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Abstract
We introduce parametric description of surfaces in R3 , surface in-
tegrals of scalar and vector fields. We also treat oriented surfaces and
some applications of Gauss law. We finish this lecture by presenting
two fundamental theorems in Vector Calculus having applications in
Electromagnetism: the divergence and Stokes theorems.
r : D R2 R3 , D = {(t, s) R2 | a t b, c s d}.
Example 1 We want to find out the surface S described by the vector func-
tion
r(t, s) = 2 cos t ex + s ey + 2 sin t ez .
According to the definition above points on S with coordinates x, y and z will
be parameterized according to
x = 2 cos t, y = s, z = 2 sin t.
x+ z 2 = 4 cos2 t + 4 sin2 t = 4.
1
Thus, we obtain the equation of a circle of radius 2. On the other hand y = s
tells us that there is no restriction on s which is allowed to take any real
value. We conclude that S is a cylinder of radius 2 and axis coinciding with
the y-axis.
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 .
Surface area is the measure of how much exposed area a solid object has, ex-
pressed in square units. Mathematical description of the surface area is con-
siderably more involved than the definition of arc length of a curve. Smooth
surfaces, such as a sphere, are assigned surface area using their representa-
tion as parametric surfaces. This definition of the surface area is based on
methods of infinitesimal calculus and involves partial derivatives and double
integration.
Definition 2 Let S be a smooth parametric surface (that is x, y and z have
continuous partial derivatives of any order with respect to s and t) given by
where
rt = (t x) ex + (t y) ey + (t z) ez , (2)
rs = (s x) ex + (s y) ey + (s z) ez . (3)
2
Example 3 We want to apply the above formula to compute the surface
of a sphere of radius a. In a previous example we already found that the
parametrization of the surface of a sphere is
Finally,
|r r | = a2 sin .
Applications of (1) gives
ZZ Z 2 Z
A(S) = |r r | dA = a 2
d d sin = 2a2 cos |0 = 4a2 .
D 0 0
3
with dA = dxdy. In the case that S is given in parametric form by means of
the vector function
with a t b, c s d we have
ZZ ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS = f (r(t, s))|rt rs | dA, (5)
S D
e
4
Oriented surfaces and surface integrals of vector fields
Imagine that we have a fluid flowing through a surface S, such that v(r)
determines the velocity of the fluid at (x, y, z). The flux is defined as the
quantity of fluid flowing through S in unit amount of time. This illustration
implies that if the vector field is tangent to S at each point, then the flux
is zero, because the fluid just flows in parallel to S, and neither in nor out.
This also implies that if v does not just flow along S, that is, if v has
both a tangential and a normal component, then only the normal component
contributes to the flux. Based on this reasoning, to find the flux, we need
to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to S at each
point, which will give us a scalar field, and integrate the obtained field by
means of (4) or (5). A unit surface normal to a flat surface is a vector that
is perpendicular to that surface. A normal to a non-flat surface at a point P
on the surface is a vector perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface
at P . A normal to a surface does not have a unique direction: the vector
pointing in the opposite direction of a surface normal is also a surface normal.
For a surface which is the boundary of a solid object in three dimensions, one
can distinguish between the inward-pointing normal and outer-pointing
normal, which can help define the normal in a unique way. In mathematics,
orientability is a property of surfaces in Euclidean space measuring whether
or not it is possible to make a consistent choice of surface normal vector at
every point. In what follows we will always suppose that our surface S
is orientable. This requirement rules out the manifestation of pathological
surfaces like the Klein bottle or the Mobius1 strip but this is another story
that should be discussed in a Differential Geometry course. Nevertheless,
you should be aware that the Mobius strip find applications in electronics.
