer to hold it in place.
Page 131
AN310 Castle Nut
These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a standard airframe bolt with a Cl
ass 3 fit, and are used when the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile
loads. The size of a nut is indicated in the part code by a dash number which de
notes the size of the bolt it fits.
Example: AN310-6 nut fits an AN6 bolt which has a diameter of 3/8 inch.
g
in
Castle nuts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant an
d 2024 aluminium alloy.
n
i
ra
AN 315 Plain Nut
The AN315 plain nut has no castellation and, therefore, cannot be held in place
using a cotter pin. There fine-thread nuts have no locking provisions, a springt
ype lock washer must be used in combination with the nut. The lock washer applie
s a spring force to prevent the nut from shaking loose.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
An315 nuts are used with either tensile or shear loads and made of either nickel
steel, corrosion-resistant steel and aluminium alloy. Plain nuts are made with
both right and left-hand threads.
AN350 Wing Nut
Wing nuts are used when it is necessary to remove a part frequently without the
use of tools. Aircraft wing nuts are made of either cadmium-plated steel or
brass and are available in sizes.
All of these nuts have national fine threads that produce a Class 2 Fit. Nuts fo
r machine screw sizes are designated by the series number. Nut used on bolts
have a bolt size given in 1/16 inch increments.
Self-Locking Nut
Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking device in their design to keep
them from coming loose. There are several different types of lock nuts, you
must be certain that the proper locknut is used in a given application. Failure
to do so could result in failure of the locking provision.
The two general types of self-locking nuts used in aviation are the fiber, or ny
lon types and the all metal type. Self-locking nuts are used on aircraft to prov
ide
tight connections which will not shake loose under severe vibration. Do not use
self-locking nuts at joint which subject either the nut or bolt to rotation.
Page 132
Anchor Nuts
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Anchor nuts are permanently mounted nut plates that enable inspection plates and
access doors to be easily removed and installed. To make the installation
of an access door easier where there are a great numbers of screws, a floating a
nchor nut is often used. With a floating anchor nut it fits loosely into a small
bracket which is riveted to the skin.
Since the nut is free to move within the bracket it aligns itself with a screw.
To speed the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
inspection plate opening. These are floating-type anchor nuts that are installed
in channel that is riveted to the structure.
Page 133
Screws
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft. They d
iffer from bolts in that they are generally made of lower strength materials.
Screws are typically installed with a loose-fitting thread, and the head shapes
are made to engage a screwdriver or wrench. Some screws have a clearly
defined grip length while others are threaded along their length.
There are three basic classifications of screw used in aircraft construction:
1. Machine screws which are the most widely used.
2. Structural screws which have the same strength as bolts.
3. Self-tapping screws which are typically used to join light weight materials.
Page 134
Machine Screws
Machine screws (refer to Fig. 49) are used extensively for attaching fairings, i
nspection plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main
difference between aircraft bolts and machine screws, is that the threads of a m
achine screw usually run the length of the shank, whereas bolts usually have
an unthreaded grip length.
g
in
The most common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister-head screw, whic
h can be wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head
(countersunk-head) screw is available with single or cross-point slotted heads.
The round-head screw and the truss-head (mushroom-head) screw, provide
good holding properties on thin metal sheets.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 135
Studs
Types and Uses, Insertion and Removal
Objectives:
g
in
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to define stud types and us
es, insertion and removal.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
Figure 56: Types of Studs
M
Page 136
1. Standard Stud (Refer to Figure 57)
This is a plain or parallel type. The diameter of the unthreaded portion is the
same as the major diameter of the screw thread at both ends, with the threads
merging smoothly into the plain part.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 57: Standard Stud
g
in
2. Waisted Stud (Refer to Figure 58)
This is a weight-saving stud. The plain shank of the stud is reduced to the mino
r diameter of the screw thread. This will lighten the stud without losing any of
its strength.
Figure 58: Waisted Stud
Page 137
3. Stepped Stud (Refer to Figure 59)
The purpose of this stud is two fold. First its larger diameter end provides a s
tronger anchorage, which is particularly useful when the stud is located in soft
metal. Second, it is used as a replacement stud and fitted in a stud housing tha
t, because of damage, has been re-drilled and tapped with a larger diameter
thread.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 59: Stepped Stud
4. Shouldered Stud (Refer to Figure 60)
g
in
The projecting shoulder of this stud gives extra support and resistance to any s
ide pressure.
Figure 60: Shouldered Stud
5. Fitting Studs
Studs may be inserted by using a stud box and a spanner, or by fitting locknuts
to the stud and using a spanner on the upper nut.
Page 138
Removing Studs
Studs that have broken off flush or below the surface may be removed in a variet
y of ways depending upon the size and the equipment available.
Removing Studs
g
in
Ezy-out (Refer to Figure 61)
a) A hole is drilled centrally in the stud. Ezy-out is entered in the hole and t
urned anti-clockwise with a tap wrench. Ezy-outs are supplied in sets of various
diameters.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 61 : Ezy-out
b) Drill a hole of approximately half the stud diameter down the centre of the s
tud. Drive in a square drift so that square edges cut into the stud and
unscrew by using a spanner.
c) Drill and tap the stud with a smaller opposite hand thread. Then, unscrew the
stud by screwing in an opposite hand bolt.
d) Drill the stud out with its normal tapping size drill and re-tap the thread.
Then, carefully picking out the old loose threads.
Page 139
Self Tapping Screws and Dowels
Objective:
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to define self-tapping screws
and dowels.
g
in
Self-tapping screws are used to secure thin gauge sheet metal where nuts and bol
ts are impracticable. They are screwed into a hole of the correct diameter
and form their own thread. The screw head may be slotted or cruciform; four type
s are in common used.
n
i
ra
Examples of self-tapping screws are Parker Kalon (P-K), Barber and Calon (B-K).
Refer to Figure 62
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 62: Self Tapping Screws, Dowels
Page 140
6.5.3: Locking Devices
Locking: Parts and Method
Objective:
g
in
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to recognize locking device a
nd wire-locking methods.
Corrosion resisting steel and heat resisting nickel alloy are the materials norm
ally used in the wire recommended for wire locking. The following techniques
are equally effective:
n
i
ra
1. Double twisted method. (Refer to Figure 63)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 63: Single Strand
Page 141
2. Single strand with 2.5 twists at originating end and closing end. (Refer to F
igure 64)
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 64: Double Twisted
Page 142
Washers
Washers provide a bearing surface area for nuts, and act as spacers or shims to
obtain the proper grip length for a bolt and nut assembly.
Washers are also used to adjust the position of castellated nuts with respect to
drilled cotter pin holes in bolts as well as apply tension between a nut and
material surface to prevent the nut from vibrating loose. The three most common
types of washers used in airframe repair are:
1. Plain washers
2. Lock washers
3. Special washers
g
in
n
i
ra
Plain Washers
Plain washer provides a smooth surface between a nut and the material being clam
ped. These washers are made of cadmium-plated steel, commercial
brass, corrosion-resistant steel and aluminium alloy 2024. Plain washer should b
e used under lock washers to prevent damage to the surface material.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Aluminium and aluminium alloy washers may be used under bolt threads or nuts on
aluminium alloy or magnesium structures where corrosion caused by
dissimilar metals is a factor.
It is common practice to use a cadmium-plated steel washer under a nut bearing d
irectly against a structure as this washer will resists the cutting action of a
nut better than an aluminium alloy washer.
Lock Washers
Lock washers are made of steel and are twisted so that when a nut is tightened a
gainst it, the spring action of the washer creates a strong friction force
between the bolt threads and those in the nut.
Two types of lock washers are used in aircraft construction. The most common is
the AN935 split lock washer. The second type of lock washer is the thinner
AN936 shake proof lock washer which is available with both internal and external
teeth.
Page 143
2. Spring Washers
Supplied as:
single coils of square section spring with sharp corners or,
double coil of flat spring, which can be re-used if it is still springy and reta
ins it s sharp corners
g
in
Refer to Figure 66 and Figure 67
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 66: Spring Washers
Figure 67: Spring Washers (Single and Double Coil)
Page 144
3. Shake Proof Washer
Spring steel washer, which have slanting serration on their internal or external
edge
Refer to Figure 68
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 68: Shake proof washer
Page 145
4. Tab Washers
Thin metal washers with two tabs and a projection.
It is not permissible to straighten the tab of a tab-washer and re-use it.
Refer to Figure 69
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 69: Tab Washers
Page 146
5. Locking Plate
A thin metal plates, fitted around the nut or bolt after it has been fully tight
ened. Can be re-use provided they are still a good fit on the nut or bolt.
Refer to Figure 70
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 70 : Locking Plate
Page 147
6. Circlips
These are either spring plate or spring wire rings that are spring into grooves.
They may be fitted internally or externally. Wire type circlips are used once o
nly.
Refer to Figure 71
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 71 : Circlips
Page 148
7. Dzus Fasteners
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 149
Pins
The main types of pins used in aircraft structures are the roll pin, clevis pin,
cotter pin and taper pin. Pins are used in shear applications and for safe tyin
g.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
ROLL PIN
Roll Pin
CLEVIS PIN
TAPER PIN
Roll pins are often used to provide a pivot for a joint where the pin is not lik
ely to be removed. A roll pin is made of flat spring steel that is rolled into a
cylinder
but the two ends are not joined. This allows the pin to compress when it is pres
sed into a hole and create a spring action that holds the pin tight against the
edge of the hole. To remove a roll pin, it must be driven from a hole with a pro
per size pin punch.
Page 150
Clevis Pin
Clevis, or flat-head, pins are used for hinge pins in some aircraft control syst
ems. They are made of cadmium-plated steel and have grip lengths in 1/16 inch
increments.
When installing a clevis pin place the head in the up position, place a plain wa
sher over the opposite end, and insert a cotter pin through the hole to lock the
pin in place.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Cotter Pins
Castellated nuts are locked into drilled bolts by passing a cotter pin through t
he hole and nut castellation and then spreading the ends of the cotter pin.
They are made of either cadmium-plated carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel
. There are two methods of securing cotter pins that are generally
acceptable.
First method: One leg of the cotter pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut.
Second method: The cotter pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped around
the castellations.
It is important to note that nuts should never be overtorqued to make the hole i
n the bolt align with the castellations. If the castellations in the nut fail to
align
with the drilled bolt hole, add washer under the nut until a cotter pin can be i
nserted.
Taper Pin
Both the plain and threaded taper pin are used in aircraft structures to make a
joint that is designed to carry loads. This type of pin does not allow any loose
motion or play. The plain taper pin is forced into a hole that has been reamed w
ith standard taper pin reamer and is held in place by traction.
Classified by diameter of the small end and length
Page 151
Pal-nuts.
The capped washer type Palnut shown below has a washer base which can span large
holes or odd shaped holes. It can also be provided with a scalloped
washer design called a Style DF and can also be provided with in integral sealer
. The spring steel provides enough flexibility to provide a self locking feature
when properly tightened. The threads, "teeth", of the Palnut provides enough pre
ssure on the threads of the bolt to damage the plating if not properly
installed.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 152
Keys
Introduction
The name key is given to a specially--shaped piece of metal that is used to tran
smit a drive at considerable mechanical power from a shaft to a hub, or vice
versa, when the mating surfaces are otherwise smooth.
g
in
The key is a solid piece of metal that is wedged between the parts, or fitted in
to matching recesses (or keyways) in the shaft and hub.
A key is of rectangular or square section, uniform in width, and of either unifo
rm or tapered thickness. It is produced in many variations, depending upon the
situation and the load to be transmitted. In general, keys are used only in circ
umstances which do not call for frequent separation of the parts.
n
i
ra
Taper Keys
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The agreed engineering standard is for a taper of 1 part in 100 on the thickness
, with the tapering surface of the key matching the recess (or keyway) cut into
the bore of the hub.
Several types of taper key are in common use:
Hollow Saddle Key. This type of key is hollowed (shaped) to fit the radius of th
e shaft. When driven into position, its taper provides a friction drive
between hub and shaft that is capable of transmitting a moderate load. There is
no keyway cut into the shaft and, therefore, hollow keys are not
suitable for heavy loads.
Flat Saddle Key. This rectangular or square-section key is driven into a keyway
in the hub and bears upon a flat on the shaft. It provides a more
positive drive than that achieved by the hollow saddle key.
Gib--Headed Key. This taper key is fitted into keyways which are machined partly
in the shaft and partly in the hub. An important feature of fitting keys
into these keyways is that the keyways must be perfectly aligned before fitting
the key. With this in mind, it may be necessary to use a slave key when
assembling the parts together; never rely upon the key to align the keyways as i
t is driven in.
These keys and their keyways are capable of transmitting a much greater driving
load than are the saddle-type keys. The head of the Gib--headed
key is used as a means of removing the key when it is not possible to drift the
key out from the opposite side.
Feather Key. This type of key is used when axial movement is required between th
e hub and the shaft. An example of the use of a feather key is
when a gear or a pulley must slide along a shaft whilst continuing to transmit d
rive. The keyway in the hub is cut to allow the key the minimum side
and top clearance needed to provide a sliding fit.
Page 153
Woodruff Key. This key is made in the shape of a segment of a parallel--sided di

