I.

GRAVIMETRIC CAPPILARY VISCOMETER

Measurements using capillary viscometers are based on the relation between viscosity
and time. They use gravity as the driving force; therefore the results are kinematic viscosity
values.
A defined volume of liquid flows through a long capillary with an exactly defined
inner diameter and length. The time the liquid takes to flow between two level marks is
measured. A minimum flow time is defined for capillary viscometers to ensure that the flow
conditions inside the capillary allow for laminar flow.
By calibrating each capillary with a fluid of known viscosity a factor is obtained. To
get the sample's viscosity, its flow time is multiplied by the capillary factor.

The big advantage of this method is that gravity is a highly reliable driving force. It is
not artificially generated, so this avoids potential errors. Because gravity is available
everywhere on earth and does not require further technical equipment, this principle is widely
established in many standards and standardized practices.
The disadvantage of this principle is that the driving force cannot be varied. It is too
small for highly viscous samples. Further, many different capillaries are required to cover a
wide viscosity range with one constant driving force. For example, with Ubbelohde
capillaries each can cover a range defined by its minimum viscosity times factor 5 (e.g. type
0B: 1 mm2/s to 5 mm2/s).
Various different standardized glass capillaries are in use today. The capillaries are
also referred to as 'tubes'.
 There are direct-flow or reverse-flow capillaries available. In direct-flow capillaries
the sample reservoir is located below the measuring marks; in reverse-flow types the
reservoir sits above the marks. Reverse-flow capillaries allow the testing of opaque liquids
and can have a third measuring mark. Having three measuring marks provides two
subsequent flow times and can define the measurement's determinability.
Some frequently used types are the following:

II. ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER

Though gravity is available everywhere for free, it is sometimes not strong enough as
a driving force. For highly viscous fluids a measurement based on gravity would take far too
long. Therefore, rotational viscometers use a motor drive. Unlike capillary viscometers,
rotational viscometers provide dynamic or shear viscosity results.
A rotational viscometer consists of a sample-filled cup and a measuring bob that is
immersed into the sample. There are two main principles in use:

1. The Couette Principle

If the bob stands still and the drive rotates the sample cup, this is the Couette principle
(named after M. M. A. Couette, 1858 to 1943). Although this construction avoids
problems with turbulent flow, it is rarely used in commercially available instruments.
This is probably due to problems with the insulation and tightness of the rotating
sample cup.
 2. The Searle Principle
In most industrially available viscometers the motor drives the measuring bob and the
sample cup stands still. The viscosity is proportional to the motor torque that is
required for turning the measuring bob against the fluids viscous forces. This is
called the Searle principle (named after G. F. C. Searle, 1864 to 1954). When
employing the Searle principle, the bob's rotational speed in low-viscosity samples
should not be too high. Otherwise turbulent flow could occur due to centrifugal forces
or the effects of inertia.

The motor turns a measuring bob or spindle in a container filled with sample fluid.
While the driving speed is preset, the torque required for turning the measuring bob against
the fluids viscous forces is measured.
 In rotational viscometers there are two common approaches to measure the torque:
1. Spring devices
The motor - typically a stepper motor - drives the main shaft. A pivot and spring
assembly rotates on the shaft. The spindle with the measuring bob (rotor) is attached
to this assembly. As the spindle rotates, the spring is deflected proportional to the
torque caused by the viscosity of the sample under test. This system provides high
measurement accuracy at the cost of covering only a small measuring range. The
sensitive pivot bearing must be protected from undesirable influences and damage.

2. Servo devices
This viscometer type uses a servo motor to drive the main shaft. The spindle with the
measuring bob (rotor) is attached directly to the shaft. A high-resolution digital
encoder measures the rotational speed. The motor current is proportional to the torque
caused by the viscosity of the sample under test. The viscosity can be computed based
on rotational speed and current. Compared to models with a pivot bearing and spring
systems, viscometers with a servo motor cover a wider measuring range and are more
robust. The electronic decoder and motor allow for greater torque and speed ranges
than is possible with a mechanical spring. However, the accuracy for low speeds and
low viscosity is lower than for spring systems, as the friction of the motor and bearing
influences the measurement.

By changing the measuring system the rotational viscometer can be adapted to various
applications. The most common spindles are listed below.
III. FALLING-BALL VISCOMETER
The rolling-ball principle uses gravity as the driving force. A ball rolls through a
closed capillary filled with sample fluid which is inclined at a defined angle. The time it takes
the ball to travel a defined measuring distance is a measure for the fluids viscosity. The
inclination angle of the capillary permits the user to vary the driving force. If the angle is too
steep, the rolling speed causes turbulent flow. For calculating the viscosity from the measured
time, the fluids density and the ball density need to be known.
Instruments that perform at inclination angles between 10 and 80 are rolling-ball
viscometers. If the inclination angle is 80 or greater, the instrument is referred to as a falling-
ball viscometer. Apart from balls as falling objects there are other viscometers which use rods
or needles. Another variety of this principle is the bubble viscometer, which registers the
rising time of an air bubble in the sample over a defined distance. The oscillating piston
viscometer (ASTM D 7483) is an exception: It does not rely on gravity as the driving force
but uses electromagnetic force to pull a magnetic cylinder through the sample.
 The following forces have a dominating influence on the rolling ball: While gravity
pulls the ball downwards, the buoyancy inside the liquid and the liquid's viscosity oppose the
gravitational force. The stronger the viscous force is, the slower the ball rolls.
To calculate the balls viscosity from the rolling time, the gravitational and buoyancy
influence have to be considered. While the influence of gravity (FG) depends on the ball's
density and volume, an object's buoyancy depends also on the liquid's density. This is why
both the density of the liquid and the density of the ball need to be known to obtain a
viscosity result.

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