Uncertainty analysis

c X c X c12 X2 1 c22 X2 2 .... cn2 X2 n

1 1 2 2 c3 X 3 ....... cn X n X for repeated measurements
for linear combination of independent n
measurements

c X c X
1 1 2 2 ..... cn X n
c1 X1 c2 X 2 ....... cn X n
for linear combination of dependent measurements
Uncertainties for Functions of Several
independent Measurements
2 2 2
U U U
U X2 X2 ....... X2

1
X
2
X 1

n
X 2 n

Uncertainties for Functions of Several dependent

Measurements

U U U
U X1 X 2 ........ X
X 1 X 2 X n n
Normal distribution curve Confidence intervals
x X 2 s
f X , x
1
e

2 2
; X ; V X 2 X is a 68% confidence int erval for
2 n
s
X 1.645 is a 90% confidence int erval for
n
s
X 1.96 is a 95% confidence int erval for
n
s
X 2.58 is a 99% confidence int erval for
n
s
X 3 is a 99.7% confidence int erval for
n

Box plot

1
Normal error function

2
Students t distribution

3
First order instrument

dqo Cp V dx V
qo K qi x T - Thermometer
f
dt h AS dt AC
Step response Ramp response
qo t
t t

K 1 e
qo t Kqis t e

qis
Frequency response Impulse function
KA
t
qo 1
qo t 1 e for t T
Kqi 1 2 2 T

Tan1
T

KA1 e
t
qo e for t T
T

Te
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Period T = 2/
T T

yt A0 An cos n t Bn sin n t ; A0 yt cos nt dt ;
1 2 2 2
y t dt ; An
n 1 T T T T
2 2
T

yt sin nt dt
2 2
Bn
T T
2

2 n t
If function is even, yt An cos n t An cos
n 1 n 1 T
2 n t
If function is odd, yt Bn sin n t Bn sin
n 1 n 1 T

4
Second order instrument

1 d 2 x 2 dx C Ks 1
x KF (t ) ; n ;K - Sping
n2 dt 2 n dt 2 mKs m Ks
1 d 2Vo 2 dVo mass damper
Vo KV (t )
n2 dt n dt R C 1
n K 1
2 L LC
Step response
e nt 1 2
Sin d t Tan1 for underdamped system
qo (t )
1

Kqis 1
2

1 e nt 1 nt for critically damped system
qo (t )
Kqis

qo ( s) 1 1 t
2
1 1 t
2

1

n n
e e for
Kqis
2 2 1 2
1
2 2 1 2
1
overdamped system

Frequency response
2
2 2
2
1 2 2
qo n n 1 Tan 1 n
Tan 1 2
2 n

2
Kqi 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 2 n
1 2 1 2 n
n n n n
Step response for second order instrument Frequency response of second order instrument

5
 d 2x dx d 2q
m 2
C K s x F (t ) L R
dq 1
q V
dt dt dt dt C
m d 2 x C dx 1 d 2V
2
x F (t ) dV
LC 2o RC o Vo Vi
K s dt K s dt Ks dt dt
1 d 2 x 2 dx 1 d Vo 2 dVo
2
x KF (t ) Vo KV (t )
n2 dt 2 n dt n2 dt n dt
C Ks 1 R C 1
; n ;K n K 1
2 mK s m Ks 2 L LC

2 C m C 2 R C
2 2 LC RC
n 2 mK s Ks Ks n 2 L

REGRESSION
n i n i n

xi x yi y yi y yi yi
2 2

r i 1
; r2 i 1
i n
i 1
;
y y
n n

x x y y
2 2 2
i i i
i 1 i 1 i 1

x i x yi y
yi o 1 x; 1 i 1
n
; o y 1 x
x x
2
i
i 1
n n n
yi o 1 x 2 x 2 ; yi n o 1 xi 2 xi2 ;
i 1 i 1 i 1

n n n n n n n n

xi yi o xi 1 xi2 2 xi3 ;
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
xi2 yi o xi2 1 xi3 2 xi4
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1

TEMPERATURE
emf
Thermocouple AB
T open circuit

Thermocouple laws

1. Emf of Thermocouple with junction at T1 and T2 unaffected by temperature elsewhere in

circuit
2. Third homogenous inserted in either wires does not affect emf if new junctions are
isothermal
3. LAW OF INTERMEDIATE MATERIALS: Metal is inserted between junctions, influence
is absent if new junctions are isothermal
4. Thermal emf of metals A, C is EAC is EBC then emf for AB is EAC + ECB
5. Thermal emf with junctions at T1 and T2 is E1 and with T2 and T3 is E2 then for Junctions at
T1, T2 Emf = E1 + E2

6
Response characteristics of thermocouple
T Ti t
1 exp
T T
i

Response time of a thermowell

d 2T dT mC
w s 2s s s w s ps Ts T
dt dt hw Aw

Compensating circuits
I2 C
Vi I3
Vo s K
R
I1
RL Vo i s 1 o s

Resistance temperature detectors

R Ro 1 T To

Thermistors

1 1

T To
R Ro e

Radiation effect in temperature measurements

th Tth4 Tw4
T f Tth

h

Radiationeffect correction term

Thermocouple conduction error for negligible losses at the fin tip

T T coshmx L

b Tb T cosh mL
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement
U2
T Tp r
2C p

7
 PRESSURE

P1 P2 h g h

2 cos
h
R

Dynamic response of manometer

x 4 L p 1 3g 2.45 L
x x ; K ; n ;
3g R 2 g 2 g 2 g 2L R2 g
2L

Rise time and peak time

1 2
Tan1
tp
tr n 1 2
n
1 2

Liquid Systems, Heavily Damped, Slow Acting - Transducer Tubing Model

Cvp 128 L dPm

Pm Pi
d4 dt

Liquid Systems, Moderately Damped, Fast Acting

M M e x Bx K s x AP
2 d p4 Ld p4 3 d t2 d p4 Ks
Ks ; Me ; n ; B 8 L 4
; n ,t
16 C vp 16 LCvp d
2
3d t t M

64L

1 16 LCvp
d t4 2

n ,t 3d t
2

For gases
V 2 d p4 E m 16 3LV
C vp ; Ks ; 3 ;
Em 16V d t E m

c
Em
RT ; 3 d t2 c 2 16 3LV 2 d p4 c 2
n ; 3 ; Ks
16 LV dt c 2 2 16V