sc --similar to the capital letter D. It fits into a shaped cavity in the
shaft which conforms closely to the profile of the key, and into a uniform keywa
y in the hub to provide a push fit on the sides with clearance along the
top flat face of the key. The advantage of the Woodruff key is that it is suitab
le for fitting to either parallel or taper shafts.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 154
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Keys
Page 155
Aircraft Rivets
The most common technique of joining sheets of aluminium is riveting. A rivet is
a metal pin with a formed head on one end. A rivet is inserted into a drilled
hole, and its shank is then deformed by a hand or pneumatic tool.
Aluminium solid rivets are mainly used with high-strength, aluminium alloy compo
nents and assemblies. Steel, titanium or monel fastener are used for joints
in high-temperature areas.
g
in
Before the Federal Aviation Administration issues a Type Certificate for an airc
raft the manufacturer must demonstrate that the aircraft conforms to all
airworthiness requirements. These requirements pertain not only to performance,
but to structural strength and integrity as well. To meet these requirements,
each individual aircraft produced from a given must meet the same standards.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 156
SOLID RIVETS
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
BLIND RIVETS
Page 157
Rivet Codes
Rivets are given part codes that indicate their size, head style and alloy mater
ial. Two systems are in use today, the Air Force-Navy, or AN system and the
Military Standards.
The first component of a rivet part number denotes the numbering system used, th
is can either be AN or MS.
g
in
The second part of the code is a three-digit number that describes the style of
rivet head.
n
i
ra
The two most common rivet head styles are the universal head, represented by the
code 470, and the countersunk head, which is represented by the code
426.
The head designation is a one or two-digit letter code representing the alloy ma
terial used in the rivet.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
After the alloy code, the shank diameter is indicated in 1/32 inch increments an
d the length in increments of 1/16 inch.
Example:
The rivet has a diameter of 4/32 inch and is 5/16 of an inch long.
The length of universal head (A470) rivet is measured from the bottom of the man
ufactured head to the end of the shank.
The length of a countersunk rivet (AN 426) is measured from the top of manufactu
red head to the end of the shank.
Page 158
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 159
Rivet Alloys
Most aircraft rivets are made of an aluminium alloy. The type of alloy is identi
fied by a letter in the rivet in the rivet code and by a mark on the rivet head
itself.
1100 Aluminium
g
in
Rivets made of pure aluminium have no identifying marks on their manufactured he
ad, and are designated by the letter A in the rivet code. As this type of
rivet is made out of commercially pure aluminium, the rivet lacks sufficient str
ength for structural application.
n
i
ra
1100 rivets are restricted to non-structural assemblies such as fairings, engine
baffles and furnishings. The 1100 rivet is driven cold, and therefore, its shea
r
strength increases slightly as a result of cold working.
2117 Aluminium Alloy (AD)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The rivet alloy 2117-T3 is the most widely used for manufacturing and maintenanc
e of modern aircraft. Rivets made of this alloy have a dimple in the centres
of the head and are represented by the letters AD in the part codes. As AD rivet
s are so common and require no head treatment, they are often referred to as
Field Rivets
The main advantage for using 2117-73 for rivets is its high strength and shock r
esistance characteristics. The alloy 2117-T3 is classified as head-treated
aluminium alloy, but does not require re-heat-treatment before driving.
5056 Aluminium Alloy (B)
Some aircraft parts are made of magnesium. If aluminium rivets were used on thes
e parts, dissimilar metal corrosion could result. For this reason,
magnesium structures are riveted with 5056 rivets which contain 5 percent magnes
ium.These rivets are identified by a raised cross on their heads and the
letter B in a rivet code.
Page 160
2017 Aluminium Alloy (D)
2017 aluminium alloy is extremely hard. Rivets made of this alloy are often refe
rred to as D rivets and were widely used for aircraft construction.
The introduction of jet engines places greater demands for structural strength o
n aircraft materials and fasteners. The aluminium industry modified 2017 alloy
to produce a new version of 2017 aluminium called the crack free rivet alloy.
g
in
D-rivets are identified by raised dot in the centre of their head and the letter
D in rivet codes. Because D-rivets are so hard they must be heat treated before
they can be used.
n
i
ra
When aluminium alloy is quenched after heat treatment it does not harden immedia
tely. It remains soft for several hours and gradually becomes hard and
gain full strength. Rivets made of 2017 can be kept in this annealed condition b
y removing them from a quench bath and immediately storing them in a
freezer.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
D- rivets are often referred to as icebox rivets. These rivets become hard when
they warm up to room temperature and may be reheat-treated as many times
as necessary without impairing their strength.
2024 Aluminium Alloy (DD)
DD-rivets are identified by two raised dashes on their head. DD-rivets are also
called icebox rivets and must be stored at cold temperatures until they are
ready to be driven.
The length of time the rivets remain soft enough to drive is determined by the s
torage temperature (below 32F); the rivets will remain soft enough to drive for
two weeks.
Icebox rivets attain one half their maximum strength in approximately 1 hour aft
er driving and full strength in about 4 days. 2024-T rivets exposed to room
temperature for a period exceeding 10 minutes. Once an icebox rivet has been tak
en from the refrigerator, it should not be mixed with the rivets still in cold
storage.
Page 161
Corrosion-Resistant Steel (F) Rivets
Stainless steel rivets are used for fastening corrosion-resistant steel sheets i
n applications such as firewalls and exhaust shrouds. They have no marking on
their head.
Monel (M) Rivet
g
in
Monel rivets are identified by two recessed dimples in their heads. They are use
d in place of corrosion-resistant steel rivets when their somewhat lower shear
strength is not a detriment.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 162
Special (Blind) Rivets
There are many places on the aircraft where access to both sides of riveted stru
cture or structural part is impossible, or where limited space will not permit t
he
use of a bucking bar. In the attachment of many non-structural parts such as air
craft interior, furnishing, flooring and de-icing boots, the full strength of so
lid
shank rivets is not necessary.
g
in
Special (blind) rivets have been designed which can be bucked from the front. Th
ey are sometimes lighter than solid-shank rivets, yet amply strong for their
intended use. These rivets are produced by several manufacturers and have unique
characteristic that require special installation tools, special installation
procedures and special removal procedures.
n
i
ra
Two classes of mechanically expanded rivets:
1) Non-structural
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
a) Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets
b) Pull-thru rivets
2) Mechanical lock, flush fracturing, self-plugging rivets.
Page 163
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
TYPES OF SPECIAL RIVETS
Page 164
Self-Plugging (Friction Lock) Rivets
The self-plugging (friction lock) blind rivets are manufactured by several compa
nies. Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets are fabricated in two parts:
1. A rivet head with a hollow shank or sleeve, and a stem that extends through t
he hollow shank.
2. A protruding head and a countersunk head self-plugging rivet produced by one
company.
g
in
The self-plugging (friction lock) rivets are fabricated from several materials.
Rivets are available in the following material combinations:
1.
2.
3.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Factors to consider in the selection of the correct rivet for installation are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
n
i
ra
Stem 2017 aluminium alloy and sleeve 2117 aluminium alloy
Stem 2017 aluminium alloy and sleeve 5056 aluminium alloy
Stem steel and sleeve steel.
Installation location
Composition of the material being riveted
Thickness of the material being riveted
Strength desired
If the rivet is to be installed on an aerodynamically smooth surface, or if clea
rance for an assembly is needed, countersunk head rivets should be selected.
In other areas where clearance or smoothness is not a factor, the protruding hea
d type rivet may be utilized.
Page 165
Pull-Thru Rivets
Pull-thru blind rivets are fabricated in two parts: a rivet head with hollow sha
nk or sleeve, and a stem that extends through the hollow shank. Pull-thru rivets
are fabricated in two common head styles:
1.
2.
Protruding head or universal head
A 100 countersunk head
Factors to consider in the selection of the correct rivet for installation are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Installation location
Composition of the material being riveted
Thickness of the material being riveted
Strength desired
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
The thickness of the material being riveted determines the overall length of the
shank of the rivet. The shank of the rivet should extend beyond the material
thickness approximately 3/64 inch to 1/8 inch before the stem is pulled.
Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets
Self-plugging (Mechanical lock) rivets are similar to self-plugging (Friction lo
ck) rivets, except for the manner in which the stem is retained in the rivet sle
eve.
This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking collar to resist vibration
that cause the friction lock rivets to loosen and possibly fall out.
Page 166
CherryLocks
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Cherry mechanical-lock rivet, often called the bulbed CherryLock. The Cherry
Lock rivet is an improvement over the friction-Lock rivet because its center
stem is locked into place with a lock ring. This results in shear and bearing st
rengths that are high enough to allow CherryLocks to be used as replacement for
solid shank rivets.
CherryLock rivets are available with two head styles, 100 degree countersunk and
universal. CherryLock are available with diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16
inch, with an oversize of 1/64 inch for each standard size. The rivet or shell p
ortion of a CherryLock may be constructed of 2017 aluminium alloy, 5056
aluminium alloy, Monel or stainless steel. CherryLock rivets require a special p
ulling tool for each different size and head shape.
Always use the proper rivet length selection gauge and follow the manufacturers i
nstallation recommendations.
Page 167
HI-Shear Rivets (Special Rivet)
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
One of the first special fasteners used by the aerospace industry was the HI-She
ar rivet. The HI- Shear rivet has the same strength characteristics as a
standard AN bolt. The only difference between the two is that a bolt is secured
by a nut and a HI-Shear rivet is secured by a crushed collar.
The Hi-Shear rivet is installed with an interference fit, where the side wall cl
earance is reamed to a tolerance determined by the aircraft manufactures. AHiShe
ar rivet has to be tapped into its hole before the locking collar is swaged on.
Hi-Shear rivets are made in two head styles, flat and countersunk. The HI-Shear
rivet is designed especially to absorb high shear loads. The HI-Shear rivet is
made from steel alloy having the same tensile strength as an equal size AN bolt.
The lower portion of its shank has a specially milled groove with a sharp
edge that retains and finishes the collar as it is swaged into the locked positi
on.
Page 168
Hi- Loks
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
HI-Lok bolts are manufactured in several different alloys such as titanium, stai
nless steel, steel and aluminum. They possess sufficient strength to withstand
bearing and shearing loads and are available with flat and countersunk heads. A
conventional HI-Lok has a straight shank with standard threads. Although
wrenching lock nuts are usually used, the threads are compatible with standard A
N bolts and nuts.
To install a HI-Lok, the hole is first drilled with an interference fit. The HI-
Lok is then tapped into the hole and a shear collar is installed. A HI-Lok retai
ning
collar is installed using either specially prepared tools or a simple Allen and
box end wrench. Once the collar is tightened to the appropriate torque value, th
e
wrenching device shears off, leaving only the locking collar.
The Hi-Lok bolts are used for blind attachment of such accessories as fairings,
access door covers, door and window frames.
Page 169
Olympic-Loks
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Olympic-lok blind fasteners are light weight, mechanically-locking spindle-type
blind rivets. They come with a lock ring stowed on the head. When the
Olympic-lok is installed, the ring slips down the stem and locks the centre stem
to the outer shell. These blind fasteners require a specially designed set of
installation tools.
Olympic-lok rivets are made with three head styles.
1.
2.
3.
Universal
100 degree flush
100 degree flush shear
Rivets diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch are available in eight different all
oy combinations of 2017-T4, A-286, 5056 and Monel.
When Olympic-loks were first introduced, they were advertised as an inexpensive
blind fastening system. The price of each rivet is less than the other types
of mechanical locking blind rivets, and only three installation tools are requir
ed. The installation tools fit both countersunk and universal heads in the same
size range.
Page 170
CherryMax
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The CherryMax rivet is economical to use and strong enough to replace solid rive
ts, size for size. The economic advantage of the CherryMax system is that
one size puller can be used for the installation of all sizes of Cherrymax rivet
s.
A CherryMax rivet is composed of five main parts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
a pulling stem
a driving anvil
a safe-lock locking collar
a rivet sleeve
a bulbed blind head
Page 171
CherryMax rivets are available in both universal and countersunk head styles, th
e rivet sleeve is made from 5056 monel, and inconel 600.
The stems are made from alloy steel, CRES and inconel X-750,. The ultimate shear
strength of CherryMax rivets ranges from 50 KSI to 75 KSI. ( Kip (K) 1000pounds
/ sq inch )The CherryMax rivets can be used at temperatures from 250oF to 1400o
F. They are available in diameters of 1/8, 5/32, 3/16 and 1/4
inches and are also made with an oversize diameter for each standard diameter li
sted.
g
in
Removal of Mechanical-Lock Rivets
To remove mechanical-lock rivets, first file a flat spot on the rivets centre ste
m. Once this is done, a centre punch is used to punch out the stem so the lock
ring can be drilled out.
n
i
ra
With the lock ring removed, tap out the remaining stem, drill to the depth of th
e manufactured head, and tap out the remaining shank. All brands of
mechanical-lock blind rivets are removed using the same technique.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 172
Lockbolts
Lockbolts are manufactured by several companies and conform to Military Standard
s. These standards describe the size of a lockbolts head in relation to its
shank diameter, as well as the alloy used. Lockbolts are used to assemble two ma
terials permanently. They are lightweight and are strong as standard bolts.
They are three types of lockbolts used in aviation, they are:
g
in
n
i
ra
1.
2.
3.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
the pull-type lockbolt
the blind-type lockbolt
the stump-type lockbolt
The pull-type lockbolt has a pulling stem on which a pneumatic installation gun
fits. The gun pulls the material together and then drives a locking collar into
the grooves of the lockbolt. Once secure, the gun fractures the pulling pin at i
ts break point.
The blind-type lockbolt is similar to most other types of blind fastener. To ins
tall a blind lockbolt, it is placed into a blind hole an installation gun is pla
ced over
the pulling stem. As the gun pulls the stem, a blind head forms and pulls the ma
terials together. Once the materials are pulled tightly together, a locking coll
ar
locks the bolt in place and the pulling stem is broken off.
The stump-type lockblolt is installed in places where there is not enough room t
o use the standard pulling tool. The stump-type lockbolt is installed using and
installation tool similar to that use to install Hi-shear rivets.
Page 173
Lockbolts are available for both shear and tension applications. With shear lock
bolts, the head is kept thin and they are only two grooves provided for the
locking collar.
For tension lockbolts, the head is thicker and four or five grooves are provided
to allow for higher tension values.
The locking collars used on both shear and tension lockbolts are colour coded fo
r easy identification.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 174
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 175
Hi-Lites
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Hi-Lite fastener is similar to the Hi-Lok except that it is made from lighte
r materials and has a shorter transition from the threaded section to the shank.
The elimination of material between the threads and shank give an additional wei
ght saving with no loss of strength. Hi-Lites main advantage is its excellent
strength to weight ratio.
Hi-Lites are available in an assortment of diameters ranging from 3/16 to 3/8 in
ch. They are installed either with a Hi-Lok locking collar or by swaged collar
like the Lockbolt. The shank diameter is not reduced by stretch torquing.
Page 176
CherryBucks
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The CherryBuck is one-piece special fastener that combines two titanium alloys w
hich are bonded together to form a strong structural fastener.
The head and upper part of the shank of CherryBuck is composed of 6AL-4V alloy w
hile Ti-Cb alloy is used in the lower shank. When driven, the lower part of
the shank forms a bucktail.
An important advantage of the CherryBuck is the fact that it is a one piece fast
ener. Since there is only one piece, CherryBucks can safely be installed in jet
engine intakes with no danger of foreign object damage.
Taper-Lok
Page 177
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Taper-Loks are the strongest special fastener used in aircraft construction. Bec
ause of its tapered shape, the Taper-Lok exerts a force on the conical walls of
a hole, much like a cork in a wine bottle. To a certain extent, a Taper-Lok mimi
cs the action of a driven solid shank rivet, in that it completely fills the hol
e.
However, a Taper-Lok does this without the shank swelling.
When a washer nut draws the Taper-Lok into its hole, the fastener pushes outward
and creates a tremendous force against the tapered walls of the hole.
This creates radial compression around the shank and vertical compression lines
as the metals are squeezed together. The combination of the these forces
generate strength unequalled by any other type of fastener.
Page 178
Hi-Tigue
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Hi-Tigue fastener has a bead that encircles the bottom of its shank and is a
further advancement in special fastener design.
This bead preloads the hole it fills, resulting in increased joint strength. Dur
ing installation, the bead presses against the side wall of the hole, exerting a
radial
force which strengthens the surrounding area.
Hi-Tigue fasteners are produced in aluminium, titanium and stainless steel alloy
s. The collars are also composed of compatible metal alloys and are available
in two types, sealing and non-sealing. As with Hi-Loks, Hi-Tigue fasteners can b
e installed using an Allen key and open end wrench.
Page 179
Jo-Bolts
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Jo-Bolt is a high-strength, blind structural fastener that is used on diffic
ult riveting jobs when access to one side of the work is impossible. They are use
d
in close-tolerance holes or where Jo-Bolts may be required for weight-saving adv
antages.
The hole for a Jo-Bolt is drilled, reamed and countersunk before the Jo-Bolt is
inserted and held tightly in place by a nose adapter of either a hand tool or
power tool.
A wrench adapter then grips the bolts driving flat and screw it up through the nu
t. As the bolt pulls up, it forces a sleeve up over the tapered outside of the n
ut
and forms a blind head on the inside of the work. When driving is complete, the
driving flat of the bolt breaks off.
Page 180
Removal of Special Fasteners
Special fasteners that are locked into place with a crushable collar are easily
removed by splitting the collar with a small cape chisel. After the collar is sp
lit,
knock away the two halves and tap the fastener from the hole.
The removal techniques of certain special fastener are basically the same as tho
se used for solid shank rivets. However, in some cases, the manufacturer
may recommend that a special tool be used.
Removal of Taper-Loks, Hi-Loks, Hi-Tigue, and Hi-Lites requires the removal of t
he washnut or locking collar. Both are removed by turning them with the
proper size box end wrench or a pair of vise-grips. After removal, a mallet is u
sed to tap the remaining fastener out of its hole.
To remove a Jo-Bolt, begin by drilling through the nut head with a pilot bit fol
lowed by a bit of the same size as the bolt shank.
Once the nut head is removed, a punch is used to punch out the remaining portion
of the nut and bolt.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 181
Threaded Rivets Rivnuts
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Rivnuts, are tubular rivets internally threaded and counterbored and used with m
atching screws. They are applied blind, and they are used where nut plates
cannot be installed. An example of such a location is the leading edge on wings
where deicing boots are attached.
Rivnuts are made in two head styles: flat and countersunk heads with open or clo
sed ends. The keyed Rivnut is used as a nutplate, and Rivnuts keys are
used for blind riveting where torque loads are not imposed. Closed-end Rivnuts a
re used when a sealed installation is required.
To install a Rivnut, a hole is drilled in the skin to accommodate the Rivnut, an
d a special cutter is used to cut a small notch in the circumference of the hole
.
This notch locks the Rivnut into the skin to prevent it from turning when it is
used as a nut. A Rivnut of the proper grip length is then screwed onto the pulle
r
and inserted into the hole with its key aligned with the keyway cut in the hole.
When the handle of the puller is squeezed, the hollow shank of the Rivnut upsets
and grips the skin. The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a
threaded hole that accepts machine screws for attaching.
Page 182
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 183
PIPES AND UNIONS (DCAM 6.6 L2)
6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS
Rigid Fluid Lines
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing. Copper tubin
g proved troublesome because it became hard and brittle from the vibration
encountered during flight and eventually failed.
When working on an aircraft that has copper tubing, the tubing should be anneale
d each time it is removed. Copper lines must be regularty inspected for
cracks, hardness and general condition.
Aircraft plumbing lines usually are made of metal tubing and fitting or flexible
hose. Metal tubing is widely used in aircraft for fuel, oil, coolant, oxygen an
d
hydraulic lines. Aluminium alloy or corrosion resistant steel tubing has replace
d copper tubing.
The high fatigue factor of copper tubing is the chief reason for its replacement
. Inspection of copper tubing for cracks, hardness, brittleness and general
condition should be accomplished at regular intervals to reduce failure.
Corrosion resistant steel tubing does not have to be annealed for flaring or for
ming, in fact, the flared section is somewhat strengthened by the cold working
and strain hardening during flaring process. Corrosion resistant steel is also u
sed in areas that are subject to physical damage from dirt, debris, and corrosio
n
caused by moisture, exhaust fumes and salt air.
Repairs or replacement to aircraft tubing must be made of the same size and mate
rials that are the same as the original or an approved. All tubing is pressure
tested prior to initial installation. One way to ensure that a replacement is ma
de of the same material is to compare the code markings on the replacement
tube to those on the original.
Page 184
Identification of Materials
Before making repairs to any aircraft plumbing, it is important to make accurate
identification of plumbing materials. The size of rigid tubing is determined by
its outside diameter in increments of 1/16 inch. A tube diameter is typically pr
inted on all rigid tubing.
g
in
Another important size designation is wall thickness, since this determines a tu
bes strength. The outside diameter, wall thickness is generally printed on the
tube in thousandths of an inch.
n
i
ra
It is difficult to determine whether a material is carbon steel or stainless ste
el or whether it is 1100, 3003, 5052-0 or 2024-7 aluminium alloy. It may be
necessary to test sample of the material for hardness by filing or scratching wi
th a scriber.
The magnet test is the simplest method for distinguishing between the annealed a
ustenitic and the ferrite stainless steel. The austenitic types are nonmagnetic
unless heavily cold worked, whereas the straight chromium carbon and low alloy s
teel are strongly magnetic.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fabricating Rigid Tubing
It is necessary to replace a rigid fluid line, to obtain a replacement tube asse
mbly from the aircraft manufacturer or fabricate a replacement in the shop. When
cutting a new piece of tubing, always cut it approximately 10 percent longer tha
n the tube being replaced. This provides a margin of safety for minor variations
in bending.
A tube cutter is most often used on soft metal tubing such as copper, aluminium
or aluminium alloy. However, they are not suitable for stainless-steel tubing
because they tend to work harden the tube. After the tube has been cut and debur
red, blow it out with compressed air to remove metal chips that could
become imbedded in the tube.
When carrying out a steel ball test on rigid tubing, the ball should be 80% of t
he diameter of the rigid tube
Page 185
Tube Bending
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Some applications require rigid lines with complex bends and curves. When duplic
ating these lines, it must be able to produce bends that are 75 percent of
the original tube diameter and free of kinks. Any deformation in a bend affects
the flow of fluid.
To help reduce the chance of making a bad bend, there are several charts that il
lustrate standard bend radii for different size tubes. The information on these
charts should be adhered to closely. Tube forming consists of four processes:
1. Cutting
When cutting tubing, it is important to produce a square end, free of burrs. Tub
ing may be cut with a tube cutter or hacksaw. The cutter can be used with any
soft metal tubing, such as copper, aluminium or aluminium alloy.
A new piece of tubing should be cut approximately 10 percent longer than the tub
e to be replaced to provide for minor variations in bending.
After cutting the tubing, carefully remove any burrs from inside and outside the
tube.
When performing the deburring operation use extreme care that the wall thickness
of the end of tubing is not reduced or fractured. Very slight damage of this
type can lead to fractured flares or defective flares which will not seal proper
ly.
If a tube cutter is not available, or if tubing of hard material is to be cut, u
se a fine-tooth hacksaw, preferably one having 32 teeth per inch.
Page 186
2. Tube Bending
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The objective in tube bending is to obtain a smooth bend without flattening the
tube. Tubing under one-fourth inch in diameter usually can be bent without the
use of a bending tool. For larger sizes, use a hand tube bender.
Bend the tubing carefully to avoid excessive flattening, kinking, or wrinkling.
Tubing with flattened, wrinkled or irregular bends should not be installed. The
radius blocks are so constructed that the radius at bend will vary with the tubi
ng diameter. The radius of bend is usually stamped on the block.
3. Tube Flaring
Two kinds of flares are generally used in aircraft plumbing systems, the single
flare and the double flare. Flares are frequently subjected to extremely high
pressures, therefore, the flare on the tubing must be properly shaped or the con
nection will leak or fail. If a flare is not made properly, flaws cannot be
corrected by applying additional torque when tightening the fitting.
The flare and tubing must be free from cracks, dents, nicks, scratches, or any o
ther defects. The flaring tool used for aircraft tubing has male and female dies
ground to produce a flare of 35 to 37 . Under no circumstances is it permissible
to use an automotive type flaring tool which produces a flare of 45 .
Page 187
a.
Single Flare
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
IMPACT-TYPE FLARING TOOL
ROLL-TYPE FLARING TOOL
Roll-type flaring tools are quite popular in aviation maintenance shops because
they are entirely self-contained and produce a good flare.
A typical roll-type tool can flare tubing from 1/8 to inch outside diameter.
The flaring cone is then turned into the end of the tube and rollers in the cone
burnish the metal as it expands into the die. When the flare is formed, the
handle is reversed to release the dies, and the tube is removed from the tool.
Single flares must be made to certain tolerances. Both the diameter and the radi
us of the flare must be within specified ranges to ensure a durable, leak-free
connection.
Page 188
b.
Double Flare
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
DOUBLE FLARE
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 inch or smaller can be dou
ble-flared to provide a stronger connection. A double flare is smoother and
more concentric than a single flare and therefore, provides a better seal. A dou
ble flare is more durable and resistant to the shearing effect of torque.
The double-flare is a piece of tubing out of which the flaring is the same manne
r as a single-flare, remove all burrs. Insert the tubing into the flaring die to
the
depth allowed by the stop pin and then clamp the die. Insert the upsetting tool
into the die and with a few blows of a hammer as possible, upset the tubing.
Once the flare is started, insert the flaring tool and strike it with a hammer t
o fold the metal down into the tubing and form the double flare.
Page 189
Flared Tube Fitting
Flared fitting are identified by either AN (Army / navy) or MS (Military Standar
d) number. Since AC (Air Corps) fitting are still used in some older aircraft, i
t is
important to be able to identity the differences in fittings.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Example:
An AN (Army/Navy) fitting has a shoulder between the end of the threads and the
flare cone. Another difference between AC (Air Corps) and (Army/Navy)
fittings includes the sleeve design. The AN (Army/Navy) sleeve is noticeable lon
ger than AC (Air Corps) sleeve of the same size.
Flared-tube fittings are made of aluminium alloy, steel or copper base alloys. F
or identification purposes, all AN (Army / Navy) steel fittings are coloured bla
ck,
and all AN (Army / navy) aluminium alloy fittings are coloured blue. The AN 819
(Army /Navy) aluminium bronze sleeves are cadmium plated and are not
coloured. AN (Army/Navy) fitting come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each wit
h a specific use.
Page 190
Flareless Fitting
The heavy wall tubing used in some high-pressure systems is difficult to flare.
For these applications, the flareless fitting is designed to provide leak-free
attachments without flares.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Although the use of flareless fittings eliminates the need to flare the tube, a
step referred to as presetting is necessary prior to installation of a new flare
less
tube assembly. Presetting is the process of applying enough pressure to the slee
ve to cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.
The MS (Military Standard) flareless-tube fittings are finding wide application
in aircraft plumbing systems. This type fitting eliminates all tube flaring, yet
provides a safe, strong, dependable tube connection.
The fitting consists of three parts a body, a sleeve and a nut. The body has a c
ounterbore shoulder, against which the end of the tube rests.
The angle of the counterbore causes the cutting edge of the sleeve to cut into t
he outside of the tube when the two are joined.
To preset a flareless fitting, lubricate a nut and sleeve, sometime called a fer
rule, and slip them over the end of a tube. Next, screw the nut onto the presett
ing
tool, making sure the tube is square against the bottom of the tool. The final t
ightening depends upon the tubing.
Page 191
Rigid Tubing Installation
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Before installing a line assembly in an aircraft inspect the line carefully for
nicks, scratches, dents and ensure all nuts and sleeves are snugly mated and
securely fitted by proper flaring of the tubing. The line assembly should be cle
an and free of all foreign matter.
Never apply sealing compound or anti-seize to a fittings sealing surface since t
hese surfaces depend on metal-to metal-contact to seal.
Before securing a line assembly in place, be sure that it is properly aligned. S
ince rigid line expands and shifts when pressurized, an installation that is und
er
tension is undesirable.
Page 192
Never pull an assembly into alignment by tightening the nut. Over tightening a f
itting may damage the sealing surface, or weaken the flare and sleeve
junction, fitting should always be installed to the specified torque using a tor
que wrench.
After all connections are made, the system should be pressure tested. If a conne
ction leaks, some manufacturers allow the nut to be tightened an additional
1/6 turn.
g
in
Note:
n
i
ra
Over-tightening a flareless tube nut drives the cutting edge of the sleeve deepl
y into the tube, causing the tube to be weakened to the point where normal infli
ght vibration could cause the tube to shear. After inspection (if no discrepanci
es are found), reassemble the connections and repeat the pressure test
procedures.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
CAUTION: Do not in any case tighten the nut beyond 1/3 turn (two flats on the he
x nut) this is the maximum the fitting may be tightened without the
possibility of permanently damaging the sleeve and nut.
When carrying out pressure test on a flexible hose, the testing pressure should
be 11/2 times the maximum operating pressure of the hose
Page 193
Common faults are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Flare distorted into nut threads
Sleeve cracked
Flare cracked or split
Flare out of round
Inside of flare rough or scratched
Fitting cone rough or scratched
Threads of nut union dirty, damaged or broken
n
i
ra
Some manufacturers service instructions will specify wrench torque values for fl
areless tubing installations.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Support Clamps
g
in
Support clamps are used to secure fluid lines to the aircraft structure or to as
semblies in the engine nacelle. These clamps prevent chafing and reduce stress.
The two clamps most commonly used are the rubber-cushioned clamp and the plain c
lamp.
The rubber-cushioned clamp secures lines which are subject to vibration. The cla
mps rubber cushion reduces the transmission of vibrations to the line and
prevents chafing.
Areas subject to contamination by fuel or phosphate ester type hydraulic fluid,
cushioned clamps utilizing Teflon are used. Although these do not provide the
same level of cushion, they are highly resistant to deterioration.
The plain clamp is used in areas that are not subject to vibration and typically
consists of a metal band formed into a circle.
Identification of Fluid Lines
Large aircraft contain plumbing systems for many different types of fluid. It is
important that each line be clearly identified. This is generally accomplished
by
marking tubing with colour bands, symbols or writing. The symbols are generally
printed on one-inch wide tape or decals and secured at regular intervals
along a line.
On lines four inches or larger in diameter or those subject to extreme temperatu
re, steel tags are used instead of marking tape. In areas where there is
possibility that tape, decals, or tags may be drawn into the induction system, p
aint is used.
Page 194
In addition to color bands, some lines carrying fuel are marked with the word FLA
M. This identifies the lines as carrying a flammable fluid. Lines carrying
fluids that are physically dangerous such as oxygen, nitrogen, or Freon are mark
ed PHDAN.
Additional markings are sometimes provided to identify a lines function. These in
clude PRESSURE, RETURN, DRAIN and VENT.
g
in
Tapes and decals are placed on both ends of a line and at least once in each com
partment through which the line runs. Identification markers are places
immediately adjacent to each valve, regulator, filter or other accessory within
a line.
n
i
ra
Flexible Fluid Lines
Flexible fluid lines are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary part
s to moving parts and in areas of high vibration. Aircraft systems operate with
different fluids under a wide range of pressures. To identify the type of hose t
hat is compatible with each fluid and strong enough to contain its pressure.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Flexible hose construction generally consists of an inner liner covered with lay
ers of reinforcement to provide strength, and outer cover to protect from
physical damage. The materials and manufacturing process of each layer determine
the suitability of a specific hose for a particular application.
The Inner Lines
The inner lines of a flexible hose carries the fluid and, therefore, must have a
minimum porosity and be chemically compatible with the material being carried.
The liner must be smooth to offer the least resistance to flow, and remain flexi
ble throughout an entire of operating temperatures.
There are basically four different synthetic compounds used in the construction
of the inner liner:
1. NEOPRENE is a form of synthetic rubber that is abrasion resistant and is used
with petroleum based fluids.
2. BUNA-N is a synthetic rubber compound that is used to carry petroleum-based p
roducts. BUNA N is better suited to carry petroleum products than
neoprene.
3. BUTYL is a synthetic rubber compound made petroleum raw materials. BUTYL is e
xcellent as an inner liner for fluid lines carrying hydraulic fluids
such as skydrol.
4. TEFLON is the Dupont trade name for Tetrafluoroethylene resin. Teflon has an
extremely broad operating temperature range (-65 F to + 450 F)
and is compatible with nearly every liquid used.
Page 195
Reinforcement Layers
The reinforcement layers placed over an inner liner determine the strength of a
hose. Common reinforcement layers are made of cotton, rayon, polyester
fabric, carbon-steel wire, or a stainless steel wire braid.
Hose has a tendency to increase in diameter and decrease in length when pressure
is applied, the design of the reinforcement is critical.
g
in
Outer Cover
n
i
ra
A protective outer cover, usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or stainless
steel braid, is put over the reinforcement to protect the hose from physical
damage. In areas of high heat the outer cover is often designed as an integral f
ire-sleeve to provide extra protection.
The outer cover of almost all aircraft flexible hose is marked with a lay line,
which consists of a yellow, red, or white stripe running the length of the hose.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A stripe, the information needed to identify the hose MIL SPEC number, the manuf
acturers name or symbol, the dash number representing the hose size
and in some cases, the manufacturers part number along with the year and quarter
the hose was manufactured.
When a hose is installed property, the lay lines runs straight with no twists.
Page 196
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 197
Types of Flexible Hose
Aircraft hoses are manufactured to meet a variety of applications. The types of
hose are normally classified by the amount of pressure they are designed to
withstand. These include low-pressure, medium-pressure, and high-pressured.
g
in
Low-Pressure Hose
Low-pressure rubber hoses have a seamless inner tube and reinforcement made of a
single layer of cotton braid. An outer cover of ribbed or smooth rubber
is used to protect the reinforcement from physical abrasion
n
i
ra
The types of hose are normally classified by the amount of pressure they are des
igned to withstand under normal operating conditions. Low pressure, any
pressure below 250 p.s.i fabric braid reinforcement.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Medium-Pressure Hose
A medium-pressure hose is used with fluid pressures up to 3,000 p.s.i.; maximum
operating pressure varies with its diameter. Medium-pressure hoses have a
seamless inner liner with one layer of cotton braid and one layer of stainless-s
teel reinforcement.
If the hose is used with skydrol or hydraulic fluid, the inner liner is made of
synthetic Butyl rubber and the outer braid is coloured green with SKYDROL writte
n
on it.
High-Pressure Hose
All high-pressure hose has a maximum operating pressure of at least 3000 p.s.i a
nd uses a synthetic rubber liner. This inner liner is wrapped with two or more
steel braids as reinforcement.
Most high-pressure hose is black with yellow lay line. A hose designed to carry
Skydrol has a Butyl rubber inner liner and a green outer cover with a white lay
line.
Page 198
Flexible Hose Installation
Before installing a hose assembly, verify that the aircraft manufacturer specifi
es a flexible hose is appropriate.
Check for proper type and length, physical damage and cleanliness. Ensure that t
he hose assembly dates are within limits. Part number and assembly date of
hose assemblies are found on the hose identification tag. It is important that t
he lay line be straight when the hose is installed.
g
in
Any spiralling is an indication that the hose is twisted and is under an undue a
mount of strain when there is pressure in the line. Hose must be supported at
least 24 inches, closer support are desirable. A flexible hose must never be str
etched tightly between two fittings.
n
i
ra
When carrying out a steel ball test on rigid tubing, the ball diameter should be
90% of the diameter of the rigid tube
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The minimum bend radius for flexible hose is determined by the type of hose bein
g used its size. Bends that are too sharp reduce the bursting pressure of
flexible hose. Flexible hose must be protected from wear caused by abrasion or e
xtreme heat.
Example: If a fluid line must pass near a hot exhaust manifold, the line must be
protected with a suitable fire shield.
Page 199
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
PIPELINE INDENTIFIES BY SYMBOLS, WORDS AND COLOURS
Page 200
SPRINGS (DCAM 6.7 L2)
6.7 SPRINGS
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are usually made of metal, but can be made of composite material. A spring
is designed to perform in an elastic fashion, i.e. to deform under a load or
force and return to its original size after the removal of the load or force. In
general if a force is applied to a spring it will deform and if the force is do
uble the
deformation is doubled.
Page 201
Hookes Law
Up to the elastic limit the strain (change in length) of an elastic body is prop
ortional to the applied stress (force).
Springs are designed to:
Absorb energy - to convert say kinetic energy to strain energy as in some shock
absorbers.
Apply a definite force - e.g. a valve spring to close a valve.
Provide a comparator - the spring on a spring balance.
Provide an elastic pivot or guide.
g
in
n
i
ra
Terms Used
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Free Length: This is the length of the spring without any load applied. When che
cking this length it should be within the limits as laid down in the appropriate
maintenance manual.
Pitch: This is the distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its
adjacent coil - without any load applied.
Coil Distance: This is the distance between two adjacent coils - without any loa
d applied
Wire Diameter: The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made.
Outside Coil Diameter: The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD).
Inside Coil Diameter: The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD).
Mean Coil Diameter: The average between the OCD and the ICD.
Tip Thickness: The thickness of the ground section of the end of the spring.
Page 202
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 1 SPRING TERMS
Page 203
Compression Springs
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
These are coil springs and may be right hand or left hand wound. The coil sectio
n may be of round or square cross section and the coil diameter is usually
large compared to its free length. Usually has ground ends.
Tension Springs
Again, these are coil springs and may be left hand or right hand wound. The coil
diameter is usually smaller compared to its free length and the coils are
usually of round cross section.
The ends of the spring are finished in such a way as to provide for end attachme
nt. The spring may be finished with a single hooked end or the coil diameter
may be reduced locally to accept a ball ended hook.
Page 204
Flexural Springs
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are designed to provide springiness in any direction.
g
in
Torsion Springs
These are similar in construction to a compression spring, but are designed to r
otate about its own longitudinal axis to provide for torsional movement.
Page 205
Springs may be designed in several different forms:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Helical - very common.
Beam spring - Absorbs a great amount of energy but has limited movement.
Leaf spring - Similar in principle to a beam spring except that it is thinner an
d is usually built up of several leaves.
Special - e.g. special cupped spring washers - one placed on top of another over
a central guide pin - to make up a stack of any length.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
BEAM SPRINGS
HELICAL SPRINGS
LEAF SPRINGS
Page 206
Materials
The materials that springs are made of must exhibit the property of elasticity.
In general materials can include:
Carbon steel - hardened and tempered.

Alloy steels.
Nimonic alloys.
Titanium alloys.
Composites - rare.
g
in
n
i
ra
Maintenance
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any unserviceability is
usually rectified by replacement. Checks include:
An inspection for corrosion, damage, wear, broken coils and distortion. Checking
for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs can be checked
using a vernier calliper and tension springs are normally in their fully closed
state unloaded. Check for "springiness". This may require a special process usin
g
masses and checking the extension/change in length with each added mass. A graph
is plotted of mass against change in length from which the elasticity of
the spring is ascertained. The spring should return to its free length condition
when unloaded.
Page 207
PART 66 CAT B1.1
MODULE 6 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
BEARINGS (EASA 6.7 L2)
6.8 BEARINGS
A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces friction between two moving
parts. Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine include
the main journals, crankpins, connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.
g
in
A good bearing must be composed of material that is strong enough to with stand
the pressure imposed on it, while allowing rotation or movement between
two parts with a minimum of friction and wear.
n
i
ra
For a bearing to provide efficient and quiet operation, it must hold two parts i
n a nearly fixed position with very close tolerances.
Bearings must be able to withstand radial loads, thrust loads or combination of
the two.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
There are two ways in which bearing surface move in relation to each other. One
is by the sliding movement of one metal against another and the second is
for one surface to roll over another.
The three different types of bearing typically used in aircraft reciprocating en
gines include the plain bearing, the ball bearing and the roller bearing.
Plain Bearing
Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft main bearing, cam ring and cams
haft bearings, connecting rod end bearings, and accessory drive shaft
bearings. These bearings are typically subject to radial load only, however, fla
nge-type plain bearing are often used as thrust bearings in opposed
reciprocating engines.
Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous material, having no iron metals su
ch as silver, bronze, aluminium and various alloys of copper, tin or lead.
One type of plain bearing consists of thin shells of silver-plated steel, with l
ead-in plated over the silver on the inside surface only.
Smaller bearings such as those used to support various accessory drive shafts, a
re called bushings.
Page 208
PART 66 CAT B1.1
Ball Bearings
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and outer races, one or more s
ets of polished steel balls and a bearing retainer.
The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept evenly spaced by the bear
ing retainer, while the inner and outer bearing races provide a smooth surface
for the balls to roll over.
Some races have a deep groove that matches the curvature of the balls to provide
more support and allow a bearing to carry high radial loads. Because the
balls of a ball bearing offer such a small contact area, ball bearings have the
least amount of rolling friction.
Because of their construction, ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust
loads and are, therefore, used as thrust bearings in large radial and gas turbi
ne
engines.
Many of these bearings are prelubricated and sealed to provide trouble- free ope
ration between overhauls.
It a sealed ball bearing must be removed or replaced, it is important that used
the proper tools to avoid damaging the bearing and its seals.
Page 209
PART 66 CAT B1.1
Roller Bearings
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
RADIAL TAPERED
ROLLER BEARINGS
NEEDLE ROLLER
BEARINGS
Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball bearing except that polished
steel rollers are used instead of balls. The rollers provide a greater contact
area
and a corresponding increase in rolling friction over that of a ball bearing.
Roller bearings are available in many styles and sizes, but most aircraft engine
applications use either a straight roller or tapered ROLLER bearing.
Straight roller bearings are suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial lo
ads only.
Example: Most high- power aircraft engines use straight roller bearings as crank
shaft main bearings.
Tapered roller bearings have cone-shaped inner and outer races that allow the be
aring to withstand both radial and thrust loads.
Examination of Bearings
Ball bearings and roller bearings should be closely examined for smoothness and
freedom of movement. Visually inspect a bearing, feel the bearing parts
carefully to detect any roughness, flat spots on balls or rollers, and dents or
corrosion on the races.
In addition, check for pitting, scoring and galling on the outside surfaces of r
aces. Pitting on a thrust bearing race that cannot be removed by polishing with
cloth or other mild abrasive usually requires part replacement.
Page 210
PART 66 CAT B1.1
Journal Bearings
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Check journal bearings for damage such as galling, burning, scoring, spalling, m
isalignment, or an out- of-round condition.
Bearing inserts such as bushings and plain bearings are usually replaced, howeve
r, looking at them could help to detect wear on their mating surfaces or
mounting bosses.
Scratching and light scoring of aluminium bearing surfaces in the engine is usua
lly acceptable if the damage is within the limits stated engine manufacturers
overhaul manual. The presence of other defects could require rejection of the pa
rt even if falls within specific tolerance limits.
To property handle bearings, lint- free cotton or synthetic rubber glover are us
ed to keep the acids, oils and moisture on our hands from contaminating any
bearing surface. Each bearing must be cleaned in a separate container filled wit
h fresh cleaning solvent or white spirit.
Shop cleaning rats and vapour degreasing should not be used because of possible
contaminants left from cleaning other parts.
Once clean, shop air should never be used to blow bearing dry since moisture in
the air supply can corrode the bearing. It is better to use a lint-free cloth or
let the bearing air dry. Once dry, immediately lubricate a bearing using the spe
cified lubricant.
When the cleaning procedure is completed, the individual bearings must be protec
ted immediately to prevent the onset of corrosion. For temporary storage,
the application of mineral oil to the bearing will be sufficient. For long term
storage, a compound of lanolin and mineral oil should be used and the bearing
wrapped in greaseproof paper.
Page 211
TRANSMISSIONS (DCAM 6.9 L2)
6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Gears
A gear is a toothed wheel which when meshed with other gears transmits motion fr
om one part of a mechanism to another. The design of the gears
determines whether the speed, or the direction, of the motion will be maintained
of changed.
g
in
Gear is a machine part with gear teeth. When two gears run together, the one wit
h the larger number of teeth is called the gear. Gear teeth could be
manufactured with a wide variety of shapes and profiles.
n
i
ra
All stock gears are made in accordance with the diametral pitch system. The diam
etral pitch of a gear is the number of teeth in the gear for each inch
diameter. Therefore, the diametral pitch determines the size of the gear tooth.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Power transmission gears are usually made from chromium-molybdenum steel which p
rovides good toughness and resistance to wear.
Most gears are run lubricated either by regular maintenance lubrication or by be
ing run semi submersed in oil.
Various types of gears transmit power through gearboxes. The type selected for u
se in a specific application will depend on various factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
How much power to be transmitted?
Is a change of RPM required?
Is a change of torque required?
Is a change of angle or direction of drive required?
Is the gear system to be free from feedback (non-reversible)?
Gears are named according to the angle of intersection of the axis and the shape
of teeth.
Page 212
Gear Types
Spur Gears
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
External spur gears have teeth, which point outward from the centre of the gear.
Spur gears may have straight teeth, slanting teeth and herringbone teeth.
Wheels with slanting teeth operate much more silently then wheels with straight
teeth, because at all times several teeth are engaged.
Slanting teeth create a force that acts in an axial direction. This force has to
picked up by axial bearings. To avoid excessive axial force, the slanting angle
of
the teeth should not be larger than 20 .
Page 213
Helical Gears
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are a development of spur gears. Instead of the teeth being parallel to th
e axis of the gear they lie at an angle (a helix angle in fact)
The main advantage of helical gears over straight cut gears is that more teeth a
rea in contact at any one time. Meshing takes place along a diagonal line
across the faces and flanks of the teeth. One pair of meshing teeth remain in co
ntact until the following pair engage so the load on the teeth is distributed ov
er
a large area. This provides a smoother and quieter drive as well as enabling mor
e power to be transmitted.
The disadvantage of helical gears is that they give a heavy axial load to the sh
aft. This axial load can be eliminated by the use of double helical gearing but
can also be absorbed by thrust bearings that support the gear shaft. A double he
lical gear has two sets of teeth, one with a right hand helix and the other with
a left hand helix.
Helical gears are stronger, quieter and smoother in operation. Helical gears are
only suitable for the transfer of small forces, because the flanks of the teeth
contact in only one spot.
Page 214
Bevel Gears
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Bevel gears that operate together are two conical surfaces which roll without sl
ipping because of their tooth system.
In a bevel gear, a wheel cannot be exchanged for another with a different number
of teeth because the angle in which the teeth are cut or slotted to the body
of the wheel changes with the number of teeth.
Bevel wheels are manufactured with straight, circular or helical teeth. Those wi
th curved teeth operate with very little noise, but they create a larger axial f
orce
than wheels with straight teeth. They are commonly found on intermediate and tai
l rotor gearboxes on helicopters where a change in the direction of drive is
required.
They are also used in many gearbox accessory drives at the input stage of the tu
rbine shaft and the accessory drive. Used to change the shaft axis direction
and/or change the speed. External bevel gears have pitch angles less than 90 . In
ternal bevel gears have pitch angles greater than 90 .
Page 215
Hypoid Gears
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
HYPERBOLOID GEAR TEETH
These are used where the centre lines of the two shafts neither intersect nor ru
n parallel to each other. These are similar to bevel gears in application and
form, but the basic surface on which they are cut are hyperboloids instead of co
nes. The teeth are helical and the axes of the shafts do not intersect.
Page 216
Worm Gear
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Used where a high reduction in speed and an increase in torque is required. Used
on lifting equipment. These conned shafts at right angles which lie on
different planes.
The worm is essentially a screw which may have a single, double or triple start
thread. These engage with teeth on the pinion gear. Older teeth on pinions
were straight but now are usually wasted to give a greater contact area with the
worm.
Worms may be known as encircling worms. With parallel worms the teeth are straig
ht sided on a section through the axis and have the same proportions as
standard involutes track teeth. The worm is the drives and the pinion is the dri
ven. Movement cannot be transmitted the other way.
Page 217
Gear Trains and Gear Ratios
A gear train consists of two (or more) gear wheels, running in series, on separate
, parallel, shafts such that one gear transmits its drive to the other. Gear
trains can change the direction of rotation and can also alter the speed of the
output shaft. The speed of rotation is dependent on the ratio between the
number of teeth of the input gear to that of the output gear (the Gear Ratio).
g
in
If, for example, the input gear has 25 teeth and the output gear has 75 teeth, t
hen the output speed will be in the ratio of 25:75, or one third of the input
speed. Conversely, if the input gear has 20 teeth and the output gear has 10 tee
th, then the output speed will be in the ratio of 20:10, or twice that of the in
put
speed.
n
i
ra
Gear trains may be used in a variety of ways, to change the direction of rotatio
n or to increase or decrease the speed of the relevant output gear (and its
shaft).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The design of a gear train will be influenced by the amount of space available t
o accommodate the desired effect and by the power which is to be transmitted
through the gears.
Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
The smaller, of a high-ratio pair of spur gears, is referred to as the Pinion, whi
le the larger remains the Spur and spur and pinion gear arrangements also
vary, depending on the desired results.
Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear (refer to Fig. 9
8) it has the advantage of not only stepping down the ratio of input to output b
ut
also (as can be seen), both gears rotate in the same direction.
Considerable space is also saved, compared to a system using two, externally-cut
gears, for a similar reduction in output speed.
Page 218
Drive Gear
(Pinion)
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Direction of Rotation
Driven Gear
(Spur)
Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
Fig. 98
Page 219
Accessory Unit Drives
Aircraft engines also employ multiple gear trains (refer to Fig. 99), in their i
nternal and external gearboxes. These provide the drives for accessories such as
fuel, hydraulic and oil pumps, electrical generators, engine speed indicators an
d many other devices
g
in
Here it can be seen that idler gears are added to reverse the rotation and possibl
y to alter the final ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the gear
s
are of spur and helical configuration, the drive from the engine shaft, to the g
earbox, has bevel gears.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 220
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Typical External Accessory
Gearbox
Page 221
Idler gears
A gear which is interposed between the driving and driven gear, its function is
to connect the drive between two shafts. A spur idler gear is used between two
parallel shafts to maintain the direction of rotation and does not affect the ra
tio of the gears. A bevel idler may be used where two shafts intersect and /or a
re
co-axial.
g
in
Meshing Patterns
n
i
ra
Because of the high power being transmitted by gears in certain situations and k
eeping in mind that (using spur gears) only one tooth at a time can be
subjected to that power, then the point of contact between the teeth in mesh is
very important.
Helical gears may have as many as 5 teeth in contact at any one time, therefore
power will be spread across more teeth. The loads must be applied mid-way
between the front and rear faces of the gear wheel. They must also be exerted be
tween 1/3 and 2/3 of the distance between the root and tip of the gear tooth.
These settings and adjustments have to be attended to during the build-up of the
gearbox and are usually achieved with the use of appropriately sized shims.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 222
Chains and Sprockets
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Chains and sprockets provide a strong flexible positive connection in control sy
stems and are generally used where it is necessary to change direction or to
connect to a push/pull rod system. These are used where high loads are encounter
ed. E.g.: engine controls, flying control etc.
The chain consists of:
1. Two inner and two outer plates
2. Rollers
3. Bearing pins and bushes
The chain has three principal dimensions:
1. Pitch the distance between the centre of two rollers
2. Roller diameter
3. The width between the inner plates
These dimensions are important for the serviceability of the chain and for its c
orrect fitment around sprocket wheels, pulleys etc.
Chain assemblies are supplied from the manufacturer (approved supplier) as compl
ete proof load tested units and no attempt should be made to dismantle
riveted links or attachments. Only the bolted or screwed attachments can be disc
onnected. Any penned nuts and bolts and split pins must be used once only.
Page 223
The chain is supplied boxed, lightly oiled and coiled in oil-paper, it is identi
fied by part number and name and should be accompanied by the appropriate
stores release documentation.
When fittings are connected to the end of the chain they must be fitted in a pos
itive way using locked pins, locked nut and bolt assemblies.
The standard for locking a nut, a bolt assembly is to open the bolt end for chai
ns of 8mm pitch or under and use a split pinned lock nut for larger chains (the
outer plate of the chain is normally tapped).
Change of direction is achieved by the use of sprocket wheels. And the axis of t
he chain may be changed 90 by the use of bi-planer block.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 224
Non-Reversible Chains
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are the same as the standard chain except that they have extension pieces
every other link and they are fitted to sprocket wheels where there is a
guard close to the wheel.
When fitted to the sprocket wheel, the extension pieces pass around the wheel ei
ther side of the wheel. If the chain is tried to be fitted to the wheel the wron
g
way round the extension pieces will be on the outside circumference of the wheel
and will not pass under the guard.
Chains may have handed or non-interchangeable end fittings, this means that toge
ther with the chain extension pieces and guard it is impossible to fit the
chain incorrectly into the system.
Maintenance
Cleaned using paraffin but dried thoroughly afterwards to prevent corrosion and
highly oiled.
A control chain is checked for stiffness by running the (cleaned) chain over the
finger so that each link rotates through 90 as passes over the finger.
The chain is then rotated along its length through 180 and the process is repeat
ed to rotate each link the other way when the chain is pulled over the finger.
If there is a stiff link it will be immediately felt on the finger.
Page 225
To check for link wear in a control chain (ie. It will increase its overall leng
th). Accurately measure the length of one link (pin centre to pin centre) using
a
vernier calliper and multiply the number of links in the length of the chain and
compare it with the length of the new chain. This should not exceed that stated
in the overhaul manual. Typically 2% maximum elongation is specified. If this fi
gure is reached or exceeded the whole chain should be changed.
A control chain is checked for twist by letting it hang, ensuring it is clean an
d each link articulates freely and sighting (looking) down the chain.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 226
Belts and Pulleys
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are used to drive comparatively lightly loaded components such as generato
rs on some piston engine aircraft and timing mechanisms.
The fabric reinforced rubber belt forms a continuous loop around two or more pul
leys. Pulleys are called sheaves.
On some systems the belt may go around more than one pulley with one being the d
river and the others being driven.
To maintain tension a spring loaded or adjustable idler pulley may be fitted (no
rmally in the longest run) between the driver and driven pulleys.
There are different types of belts and pulleys that may be found in service. For
the actual design and maintenance, practices of a particular belt drive system,
refer to the belt drive manufacturers manual and /or the AMM (Aircraft Maintenan
ce Manual).
Most belt drives are of the V type, though there are examples of flat belt drives
in use and synchronous belts for applications where it is important that
components operate synchronously- cam belts on piston engines for example.
Page 227
Flat Belts
g
in
n
i
ra
Flat belts are used with flat pulleys with flanges and/or with guides. The flang
es or guides are to ensure the belt does not come off the pulley.
The flat belt system is cheaper than other belt systems and used where very litt
le load transmission is required.
They are of thinner cross section and the specification dimension.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
V- Drive Belts
V-Drive belts are divided into 2 groups heavy duty and light duty.
The V design ensures it sit within the V shaped pulley with no tendency to come
off and increases its grip as more tension (power) is applied.
The belts are made of rubber or synthetic materials and are strengthened by fabr
ic material, this provides strength in tension and reduces the belts ability to
stretch. The rubber provides grip and a wearing surface. It also protects the fa
bric from moisture and contamination.
Page 228
The cross section is shown in the following figure. It is sometimes called Bande
d Construction. The main tension fabric yarn run longitudinal and the complete
belt in enclosed by a fabric covering. Its loading is higher than the flat belt
but the radius of the pulleys must not be too small. For smaller pulleys where a
reasonably load is required a notched belt should be used.
The Notched V belt with the tension fabric plies in the outer section where the
tension loads are highest. The belt is designed to take similar loads to the
Banded V Belt but will accommodate pulleys of smaller radii. Notched V belts are
usually designated with an X, so a 3V notched belt, for example would be
designated a 3VX
g
in
n
i
ra
Sizes
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
There are there measurements that are used to designate the size of a V belt:
1. Outside Circumference (OC)
2. Effective Length (EL)
3. Pitch Length (PL)
Page 229
Outside Circumference (OC)
This is measured using a tape measure wrapped around the outside of the belt. It
is not very accurate and does not provide a measurement of the belt when
under tension (it will stretch slightly under load), which it would be under nor
mal working conditions.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Effective Length (EL)
This requires a special measuring rig consisting of two pulleys, one fixed and o
ne loadable with an attached measuring scale.
To measure the Effective Length (EL) of a belt it is placed around two pulleys w
ith specified groove sizes.
One pulley is fixed and the other is designed so it can be loaded to stretch the
belt. There is a scale on the loaded pulley to indicate the length between the
two pulley centres.
Pitch Length (PL)
When the belt bends around a pulley the outside of the belt is in tension and th
e inside is in compression. Where the centre of the tension occurs is called the
neutral axis or tensile chord line.
The tensile chord is within the belt (towards to outer edge) and therefore canno
t be measured. The pitch length (PL) is the length of the tensile chord around
the complete belt.
Page 230
Synchronous Belts
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are similar to flat belts in design except that they are toothed. The teet
h are moulded as part of the inner surface and provide a positive drive with no
slip. Synchronous belts are used with toothed pulleys and used with timing drive
s such as ignition systems and valve lifting mechanisms of some piston
engines.
The use of a synchronous belt system, it connects the tail plane from wheel in t
he flight deck of the A320 aircraft to sprocket drives under the floor for chain
and cable connections back to the tail plane. The system is duplicated.
Page 231
Pulleys (Sheaves)
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Pulley (sheaves) are usually made of phenolic or micarta composition, plastic or
aluminium alloy and supplied in various diameters and groove angles.
Diameters specified include outside diameter and pitch diameter and include groo
ve angles ranging from 32 to 38 .
It is important that when replacing either a pulley or a belt of any system that
it is checked for serviceability and also that is the correct part (check belt
markings)
Many pulleys/ belts, particularly of the V type construction look very similar a
nd it is important that the Illustrated Part catalogue or Aircraft Maintenance
Manual (IPC/AMM) is followed closely and documents such as clearly specify the c
orrect part by name, part number, batch number and serial number.
Page 232
CONTROL CABLES (DCAM 6.10 L2)
6.10 CONTROL CABLES
A number of different systems are used to actuate flight and engine controls fro
m the cockpit, flexible control cables are by far the most commonly used
method. Multiplestrand control cables are simple, strong and reliable.
g
in
Cable has several advantages over other types of linkage. It is strong and light
in weight and its flexibility makes it easy to route.
In addition to primary flight, control cables is used on engine controls, emerge
ncy landing gear extension controls, trim tab systems and various other
applications.
n
i
ra
Large aircraft have a rather complex automatic tensioning system to keep control
cable tension relatively constant as the aircraft contracts and expands.
Small aircraft must have their cable tension adjusted as a compromise so they ar
e not too tight when the airplane is hot or too loose when it is cold.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The cable used in British Aircraft control system is preformed. It complies with
British Standards (BS) Specifications. British aircraft cables are graded by lo
adcarrying capacity (e.g. 10 cwt.)
American aircraft cables are also preformed. It complies with American Specifica
tions graded by extreme outside diameter (e.g. 3/32 inch)
Cable should always be stored on suitably designed reels. The diameter of the re
el barrel should be at least 40 times the cable diameter. Reels should be
made of wood which will not corrode the cable and that interior surfaces should
be lined with inert waterproof material.
Non-flexible Cable
In areas where a linkage does not pass over any pulleys nonflexible cable can be
used. It is available in either 1 x 7 or 1 x 19 configurations.
The 1 x 7 cable is made up of one strand comprised of seven individual wires, wh
ereas the 1 x 19 consists of one strand made up of 19 individual wires.
Nonflexible cable is available in both galvanized carbon steel and stainless ste
el.
Flexible Cable
Flexible steel cable is made up of seven strands of seven wires each is called 7
x7 or flexible cable and is available in 1/6 and 3/32 inch sizes in both
galvanised carbon steel and stainless steel. Both types are preformed which mean
s that when the cable is manufactured each strand is formed into a spiral
shape. This process keeps strands together when the cable is wound and also help
s prevent the cable from spreading out when cut.
Preforming gives cable greater flexibility and relieves bending stresses when th
e strands are woven into the cable.
Page 233
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Extra-Flexible Cable
The most widely used, 7 x 19 is available in sizes from 1/8 inch up. It is extra
flexible and is made of 133 individual wires wound in seven strands, each stran
d
having 19 wires.
There cables are preformed and are available in both galvanized and stainless st
eel. Galvanized cable is more resistant to fatigue than stainless steel, but in
applications where corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is used.
Page 234
Swaged Terminals
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The cable fittings used most in large aircraft manufacture are MS-type swaged ca
ble terminals. To install these terminals, cut the cable using mechanical
methods, using cable cutters or heavy duty pliers and insert it into the end ter
minal. Use either a hand or power swaging tool to force the metal of the termina
l
down into the cable.
To ensure that a terminal is properly swaged, a measurement is made of the swage
d terminal with go/ no-go gauge. The swaging process must decrease the
terminals diameter to the extent that the go end of go/no-go gauge over the swage
d terminal, but the no-go end does not.
An inspection aid to ensure the cable does not pull out of the terminal, a small
mark of paint is placed over the terminal end onto the cable. A broken paint
mark indicates the cable has slipped inside the terminal.
Inspection should be carried out on completion of the swaging operations as foll
ows:
1. Check that the correct combination of cable and fitting has been used.
2. Re- check the diameter of the swaged shank, using a go/ no-go gauge or a micr
ometer. If the diameter of the fitting is too small, it has been overswaged, the
cable and the fitting must be rejected. Excessive work hardening of the fitting
will cause it to crack and might also damage the cable.
3. Check, by means of the inspection hole or paint mark, that the cable is corre
ctly engaged in the end fitting.
4. Check that the swaging operation has not disturbed the lay of the cable, wher
e the cable enters the end fitting.
5. Ensure that the shank is smooth, parallel and in line with the head of fittin
g and the swaged length is correct.
6. Proof-load the completed cable assembly in accordance with the appropriate dr
awing.
7. Inspect the fittings for cracks using a lens of 10x magnification or carry ou
t a crack detection test, using magnetic or dye processes as appropriate.
Page 235
Proof-Loading
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
All cables must be proof-loaded after swaging or splicing by subjecting the cabl
e to specified load. The purpose of proof-loading is both to ensure that the end
fittings are satisfactorily installed, and to pre-stretch the cable.
British practice is to load the cable to 50% of its declared minimum breaking st
rength. American practice is to load the cable to 60% of its declared minimum
breaking strength. A test rig suitable for proof-loading cables or other similar
methods would be acceptable.
Before Proof-Loading
A cable with swaged end fittings should be painted with a quick drying paint as
its entry into the fitting and allowed to dry. Cracking of the dried paint durin
g
proof loading will indicate slipping of the cable resulting from an unsatisfacto
ry joint.
The test should consist of slowly applying the specified load maintaining this l
oad for a minimum specified period. (Normally 30 seconds for swaged fitting, but
up 3 minutes for splices) Releasing it and carefully examining the cable for sig
n of pulling out of the end fitting, or stretching of the splice.
The end fitting should be checked for cracks using an electro-magnetic method. I
f the fitting is of stainless steel, a penetrant dye process. The length of the
completed cable assembly should be measured after proof loading. Cables with dif
ferent types of end fitting, or loops should be measured according to
appropriate drawings or specifications.
Check that the cable assembly is the correct length and ensure that any required
identification marking, including evidence of proof loading has been carried
out, and that any specified protective treatment has been applied.
Page 236
g
in
n
i
ra
Note :
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The first swaged fitting in a production batch is usually sectioned after proof
loading, so that the interior surface can be examined for cracks. If this check
is
satisfactory, the settings on the swaging machine should be noted, and used for
completion of the batch.
Page 237
Nicopress oval sleeve / TALURIT Cable Splice
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Many light aircraft use Nicopress sleeves that are squeezed onto control cable t
o form terminal ends. A nicopress sleeve is made of copper and has two
holes to accommodate a control cable.
When a cable is wrapped around an AN 100 thimble and properly squeezed with the
correct Nicopress squeezed, the terminal develops at least the strength
of the cable.
Page 238
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 239
Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles are a type of cable fastener that allows cable tension to be adjuste
d.
A complete turnbuckle assembly consists of two ends, one with right-hand threads
and the other having left-hand threads, with a brass barrel joining them.
Minor cable adjustment is made by rotating the turnbuckle which effectively leng
thens or shortens the cables length.
To ensure that a turnbuckle develops full cable strength, there must be no more
than three threads of either end sticking out of the barrel.
After cable tension is adjusted, the turn burn buckle barrel is safe tied to the
two cable ends so that it cannot turn.
g
in
n
i
ra
General Rules for Cable Inspection
Cables shall be replaced under the following conditions:
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
1. If there is any sign of fraying within three inches of either side of any fai
rlead or pulley when the cable is at its extreme travel in either direction.
2. 7 x 19 cables shall not have more than six, and 7 x 7 cables not more than th
ree wires broken in any one inch outside the limits specified.
3. 7 x 19 cables shall not have more than 12 and 7 x 7 cables not more than six
wires in any one inch are reduced in thickness by more than 50% of the
original gauge thickness.
4. Cables must be replaced if they are kinked or corroded. Light surface corrosi
on that may be easily cleaned off does not necessitate cable
replacement.
Page 240
Cable Tensiometer
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The cable tensiometer is an instrument which is used to check the tension of cab
les installed in aircraft control system. The operation of this instrument is
similar to that of a torque wrench. The cable tension can be altered and recheck
ed with the meter until the desired tension is achieved.
Cable tensiometers are not read directly off the face of the meter, a calibratio
n chart being provided to convert meter reading to cable tensions in pounds.
Three risers are supplied with each meter and are identified numerically for use
with various size cables.
Cable tensiometers are forwarded to the Instrument Overhaul Section (Standard Ro
om) for calibration and checking at six monthly intervals. Before taking a
reading, check the zero reading of the meter and also that the correct riser is
being used for the size of cable to be tension checked.
Page 241
No weight or side forces should be applied to the cable or meter when the check
is being carried out. For accurate readings, the meter should be placed at
least six inches away from turnbuckle, pulley or cable tension regulator. The co
ntrols and control surfaces of a cables system should be locked in the neutral
position before any reading are taken.
Cable Inspection
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When inspecting control cables pay particular attention to those sections of cab
le that pass through fairleads and around pulleys. To properly inspect each
section which passes over a pulley or through a fairlead, remove the cable from
the aircraft to the extent necessary to expose that particular section. Examine
cable for broken wires by passing a cloth along the length of the cable. This cl
eans the cable as well as detects broken wires if the cloth snags on the cable.
When snags are found, closely examine the cable to determine the full extent of
the damage. Replace flexible and nonflexible cables when the
individual wires in each strand appear to blend together, or when the wires are
worn 40 to 50 percent.
Page 242
Pulleys
Cables that run from the flight deck to the control surfaces, require the abilit
y to change direction (possibly a number of times).
If the cable needs to change direction to another angle, the conventional method
of a pulley allows this change with little friction. The example of the elevato
r
flying control run of a simple aircraft, (refer to Fig. 107), has pulleys that c
an change the direction of the cable through a large range of angles.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A Simple Elevator Control Run
Fig. 107
Page 243
In a flight control system, pulleys are used to:
a) change the direction of operation of the control cables.
b) give support on long straight runs of the cable.
g
in
Aircraft pulleys are manufactured from various materials, such as aluminium allo
y, Teflon, fluorocarbon resins, phenolic and
other plastic materials.
The pulleys bearings are usually of the sealed type and require no lubrication.
The pulley is bounded to the bearings in such a manner that the bearing cannot b
e removed.
A cable guide (or Retainer) is fitted to the pulley to ensure that the cable rem
ains on the pulley.
When adjusting a control, it is important to ensure that the cable end fittings
do not foul the pulley; otherwise the cable
movement will be restricted. Also look for possible misalignment between the cab
le and pulley; this must not exceed 2.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Page 244
Inspection and Maintenance of Pulley
All pulleys in a flight control system should be examine or check for wear, crac
ks and alignment.
If a pulley is worn or cracked to an appreciable extent, it should be replaced.
The pulleys should turn freely when the control cables are moved.
If a pulley is out alignment, it will cause wear to both the pulley and the cabl
e.
g
in
n
i
ra
The mountings for such pulleys should be corrected and the cable carefully exami
ne for wear.
Typical pulley wear patterns are shown in Figure 112.
Avoid contamination between pulleys and harmful substances such as hydraulic flu
id, aircraft fuel, paint stripper, etc.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 112 : Typical Pulley Wear Patterns
Page 245
The Bowden Cable Control System
The system is used for lightly loaded controls (selector valve operation, parkin
g brake operating cable etc) and relies on the cable working in tension only,
with return being by a spring usually fitted at the component end.
The flexible conduit is fixed at both ends which means that the cable system can
be routed around bends (so long as they are not too sharp).
g
in
Cables
n
i
ra
These are made of non-corrodible high tensile steel wire, unlike cables fitted t
o flying control systems. However, they are much smaller in diameter.
Conduit
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The conduit consists of a close coiled wire designed to keep the cable system st
iff and takes mainly compressive loads. This is covered with cotton braiding
followed by a waterproof polymer coating. To give support at the ends and to pre
vent fraying, metal end-caps are fitted. On some installations rigid metal
conduit is used on straight runs.
Fig. 25 BOWDEN CABLE
Page 246
Cable Nipples
These are made of brass. The conduit and cable is made up to the correct length
(the cable end is tinned to prevent unraveling) and the metal end-caps are
fitted over the cable and onto the conduit.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 26: NIPPLES
g
in
The nipple is soldered onto the cable. The nipple recess is tinned. The cable is
then passed through the nipple so that the end shows level with the top
surface of the recessed end of the nipple. The strands of the cable are then unr
avelled as far as possible within the recess and the recess filled with molten
solder. When the solder hardens the nipple is firmly attached to the cable.
In some cases the cable may be swaged into the nipple using a special nipple and
swaging machine.
Page 247
End Fittings
These are usually levers and handles. They may be fitted with adjustable stops s
o that the range of movement can be set to those specified in the AMM. To
fit the cable to an end fitting the AMM must be consulted, but in general terms
the follow applies to systems that employ nipple type connections to both ends:
g
in
1. Adjust both end fittings to give the greatest range of movement to each.
2. On those conduits that are adjustable for length, adjust them to their shorte
st length. (Some conduits have a turnbuckle type adjuster part way down
their length which will adjust the length of the conduit but not the cable. The
cable passes straight through the adjuster.) This means that there is
more slackness in the system in this condition than would otherwise be the cas
e. It will allow easier fitting of the nipples.
3. Align the cable so that the nipple will pass into the fitting hole and the ca
ble will pass through the cable slot (cable rotated to 90 to its normal
position).
4. Move the control cable through 90 so that the control cable is now laying in i
ts correct orientation with the metal end fitting of the conduit resting on
the fixed part of the end fitting.
5. Carry out the same procedure at the other end of the system. This may require
a higher level of motor skills because there is less slack in the cable
system because the other end has taken up some of the free play between the cabl
e and the conduit.
6. Adjust the conduit length adjuster to take up the slack in the conduit, which
means increasing its length. Make sure the adjuster is in safety and
correctly locked.
7. Ensure that both conduit metal end-caps are firmly in place at their respecti
ve ends - input end and component end.
8. Check for correct sense of movement, e.g. if it is a throttle system, pushing
the throttle forward increases engine power.
9. Adjust the stops at the input end and the component end to give the correct r
ange of movement (check the AMM). It is usual to adjust the stops at the
input end so that they control the range of movement - but check the AMM.
n
i
ra
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Check for free movement.
Check the lay of the cable assembly.
Ensure all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked.
Carry out a full functional check.
Record all the work done and sign.
Page 248
The Teleflex Control System
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 27: BOWDEN CABLE CONNECTION TO PARKING BRAKE LEVER
This uses a lightly loaded cable system moving inside a fixed rigid conduit that
will transmit both a tensile (pull) load and a compressive (push) load. This
means, for example, that a lever in the flight deck can be used to input a load
in either direction to operate a remote device such as a hydraulic selector valv
e.
There is no spring return as in the case of Bowden Controls for example.
The system uses wheel units where the helix winding of the cable engages with a
toothed wheel and as the cable moves back and forth so the wheel is
rotated. Rotation is limited by the amount of travel of the cable which is up to
about 4in (102mm).
Sliding end fittings (with a swivel joint) may be used in place of a wheel unit
where a. linear movement is required.
The conduit must be supported at regular intervals and may have quick release br
eak units fitted for ease of dismantling.
Page 249
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 20 GENERAL LAYOUT OF A TELEFLEX CONTROL SYSTEM
Page 250
Cable
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 21: TYPES OF CABLE
g
in
These may be of various designs but shown in figure 21 is a number 2 and a numbe
r 300 type cable. (See manufactures literature for further types). They
have helix windings of opposite hand, are not interchangeable, each having there
own fittings.
The cable will take a tensile and compressive load with the core cable taking th
e tensile load and the compression windings taking the compressive load (the
type 2 suitable for higher compressive loads). The helix winding is designed to
be threaded into an end fitting.
Conduit
These are made of aluminium alloy, steel, or tungum (a copper alloy). The condui
t should be supported every 3ft (0.9m) but clamp supports should not be
fitted where the conduit curves.
Clamp Blocks
These are fitted on straight sections to support the conduit.
Page 251
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 252
Connectors
These are used to connect one section of conduit to another. There are several t
ypes:
Nipple type - similar to flare-end hydraulic pipe-line connections but without t

he olive.
Clamp type - this clamps the two conduits together as a butt joint.
Quick break type - these allow for the disconnection of the system for component
removal etc, and the re-assembly of the joint without having to setup the syste
m again. The cable joining fittings consist of machined rods with interlocking s
lotted ends attached to the end of each cable.
g
in
n
i
ra
Wheel Units
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These consist of a housing in which a "threaded" wheel engages with the helix wi
nding of the cable. They allow for conversion of linear movement to rotary
movement and vice-versa.
There are several types including the:
Single entry type
Straight lead type
Junction box type
90 and 180 types
Page 253
The cable enters/leaves the unit via a conduit connector and in the case of the
single entry unit the cable must have a minimum engagement (at its extreme
end of travel) as laid down by the equipment manufacturer/AMM.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Sliding End Fittings
These are used where the linear movement of the cable is not converted to rotary
movement. A sliding end fitting is attached after a swivel joint and the
assembly is used to move levers etc.
End Fittings
These are fitted to the end of the push/pull rod which is connected to the lever
arm of a sliding end fitting or to an arm fitted to the rotating shaft of a con
trol
unit. Some push/pull rods will have an end fitting at both ends. They are adjust
able for length and have ball-end or ball and socket connections.
Page 254
g
in
n
i
ra
Fig. 23: END FITTINGS
When adjustment is required it is important that the correct range of movement i
s achieved and that the fitting is in safety (checked by not being able to pass
a piece of wire the same diameter as the hole through the inspection hole). The
unit should be locked after final adjustment either using the lock-nut, or a tab
washer, or locking wire (as per the AMM of course).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 24 shows how the cable is screwed into the screwed-end fitting which is a
lso screwed into the outer sleeve locking the slider tube, cable and complete
end fitting together. When the cable is caused to move, it will move slider tube
and end-fitting together. Note - the slider tube is passed through the outer
sleeve and over the conduit first with the belled end resting inside the taper o
f the outer sleeve.
Page 255
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 24: CONNECTION OF CABLE TO END FITTING
Page 256
Split Collet Type End Fitting
These are fitted direct to the cable for the operation of sliding end fittings
.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Page 257
ELECTRICAL CABLES (DCAM 6.11 L2)
6.11 ELECTRICAL CABLES
In the early days the cables used in aircraft were manufactured to a similar sta
ndard to those used in the automobile industry. It was soon learnt that these
cables didn t stand up to the severe climatic and environmental conditions encou
ntered during aircraft operation and therefore had to be designed specifically
for aircraft use. A variety of cable types have been developed, the choice of ca
ble for a particular function will be governed by its purpose and location.
g
in
Requirements
n
i
ra
These are laid down in BCAR s section D, K and G (old system), now JAR 25 (for l
arge aeroplanes), JAR 27 and 29 (helicopters) etc.
Reliability is of prime consideration for aircraft cables since the performance
and safety of an aircraft and its occupants is usually dependant on electrically
operated systems. Care, therefore, must be exercised during the manufacture of c
able looms and circuits and these must be thoroughly tested on completion.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Listed below are a number of qualities which an aircraft cable should possess.
Minimum Weight and Dimensions
A large aircraft may require many miles of electrical wiring and even small redu
ctions in the size and weight of a cable will result in a considerable weight
saving, therefore allowing an increased payload.
Resistance to Fluids
The likelihood of an aircraft cable encountering a variety of aircraft fluids is
high. It is therefore important that aircraft cables are able to withstand the
effects
of: water, engine oils, hydraulic oils, fuels, solvents, etc.
Non-Inflammability
Wiring is necessary in high fire risk areas such as engine nacelles, and APU bay
s. Such wiring should not cause the fire to spread and for this reason the
protective covering should be of self extinguishing material. There has been dou
bt about Capton wiring in this respect - although it is still in use. During fli
ght
many cables will experience a large temperature range and must remain flexible w
ithin this range with the insulation remaining in tact.
Resistance to Abrasion
An aircraft cable must possess a number of physical qualities and in particula
r must have high resistance to abrasion (induced by aircraft vibration). Cables
should also be physically strong and easily workable.
Page 258
Electrical Requirements
The conducting element must have a low resistance with a low volts drop per unit
length and the insulation must have a sufficiently high insulation resistance.
g
in
Current Rating
The normal current rating of a cable can be defined as: "The amount of current i
t will carry without sustaining a temperature rise sufficient to cause the value
of the insulation resistance to deteriorate to an unacceptable level or without
exceeding a specified voltage drop per unit length". Earlier cables either had t
he
current rating stamped on the outer sheath or coloured identification related to
the current rating.
n
i
ra
However, because a cable s current carrying capacity is influenced by a number o
f factors other than electrical load current, it is nowadays the practice of
cable manufacturers to use a classification based on the American Wire Gauge (AW
G).
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Modern aircraft cables have a wire gauge number stamped on the outside. The elec
trical systems designer will take into account the factors listed below
before choosing a cable for a particular job:
The electrical loading of the cable.

The amount of heat generated by neighboring cables.
The number of cables in the loom.
The ambient temperature of the surrounding air (its location on the aircraft - n
ear an engine for example).
Whether the cable is enclosed or in free air.
The thermal conductivity of the cable.
Page 259
Deterioration
Aircraft cables are designed to provide the best possible combination of resista
nce to deterioration caused by extremes of temperature, mechanical damage
and contamination by fluids, and in general, are suitable for installation witho
ut additional mechanical protection.
g
in
Working conditions and environment, however, may necessitate the provision of ex
tra protection in those places where the cables are exposed to the
possibilities of local damage or conditions which could cause deterioration.
n
i
ra
Receipt and Storage of Cables
Prior to delivery, cable ends are sealed to prevent ingress of moisture. The cab
les are supplied on drums suitably labelled and protected to prevent damage
during transit and storage.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Smaller sizes of cable may sometimes be supplied in wrapped coils. Visual examin
ation of cables on receipt, by nature of the packing, is often restricted to
the outer turns. Such an examination is of little value in checking for faults i
n the cable, therefore, if the condition of the packing, as received, gives rise
to
doubt regarding the soundness of the cable, it should be returned to the manufac
turer.
Note. Check the cable part number/batch number and confirm its identification ag
ainst its documentation/stores release certificate (JAA form 1).
Cables should be stored in a clean, well-ventilated store. They should not be st
ored near chemicals, solvents or oils and, if necessary, protection should be
provided against accidental damage. Loose coils, whether wrapped or not, must no
t be stored so that a heavy weight is imposed on them, since this may
cause unacceptable distortion of the insulation or damage to the protective cove
rings. The ends of cables in store should be sealed against the ingress of
moisture by the use of waterproof tape or sealing compound.
Handling of Cables
It is important that cables should be handled carefully at all stages of storage
and installation.
When taking long lengths of cable from a drum or reel, the cable should not be a
llowed to come in contact with rough or dirty surfaces. Preferably the drum or
reel should be mounted so that it can rotate freely, but heavy drums may need so
me means of control over rotation.
Care should be taken to remove the twist out of each turn of cables drawn from l
oose coils, otherwise severe kinking, with consequent damage to the cable,
may occur.
Page 260
Made-up Cabling
Cable looms and cable runs made-up on the bench should be inspected before insta
llation in the aircraft. Check for the following:
a) Ensure that all cables, fittings, etc, are of the correct type, have been obt
ained from an approved source, have been satisfactorily tested before
making up and have not deteriorated in storage or been damaged in handling.
b) Ensure that all connectors and cable looms conform to the relevant AMM, Wirin
g Diagram Manual, or Modification Drawing, with respect to
terminations, length, angle of outlets, and orientation of contact assemblies, i
dentification, and protection of connections.
c) Ensure that all crimped joints and soldered joints have been made in accordan
ce with the relevant AMM, Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification
Drawing. They should also be clean and sound, and insulating materials should no
t be damaged in any way.
d) Ensure that cable loom binding and strapping is secure.
e) Ensure that continuity, resistance and insulation tests are carried out.
f) Ensure that all cables should be identified using the correct aircraft wiring
code in accordance with the wiring diagram.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Identification marking may be carried out by printing on sleeves and attaching s
leeves at the end of each cable run, or the cable may be printed on at regular
intervals along its length. If direct cable marking uses a heat marking system,
then the cable must be inspected to check that the insulation has not been
damaged and an insulation check must be carried out. Many looming shops have spe
cial machines that will automatically mark the cable along its length at
regular intervals with the identification - at the same time carrying out insula
tion tests etc.
Installation of Cabling in Aircraft
Guidance on the factors requiring special attention during the installation is g
iven in the following paragraphs but check the AMM first.
Contamination: To prevent moisture from running along the cables and seeping int
o the associated equipment, the cables should be so routed as to run
downwards away from the equipment. Where this is not possible, the cable should
incorporate a descending loop immediately before the connection to the
equipment.
Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed in such a way
that any moisture accumulating in them will be able to drain safely away.
Cables which are routed through such fittings should be capable of withstanding
any such moisture as may be encountered.
Interference: Interfering magnetic fields may be set up by electrical equipment,
electrical currents in the cabling, or the aircraft structure, and also by
magnetic materials. Cables are required, therefore, to be installed so as to red
uce electrical interference to a minimum and to avoid interaction between the
different electrical services.
Page 261
NOTE. Requirements for the avoidance of compass and radio interference are given
in Chapter J4-1 of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements. (Now JAR
23 - light aircraft, JAR 25 - large aeroplanes, JAR 27 & 29 -helicopters)
Protection of Cabling: The cables are required to be protected from abrasion, me
chanical strain and excessive heat and against the deleterious effects of
fuel, oil and other aircraft fluids, water in either liquid or vapour form and t
he weather. Cables should be spaced from the skin of the aircraft so as to reduc
e
the effect of the high skin temperatures likely to be reached in the tropics. Th
e cables should not be run near the hot parts of an engine or other hot
components unless a cooled-air space or heat barrier is provided.
g
in
Where cables are routed through metal fittings or bulkheads etc, the edges of th
e holes through which they pass must be radiised and smoothed and fitted
with an insulated bush or sleeve. Cables which are drawn through holes or tubes
must be an easy fit requiring only a moderate, steady pull, care being taken
to keep the cables parallel to one another and to avoid the formation of kinks (
which may cause fracture).
Conduits, ducts and trunking used for carrying cables should have smooth interna
l surfaces.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Cables being fitted through pressure bungs should be fitted into the correct siz
e holes for the size of cable, to ensure efficient sealing. Only the recommended
cable threading tool should be used for this purpose to avoid damaging the bung.
Support of Cabling: The cabling must be adequately supported throughout its leng
th, and a sufficient number of cable clamps must be provided for each run
of cable to ensure that the unsupported lengths will not vibrate unduly. Bends i
n cable groups should riot be less than eight times the outside diameter of the
cable group. However, at terminal blocks, where the cable is suitably supported
at each end of the bend, a minimum radius of three times the outside
diameter of the cable, or cable bundle, is normally acceptable.
Cables must be fitted and clamped so that no tension will be applied in any circ
umstances of flight, adjustment or maintenance, and so that loops or
slackness will not occur in any position where the cables might be caught and st
rained by normal movement of persons or controls in the aircraft, or during
normal flying, maintenance or adjustment.
Where it is necessary for cables to flex in normal use, eg connections to retrac
table landing gear, the amount and disposition of slack must be strictly
controlled so that the cable is not stressed in the extended position, and that
the slack will not be fouled, chafed, kinked or caught on any projection during
movement in either direction.
Cables should normally be supported independently of, and with maximum practicab
le separation from, all fluid and gas carrying pipelines. To prevent
contamination or saturation of the cables in the event of leakage, cables should
be routed above rather than below liquid carrying pipelines. Cables should not
be attached to, or allowed to rub against, pipelines containing flammable fluids
or gases.
Page 262
Cable Types
The pages at the back of this section give information on various types of cable
s to be found on aircraft. You would not be required to remember the details
but you should understand the information that is given.
g
in
All Cables: Cables and equipment should meet the requirements laid down in BCARs
and JARs to provide electric shock protection to personnel as well as
heat protection - if equipment gets hot during normal operation.
n
i
ra
Airframe Cables: Used for runs throughout the airframe.
Interconnecting Cables: These are used for the interconnection of equipment with
in racks. Therefore, their insulation is thinner than normal airframe
cabling. They are lighter and more flexible.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Equipment Wire: Sometimes known as wire it is used within equipment and is therefo
re flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed as
interconnecting wiring though some aircraft manufacturers do use it for this in
protected parts of the airframe.
Fire Resistant Cables: This type of cable is required to retain a defined level
of resistance in certain fire or overheat conditions. The cable is classed as Fi
re
Resistant if able to withstand 1100C for 5 minutes, and Fire Proof if able to wit
h withstand the same temperature for 15 minutes (JAR 25 & JAR 1 - if close to
the outside of a firewall should not suffer damage if firewall heated to 1100C fo
r 15 minutes).
Fireproof Cables: These cables are required to operate for 15 minutes in a desig
nated zone defined in BCARs and JAR 1 and are used in designated fire
zones.
Cable Maintenance
The requirements, laid down by the CAA for the installation of electrical cables
, are laid down in BCARs section J and JARs 23, 25, 27, 29.
Only the cables as specified in the AMM, or approved equivalents, should be used
. This will ensure that the cables will be capable of taking the voltages
(during operation and testing) and the maximum current in the most adverse condi
tions, without damage to the cables.
Cable Identification
Cables are identified by the manufacture of the cable and further identified by
the aircraft manufacturer - to comply with the wiring diagrams.
Page 263
Cable Manufacturers Identification
Each manufacturer will stamp its identification code on the cable at regular int
ervals along its length. It may include:
a)
b)
c)
n
i
ra
For example:
Minyvin GBx XX X 22
(1)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
g
in
The cable size.
The manufacturers name.
The manufacturers code and cable name.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Manufacturers name of the cable
Country of origin
Manufacturers cable code
Year of manufacture
Cable size
Page 264
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 1 AIRCRAFT WIRING DIAGRAM - EXAMPLE
Page 265
Installation Identification
Besides the identification of the cable by the manufacturer there is a requireme
nt to identify the cable in the aircraft installation. During aircraft manufactu
re a
cable is installed (suitably routed, supported and connected -crimped etc). Prio
r to assembly the cable is marked with a code that identifies it and relates it
to
the aircraft wiring diagram.
g
in
The code - made up of a series of letters and numbers - may be printed on sleeve
s which are placed on the cable ends prior to being made up - or more likely
- printed on the cable length itself.
n
i
ra
The printing may be carried out by a small heated hand operated machine. It is r
ibbon fed and prior to cable marking is set up with the correct numbers and
letters (cable code). These are found by reference to the appropriate aircraft w
iring diagram.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The cable may be marked by being put through an automatic identification and tes
ting machine - once set up this will pull the cable through and print the code
on at the required intervals. Any cable faults found the machine will stop and g
ive an aural warning. It will stop automatically at the end of the cable run.
It is important that the cable is coded at both ends and at any point where it p
asses through bulkheads, seals, etc. Most cables are coded at regular intervals
(say 2 ft - 0.6m).
Always visually check the cable insulation for damage after identing as the iden
t may have penetrated the insulation and exposed the conducting core. (Fires
have been caused by this, so it is important to check carefully end reject the c
able if found). This is why the automatic identing machines carry out an
insulation test at the same time as the identing procedure.
The code will identify such things as:
(a) Cable size
(b) Circuit
(c) Circuit function
(d) Cable number
Page 266
The code may be devised by the aircraft manufacturer or may be based on the ATA
100 specification system. An example of this is shown below.
I EF
G B 22
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
NMSV
(6)
g
in
1.
Unit number, used where components have identical circuits.
2.
Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicate circuit fu
nction and the associated system.
3.
Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do not have a comm
on terminal in the same circuit. Generally, contacts of switches,
relays, etc, are not classified as common terminals. Beginning with the number o
ne, a different number is given to each cable.
4.
Cable segment letter, which identifies the segment of cable between two terminal
s or connections, and differentiates between segments of the circuit
when the same cable number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in alphabet
ical sequence, excluding the letter I and O. A different letter is used for
each of the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
5.
Cable size.
6.
Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its connection f
unction. For example code NMS V indicates nyvin metsheath (a BICC
cable) ungrounded cable in a single-phase system.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The recommendation is that the cable is coded at regular intervals along its len
gth and it is most important that it corresponds to the appropriate aircraft wir
ing
diagram.
When replacing cables it is important to:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fit the correct replacement cable.
Correctly route and support the cable.
Ensure its correct identification along its length.
Employ the correct terminations.
After replacement carry out appropriate electrical tests followed by a functiona
l test.
For certain electrical systems, cables are required to perform a more specialize
d function than that of the cables already referred to. Some examples of what
are generally termed special purpose cables are described below.
Page 267
Ignition Cables (Ignition Harnesses)
These are used for the transmission of high tension voltages (high voltages) in
both piston and turbine engine ignition systems. They are usually of the singlec
ore stranded type with a high level of insulation, and screened by metal braided
sheathing to prevent interference.
g
in
The number of cables required for a system correspond to the number of spark plu
gs or igniter plugs as appropriate, and they are generally made up into a
complete ignition cable harness. Depending on the type of engine installation, t
he cables may be enclosed in a metal conduit, which also forms part of the
harness, or they may be routed without conduit.
n
i
ra
Cables are connected to the relevant system components by special end fittings c
omprising either small springs or contact caps secured to the cable
conductor, insulation, and a threaded coupling assembly.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Thermocouple Cables
These cables are used for connection of cylinder head temperature indictors and
turbine engine exhaust gas temperature (egt) indicators to their respective
thermocouple sensing elements.
The conducting materials are normally the same as those in the thermocouple sens
ing element, for example, iron and constantan or copper and constantan
for cylinder head thermocouples, and chromel (an alloy of chromium and nickel) a
nd alumel (an alloy of aluminium and nickel) for egt thermocouples.
In the case of cylinder head temperature indicating systems, only one thermocoup
le sensing element is used and the cables between it and a firewall
connector are normally asbestos covered.
For egt measurement a number of thermocouples are required to be radially dispos
ed around the jet pipe in the gas stream. It is usual practice to arrange the
cables in the form of a harness tailored to suit a specific engine installation.
The insulating material of the harness cables is either silicone rubber or PTFE
impregnated fibreglass. The cables terminate at an engine or firewall junction
box from which cables extend to the flight deck indicator. The insulating materi
al of extension cables is normally of the polyvinyl type, since they are subject
to
lower ambient temperatures than the engine harness.
In some applications extension cables are encased in silicone paste within a met
al-braided flexible conduit.
Page 268
Co-axial Cables (Figures 2 and 3)
Co-axial (co-ax) cables contain two or more separate conducting elements -one in
ner and one outer. The innermost conductor may be solid or stranded
copper wire, and may be plain, tinned, silver-plated or even gold-plated in some
applications, depending on the degree of conductivity required.
g
in
The outer conductor is made in the form of a circle usually of fine wire braid s
urrounding the inner core. The two conductors are separated by an insulation
usually of polyethylene or Teflon.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 2 CROSS SECTION OF CO-AX CABLE
Outer coverings or jackets serve to weatherproof the cables and protect them fro
m fluids, mechanical and electrical damage. The materials used for the
coverings are manufactured to suit operations under varying environmental condit
ions.
Co-axial cables are used for the transmission of low power signals, with the sig
nal line (the inner conductor) protected from unwanted signals (noise) by the
outer wire braid. The outer braid provides a shielded against electrostatic and
magnetic fields.
Any electrostatic field does not extend passed the outer braid and the fields du
e to current flow in the inner and outer conductor s cancel each other. Also,
since co-axial cables do not radiate and fields, then likewise they will not pic
k up any energy, or be influenced by other strong fields.
Co-axial cables are used on radio equipment, for the connection of antennae to r
eceivers/transmitters, and capacitance type fuel quantity indicating systems
for the interconnection of tank units to amplifiers.
The construction of a typical co-axial cable and also the sequence adopted for a
ttaching the end fitting are shown. The outer insulation covering is cut back to
expose the braided outer conductor which is then fanned out and folded back over
the adapter. At the same time, the inner insulation is cut back to expose
the inner conductor.
Page 269
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 3 CO-AX CABLE & END FITTING
The next step is to screw the sub-assembly to the adapter thereby clamping the o
uter conductor firmly between the two components.
In some cases the outer conductor may also be soldered to the sub-assembly throu
gh solder holes. Soldering a contact on to the inner conductor and
screwing the coupling ring on to the sub-assembly completes the assembly.
Cable Types
The following pages give technical data on a selection of cables. You would not
be required to remember the details but you should read and understand the
information.
You should note the performance rating of the cables, the properties and the ide
ntification. You should note the current ratings and how they are affected by
being bunched and the reasons why.
Page 270
MINYVIN
Lightweight flexible airframe wiring cable.
Operating temperature -30C to +105C.
Single- or multi-core screened and sheathed versions are available.
PACKAGING AND IDENTIFICATION:
Packaging
Cables are supplied on reels labelled in accordance with
specification
or order requirements and suitably packed for transport
to destination.
Cables are printed with the cable code, country of origin -GBX
(UK); manufacturer BB (BICC); code letter for year of manufacture,
number
indicating conductor size, and G221 (BS reference)
Colour
White
Conductor
Tinned copper, size range 22 to 12. Silver plated copper alloy
size 24 only.
SPECIFICATIONS AND APPROVALS
These cables are produced to specification BS 2G221.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE:
Voltage rating: 300* volts rms at 1600 Hz
Maximum service temperature +105C
Minimum service
-75C for fixed installation
temperature
-30C for flexing
* Size 24 is 250 volts rated
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Resistant to tape abrasion
Chemical
Resistant to fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester based
oils, deicing fluids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents,
fungus and
mildew.
Physical
Resistant to flame.
Cold bend at 30C.
Readily printed.
g
in
Page 271
Current ratings (MINYVIN)
The ratings given in Table 4 are based on a conductor temperature rise of
40C in an ambient of 65C. The maximum permissible conductor
temperature is 105C If the ambient temperature (tC) is continuously in
excess of 65C, the rating must be multiplied by a factor K where
K=
105 t
40
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These current ratings are in line with those given for Pren cables in British
Civil Airworthiness Requirements, Section J.
g
in
Page 272
Cable No.
Rating
Uninyvin Uninyvinal condition
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
Rating in amperes (maximum)
Single
3
7
12
cable cables cables cables
11
7
5
4
12
8
7
6
15
12
9
9
14
9
7
5
16
12
9
8
22
19
15
15
18
13
10
6
23
17
13
12
30
26
19
18
21
15
11
7
25
19
14
13
33
28
26
25
31
24
17
12
36
28
24
21
50
47
43
42
43
30
22
15
50
38
32
30
72
67
62
60
61
47
36
25
71
56
48
45
110
107
104
101
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
1
00
0
000
00
0000
000
0000
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
8
Table 4: Maximum ratings for cables bunched in free air
A = Continuous rating
B = 5-minute rating
C = 1-minute rating
65
89
165
87
122
236
120
185
378
155
265
530
165
300
600
185
350
690
210/240*
410
810
235/265*
460
955
270/305*
555
1240
49
82
159
65
115
230
92
175
360
120
250
620
130
290
590
165
340
680
190
405
800
210
455
940
245
550|
1225
36
80
153

g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
87
105
173
115
152
250
160
225
390
200
305
545
220
330
620
240
370
705
270
420
820
300
470
965
350
570
1255
*The higher rating relates to 2 cables only
5 cables only
Page 273
AIRCRAFT THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION CABLE
These cables are used for the transmission of thermocouple currents
within an operating temperature range -65C to +260C.
Maximum continuous service temperature: +260C
Minimum service temperature (flexing): -55C
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Resistant to tape and scrape abrasion and cut through
Low notch sensitivity
Low surface creepage
Withstands climatic test BS 3 G 100
Service life: 10,000 hours at 260C
Chemical
Resistant to fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester-based oils,
de-icing fluids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents, fungus
and moulds.
Physical
Resistant to flame
Non-blocking
Retains flexibility after ageing
Non-cracking when flexed at -50C
Readily printed
Packaging
Cables are supplied on reels labelled in accordance with specification
or order requirements and suitably packed for transport to destination.
Colours
Insulation:
The nickel chromium core (+ve) is coloured white
The nickel aluminium core (-ve) is coloured green
Sheath:
Size 20 sheath colour is green
Size 22 sheath colour Is green with white stripes
Conductors
Positive, nickel chromium; negative, nickel aluminium; size range 20
and 22
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 274
KPA 150
Packaging
Cables are supplied on reels labelled In accordance with specification
or order requirements and suitably packed for transport to destination.
Cables are printed with the cable code name, country of origin G.
manufacturer BB BICC, year of manufacture M for 1974 etc. and
number Indicating conductor size.
white
Single core:
two core
red and blue
three core
red, blue, yellow
Multicore:
four core
red, blue, yellow, green
outer sheath
white
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE (KPA 150):
Voltage rating: 600 volts rms at 2000 Hz
Maximum continuous service temperature 150C
Minimum service temperature (flexing) -65C
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Resistant to tape and scrape abrasion and cut through.
Low notch sensitivity.
Low surface creepage
Withstands climatic tests BS 2 G 100.
Service life: 50,000 hours at 150C
Chemical
Resistant to all fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester-based oils,
de-icing fluids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents, fungus
and moulds.
Physical
Resistant to flame
No smoke emission at twice the operating temperature (300C)
Non-blocking
Retains flexibility after ageing
Non-cracking when flexed at -65C
Readily printed
g
in
Page 275
TERSEL
PACKAGING AND IDENTIFICATION
Flexible airframe cable.
Maintains essential circuits after a fire with an ultimate life of five minutes
at 1100C.
Operating temperature -55 to +190C.
Single and multicore, screened and sheathed versions also available.
Packaging
Cables are supplied on reels labelled in accordance with specification or
order requirements and suitably pecked for transport to destination.
Cables are printed with the cable code, country of origin GBX (UK);
manufacturer - BB (BICC) code letter for year of manufacture, and number
indicating conductor size.
Colour
Orange
Conductor
Nickel plated copper, size range 22 to 0000.
SPECIFICATIONS AND APPROVALS:
These cables are produced to specification BS G189 which is
interchangeable with MILW8777.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Voltage rating: 600 volts rms at 1600 Hz.
Maximum service temperature +190C.
Minimum service temperature - 75C for fixed Installation.
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Chemical
Resistant to aviation fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester based oils.
Physical
Resistant to flames, ultimate life of 5 minutes at 1100C.
Flexible throughout temperature range (-55 to +190C).
g
in
Page 276
FEPSIL
Fluid resistant airframe wiring cable.
Maintains essential circuits after a fire with an ultimate life of five minutes
at 1100C.
Single or multicore, screened and sheathed versions also available.
Packaging
order requirements and suitably packed for transport to destination.
Cables are printed with the cable code, country of origin -GBX (UK);
manufacturer - BB (BICC);code letter for year of manufacture, and number
indicating conductor size.
Colour
Green
Conductor
Nickel plated copper, size range 22 to 0000
interchangeable with MIL-W-8777.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Maximum service temperature: +190C
Minimum service temperature: -75C for fixed installation
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Chemical
Resistant to fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester based oils, deicing fl
uids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents, fungus and
mildew.
Physical
Resistant to flames, ultimate life of 5 minutes at 1100C
Flexible throughout temperature range (-55 to +190C)
g
in
Page 277
EFGLAS
Flexible, abrasion resistant airframe wiring cable, operating temperature
from -75C to +260C.
Screened and sheathed versions are also available.
Minimum service temperature: -70C
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Resistant to tape and scrape abrasion, dynamic cut through
Chemical
Resistant to fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester-based oils, deicing fl
uids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents, fungus and
mildew.
Physical
Resistant to flames and smoke emission, blocking and low temperature
cracking.
Flexible throughout temperature range (-75C to +260C).
Resists retraction.
Packaging
Cables are printed with the cable code, country of origin GBX (UK);
manufacturer - BB (BICC); code letter for year of manufacture, and
number indicating conductor size.
Colour
White
Conductor
Nickel plated copper, size range 22 to 0000
interchangeable with AIR 4524 (GROUP 250-280)
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 278
NYVIN
General purpose flexible airframe wiring cable.
Screened and sheathed versions are also available.
-75C for fixed installation
Minimum service temperature:
-30C for flexing
PROPERTIES:
Mechanical
Chemical
Resistant to all fuels, hydraulic fluids, petroleum and ester based oils, deicin
g fluids, fire extinguishing liquids and cleaning solvents, fungus and
mildew.
Physical
Resistant to flames.
Cold bend at -30C
Readily printed
Packaging
Cables are printed with the cable code, country of origin -GBX (UK);
manufacturer - BB (BICC); code letter for year of manufacture, and
number indicating conductor size.
Colour
White
Conductor
Tinned copper, size range 22 to 0000.
These cables are produced to specification BS G177
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 279
Crimping
A crimped connection is one in which a cable conductor is secured by compression
to a termination so that the metals of both are held together in close
contact. A typical crimp termination has two principal sections, crimping barrel
and tongue, together with, in some types, a pre-insulated copper sleeve which
mates with the crimping barrel at tone end and is formed, during the crimping pr
ocess, so as to grip the cable insulation at the other in order to give a
measure of support.
g
in
The barrel is designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after p
ressure has been applied a large number of points of contact are made. The
pressure is applied with a hand or hydraulically operated tool fitted with a die
or dies, shaped to give a particular cross-sectional form to the completed join
t.
n
i
ra
The precise form of the crimp is determined by such factors as the size and cons
truction of the conductor, the materials, and the dimensions of the
termination. It is, therefore, most important that only the correct type of die
and crimping tool should be used, and that the necessary calibration checks have
been made to the tool.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
There is a vast range of terminations available, many of which are colour-coded,
and suitable for use only with specific types of aircraft cable. It is, therefo
re,
vital that the appropriate manufacturer s instructions regarding the use of cabl
es and terminations are followed.
Page 280
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 1 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATIONS
Page 281
Only aluminium or bimetal (AlCu) terminations should be used to terminate alumin
ium cables and the cable should be stripped immediately prior to making
the joint.
The barrel of some aluminium terminations may contain a quantity of inhibiting c
ompound, others not so filled require that inhibiting compound be applied
before crimping takes place.
g
in
Some specifications also require additional sealing after crimping. The compound
will also minimise later oxidation of the completed connection by excluding
moisture and air.
n
i
ra
Tools
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These include:
*
*
Crimping pliers
Cable strippers
Both come in a variety of shapes and sizes and the descriptions that follow are
typical of some that are available.
The AMP Crimping Tool
The special tool used for crimping AMP terminals has several important design fe
atures to ensure a consistent quality of completed crimp joints. These
include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Crimp ratchet.
Locator.
Insulation adjusting pins.
Colour and dot coding.
Crimp ratchet. This device ensures the bottoming of the die jaws before the jaws
can be opened again. This ensures that the tool cannot be released until a
complete crimp is made.
Locator. The locator holds the terminal in the correct position in the die jaws
and allows the conductor strands to protrude 0.8 mm from the terminal barrel
when the wire is fully inserted.
Page 282
Insulation Adjusting Pins. To allow for small variations in wire size and to ens
ure optimum mechanical strength of the joint the insulation die head has three
degrees of adjustment e.g.:
1.
2.
3.
Tight.
Medium.
Loose.
g
in
Colour & Dot Coding. The "dot" coding system is needed to identify the terminals
which have been crimped in the correct AMP hand tool. If a red terminal is
crimped in a red handled tool, a single dot impression will be left on the insul
ation at the barrel end.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 2 AMP CRIMPING TOOL
Page 283
Cable Strippers
These are used to cut the insulation away from the conducting part of the cable.
g
in
These may have separate locations in the one tool to be used with different size
cables. They may be adjustable to fixed positions to cater for different size
cables or they may be adjusted *by trial and error to obtain the correct amount
of cut (into the insulation).
n
i
ra
Which ever cable stripping method is used it is most important that a spare piec
e of cable is used to practice on first. The spare piece of cable should be th
e
same size and type as the actual cable being worked on, and the strip should be
accomplished so that all the insulation is removed but no conducting strands
are cut or weakened.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Some cable strippers will cut the insulation and pull it off the end in one acti
on, others will cut the insulation only - the fingers being used to remove the
insulation.
Crimping Procedures
Before carrying out crimping of a termination, the following should be verified:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Correct size and type of wire for the job.
Correct size and type of terminal with suitable size crimp barrel to accommodate
wires and if necessary, the insulation.
Correct crimping tool and associated dies, selected to be compatible with type o
f terminal and wire size.
Correct tool being used. Note that the ratchet and pawl hand type tools will onl
y release on completion of crimping cycle.
Correct cable strippers.
Preparation of Wire
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using wiring diagrams, AMM etc choose correct wire, inspect, put on aircraft wir
ing code, and cut to length - allowing for some error when stripping
etc.
Using approved stripping tool, remove specific length of insulation.
Inspect stripped end for severed or damaged conductor strands. If any found cut
off cable to beginning of insulation and re-strip.
Insert all conductor strands into barrel.
Ensure that no insulating materials enter.
Page 284
Conductor strands must be laying together to allow for 100% insertion. If the la
y of the strands is disturbed they should be re-imposed with a light twist.
Excessive twisting should be avoided as this increases the conductor diameter.
Preparation of Tool
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Crimping AMP Terminals Example
7.
8.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Always ensure that both insulation adjustment pins are in the same position.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
g
in
Insert insulation adjustment pins into the No. 3 position.
Locate terminal in crimping jaws.
Insert wire into barrel with the insulated part entering the grip portion of the
terminal.
Close handles slowly and fully until crimp ratchet releases.
Open handles, remove terminal and check insulation support as follows: Bend the
wire back and forth once, terminal sleeve should retain grip on wire
insulation.
If wire pulls out set insulation adjustment pins in next tighter position. (No.
2) and re-crimp.
Select the appropriate terminal for the size of wire being terminated and to sui
t the stud size of the terminal fitting.
Select a tool by reference to the colour of the terminal check wire size range s
tamped on tool face.
Inspect the tool for serviceability and adjust the insulation crimping adjustmen
t pins.
Insert the terminal into the jaws so that the barrel rests against the locator.
Squeeze handles until terminal is lightly gripped by the jaws.
Insert prepared wire end into terminal barrel ensuring that all conductor strand
s enter. When fully inserted the conductor should extend beyond the
barrel by approximately 0.8 mm.
Hold wire in position and crimp by squeezing handles until ratchet releases.
Remove completed crimped joint and inspect for dot code impression.
On completion of crimp, check:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Correctness of form and location of crimp.
Adequate insertion of conductor strands in barrel.
If insulation support is provided, check correctness of form and location of ins
ular crimp.
Check any codification by crimp dies is correct in detail and position.
Check joint for freedom from fracture, rough or sharp edges and flash .
Page 285
Crimping Butt Splices
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Select the required Butt Splice and a tool of the same colour coding.
Adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as detailed above.
Insert Butt Splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
Squeeze handles until Butt Splice is lightly gripped.
Insert prepared wire into terminal barrel. When inserted the conductors should b
e visible in the inspection window.
Hold wire in position and complete crimping operation.
Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
Insert other end of Butt Splice into jaws until properly located.
Complete crimping operation by repeating Items 4, 5, 6 and 7.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
in
Page 286
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 3 A TYPICAL CRIMPED JOINT
Page 287
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 4 DOT INDICATOR
g
in
In-Line Crimping
Each barrel of a connector must carry only one cable unless specifically permitt
ed by the CAA.
If in-line crimps are allowed they must be fitted either horizontal or positione
d so that an ingress of fluid is impossible. Protective sleeves, additional to t
he
crimp insulation, will not be provided to prevent an ingress of fluid.
Care must be exercised to ensure that in-line crimps are only used in positions
where the operating temperatures do not exceed the specified limits.
Page 288
Specific approval must be obtained from the air worthiness authority before inco
rporating in-line crimps in the following:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Screened cable
Coaxial cable.
Multicore cable.
Cables in excess of size 10.
Thermocouple cables.
HV cables ie above 250 V rms (eg igniter ht leads, aerial feeders).
Cables used in fire-resistant circuits (fire detector and extinguisher circuits
within the protective zone).
Types of cable, totally enclosed in conduits or ducts, which cannot readily be v
isually inspected.
g
in
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Fig. 5 VOLTAGE DROP TEST ON CRIMPED TERMINATIONS
Page 289
Restrictions
1) The use of in-line crimps is currently restricted to cable size 10 (35 amp),
or smaller; low temperature (105C) connectors must not be crimped on size 12
or larger Efglas cable.
g
in
2) Repair schemes are restricted to the following:
a) The minimum distance between joints in any one cable must be two feet.
b) Not more than two joints are to be made in any ten feet of cable.
c) Multiplicity of joints in cables must be avoided, if possible, and in no case
must the number exceed the following:
(i) Runs up to 20 feet - 3 joints.
(ii) Runs up to 200 feet - 5 joints.
(iii) Runs over 200 feet - 8 joints.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
3) On installation, wherever possible, observe the following:
a) All joints must be accessible for visual inspection.
b) Joints must be positioned so that they do not touch one another or touch duct
cable-retaining straps and other fixtures which may set up tracking
paths.
c) Joints must, if possible, be positioned on the outside of the looms unless sp
ecial fixing attachments are preferable. All fixing attachments, such as
corrugated wrapping strip, must be approved.
d) If it is impracticable to accommodate a stagger of joints along a cable run,
positive separation, eg using insulation or cable clips, must be carried out.
Page 290
Erma Hand-Operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine
For large size cables various hydraulic crimping machines are available. Describ
ed here is the Erma crimping machine.
This machine is supplied as a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size f
rom AWG 6 to AWG 0000, and an alien key used for fitting the dies to the
machine. The crimp formed is a regular hexagon shape and has two code letters im
pressed on it by the dies during crimping. These code letters are HG, HH
- HN (for cable sizes AWG 6, 4 - 0000) and are the same as those marked on the c
able lugs by the manufacturer.
g
in
n
i
ra
Preparation of the Machine
The machine operating handles should be screwed into position and the code lette
rs stamped on the dies checked for size. If the dies are to be changed
carry out the following:
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
a) Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the size of
cable in use. Check that the lugs to be used have the same code letters
marked on the terminal palm.
b) Remove the upper die adapter by sliding it from the dovetailed head of the to
ol. This leaves the slotted head of the tool open to allow the lower die to
be fitted to the ram. Insert the spigot on the upper die into the hole in the di
e adapter until it is held in position by a spring-loaded steel ball.
c) Close the hydraulic valve by turning the knob clockwise. Pump the handle a fe
w times to move the ram forwards and disclose the hexagon socket
screws which hold the lower die. Slacken these screws using the alien key provid
ed with the kit. Fit the lower die into the ram so that the screws fit
into the recesses on either side of the die. Tighten the screws to hold the die,
ensuring that they are below the surface of the ram body. Open the
hydraulic valve to retract the ram.
d) Slide the upper die adapter, complete with die, into the dovetailed grooves u
ntil it is located centrally by a spring-loaded steel ball.
Page 291
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 6 ERMA CRIMPING MACHINE
Operation
Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for
the size of the cable to be terminated.
(a)
Close the hydraulic valve. Place the lug centrally between the dies and pump the
handles until the lug is lightly gripped.
(b)
Strip the cable insulation so that when it is inserted in the lug the insulation
lies flush against the end of the barrel and the conductor projects slightly
from the other end.
(c)
Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug and pump the machine until the d
ies are fully closed. A safety valve will operate with an audible click and
pressure on the pump handle is greatly reduced.
Page 292
(d)
Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped termination ca
n then be removed from the machine.
Plugs And Sockets
Plugs and sockets are provided to ensure a secure connection for one or more cir
cuits. They are designed to prevent entry of moisture and to provide a
positive connection for a multi pin system. They are small and have light mass b
ut may be difficult to assemble and are expensive.
g
in
To prevent damage, debris and moisture entry, protective caps are provided and s
hould be fitted at all times other than when the connectors are being
worked on and in their assembled condition. During work protection may then be i
n the form of a linen or plastic bag, totally enclosing the connector and
secured to the cables. This temporary protection should only be removed just pri
or to connection being made in the aircraft.
n
i
ra
Miniature Connectors
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Extreme care should be taken when handling and connecting miniature and sub-mini
ature connectors. Both plugs and sockets should be checked for any
signs of dirt, bent pins or physical damage to the shells before attempting to c
onnect. If connectors will not mate, check the reason, and rectify or renew. On
no account should force be used to effect mating.
If a bent pin is found, on no account should it be straightened as it will almos
t certainly fracture. The pin should be removed and a new one crimped into
position.
Lubrication
Some ranges of plugs and sockets require the engaging threads to be lubricated w
ith a suitable lubricant to ensure that they can readily be disconnected.
Removal of Wired Contacts
There are two basic types of contact (pin) retention used in plug and socket con
nectors in aircraft, one which the contacts being released for removal from the
rear and one where release is from the front using the insertion/extraction tool
s. Therefore, it is essential that the correct procedures and tools are used for
a
particular type of plug or socket.
1. Front Release - The contact is removed by pushing from the front of the conne
ctor and removing from the rear.
2. Rear Release - The extraction tool enters the connector from the rear of the
connector and the contact is also removed from the rear.
Multiway connectors, terminal junctions, inline single wire connectors, switches
, motors, indicators, instruments and other electrical components; all may now
be terminated by a rear release system which requires the use of a few tools and
the minimum of operator training.
Page 293
Contacts crimped with a standard crimping tool are inserted and removed using a
single fail-safe plastic tool for each size of contact.
The Hellermann Deutsch 460/450 Series Connectors, terminal junction modules and
custom-made component termination modules form the central part of
the integrated termination system.
g
in
All terminations are inserted and removed by a single expendable plastic tool wh
ich is fail-safe in that mishandling will result in damage to the tool rather th
an
to the connector or termination modules.
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
n
i
ra
Fig. 7 REMOVAL AND INSERTION TOOL
Fig. 8 PIN RETENTION
The tines of the clip snap in behind the shoulder of the contact. The removal to
ol displaces the tines of the clip sufficiently to allow the contact to be withd
rawn
rearwards.
Page 294
Contact Insertion:
1. Remove the backshell or other accessory from the rear of the connector and mo
ve onto the cable loom.
2. Ensure that the correct hole in the connector has been selected to insert the
pin - check the hole numbering system on the front face of the
plug/socket and the wiring diagram.
3. Snap the coloured end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool on to the wir
e. When inserting the wire into the tool, use the thumb and not the thumb
nail as this could damage the insulation (see figure 9). Position the tool on th
e contact shoulder, except in the case of size 22 contacts, in which case
the tool should be positioned on the back of the crimp bucket. See figure 9.
4. Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, slowly push the contac
t straight into the connector. A positive stop will be felt when the contact
is locked in by the retention clip.
5. Inspect the contact/pin for correct alignment, straightness, security and the
height compared with the other pins. If damaged/not correctly fitted, renew
and refit.
6. Carry out continuity test. Assemble plug and socket and test system.
1.
2.
3.
4.
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Contact Removal:
g
in
The removal procedure is similar but the reverse of the insertion procedure.
Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, snap the white end of the
appropriate insertion/removal tool over the wire to be removed.
Slowly slide the tool along the wire into the connector, until a positive stop i
s felt. The retention clip will now be unlocked.
Press the wire against the serrations of the central section of the tool and wit
hdraw both wire and tool together.
As you can see, to release the contact, you must put the extraction tool over th
e rear of the contact and down between the contact and clip to release the clip
from behind the front shoulder.
Page 295
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 9 INSERTION OF PIN INTO PLUG
Page 296
This method has had wide usage. Some of the connectors you are likely to use wit
h this feature are Amphenol 246 and 48 series, Bendix PT-SE, Cannon
FRF, KPSE, Flight FH, FC Hellermann Deutsch SLPT, DS, Cinch C0909, Pyle National
RPL/FPK, ZZ and the AMP/AM series of rack and panel connectors.
g
in
n
i
ra
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Fig. 10 FRONT RELEASE
In the case of the rear release, the extraction tool, which is usually plastic,
enters from the rear of the connector between the contact and the clip to releas
e
the contact. The contact is then pulled out through the rear whilst still in the
tool.
Fig. 11 REAR RELEASE
Page 297

Tgrtttytn t4554

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tgrtttytn t4554

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.

Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less

Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.

Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and oxidati

Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. Molybdenum may produce secondar

Titanium is used to improve toughness

A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.

Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fibre optic sensors

Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity

Reduced life cycle costs

Reduced inspection costs

Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased knowledg

From a military point of view an improvement in Stealth characteristics.

Assess structural integrity.

Pinpoint structural damage.

Process flight history.

Repair by Darning. Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by

Tautening of natural fabrics

Dopes. Dope consists of a number of resins dissolved in a solvent to permit appl

Sandpaper. Sanding is carried out using wet--or--dry paper. This is a waterproof

The standard of housekeeping in the spray shop is an important aspect of safety.

In order to accomplish a proper dope job, it is important to control both the te

Many problems associated with doping can be traced to incorrect temperatures of

In order to produce a satisfactory dope film, it is vitally important that all b

When an aircraft is re--covered and re--doped it is essential that it is re-- we

After the re--covering, repair and doping of control surfaces it is essential th

Few threads per inch.

Many threads per inch.

Three contiguous (touching) circles marked in a convenient position (machine ite

Woodruff Key. This key is made in the shape of a segment of a parallel--sided di

Carbon steel - hardened and tempered.

Nipple type - similar to flare-end hydraulic pipe-line connections but without t

The electrical loading of the cable.

You might also like