A device called a M obius resistor is an electronic circuit element which
has the property of canceling its own inductive reactance. Nikola Tesla2
patented similar technology in the early 1900s and was intended for use with
his system of global transmission of electricity without wires. To find the
unit normal vector n b to an orientable surface S described by z = g(x, y) or
through a parameterization r(t, s) we shall use the formula
rt rs (x g) ex (y g) ey + ez
n
b= = p . (6)
|rt rs | 1 + (x g)2 + (y g)2
Example 5 Find the unit normal vector n b for a sphere of radius a. We
already know that the parametric representation of the surface of a sphere is
1
August Ferdinand M obius (1790-1868) was a German mathematician and theoretical
astronomer.
2
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was a Serbian inventor, mechanical and electrical engineer.
5
given by
|r r | = a2 sin .
Therefore,
r r r
n
b= = sin cos ex + sin sin ey + cos ez = .
|r r | a
n
b = r(, ).
Hence,
b = 2 sin cos cos + sin2 sin2
Fn
Applying (7) and (5) we obtain
ZZ ZZ ZZ
F dS = Fnb dS = (F n
b )|r r | dd,
S S D
e
Z 2 Z
= d d(2 sin2 cos cos + sin3 sin2 ),
0
Z 2 0 Z Z 2 Z
2 2
= 2 d cos d sin cos + d sin d sin3 .
0 0 0 0
6
The first integral in the last line is zero since
Z 2
d cos = sin(2) sin(0) = 0.
0
7
represents the electric flux across S. Furthermore, Gauss law says that the
net charge inside a closed surface S is
ZZ
Q = 0 E dS,
S
where 0 is the electric permittivity of free space. We want to find the total
charge Q inside the solid hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 a2 , z 0 when the
electric field is given by
E(x, y, z) = x ex + y ey + 2z ez .
First of all notice, that the surface S across which we want to compute the flux
of the electric field consists of a spherical top surface S1 and a lower surface
S2 represented by a disk of radius a. We choose a positive orientation for S,
that is outward normal vectors. Thus, the total charge inside S is
ZZ ZZ
Q = 0 E dS1 + 0 E dS2 ,
S1 S2
ZZ ZZ
= 0 (E n
b 1 ) dS1 + 0 (E n
b 2 ) dS2 .
S1 S2
Concerning the flux across S2 the outward unit normal vector is simply n
b2 =
ez since S2 lies on the xy-plane. Further, notice that points on S2 have
vanishing z coordinate. Hence,
ZZ ZZ ZZ
(E n
b 2 ) dS2 = 2 z dS2 = 2 z dxdy = 0.
S2 S2 x2 +y 2 a2 , z=0
8
formula (4) implies
ZZ
0
Q = (x2 + y 2 + 2z 2 ) dS1 ,
a S1
ZZ
0
q
2 2 2 2 2
= {x + y + 2[a (x + y )]} 1 + (x g)2 + (y g)2 dxdy,
a D
ZZ
0
q
2 2 2
= [2a (x + y )] 1 + (x g)2 + (y g)2 dxdy,
a D
we find that
s
x2 y2
q
1 + (x g)2 + (y g)2 = 1+ + ,
a2 (x2 + y 2 ) a2 (x2 + y 2 )
s
a2 (x2 + y 2 ) + x2 + y 2
= ,
a2 (x2 + y 2 )
s
a2
= ,
a2 (x2 + y 2 )
a
= p .
a2 (x2 + y 2 )
Moreover
2a2 (x2 + y 2 )
q
2 2 2
[2a (x + y )] 1 + (x g)2 + (y g)2 = a p .
a2 (x2 + y 2 )
2a2 (x2 + y 2 )
ZZ
Q = 0 p dxdy.
D a2 (x2 + y 2 )
9
polar coordinates by means of the determinant of the Jacobian of the trans-
formation (x, y) (, ) (for more details go back to Lecture XIX), that
is
dxdy = dd.
Thus, we obtain
2 a a
(2a2 2 ) (2a2 2 )
Z Z Z
Q = 0 d d p = 20 d p .
0 0 a2 2 0 a2 2
Notice that
dp 2
a 2 = p .
d a 2
2
h = T,
where is the thermal conductivity of the solid object. The heat flow across
the surface S enclosing the solid is
ZZ ZZ
h dS = T dS.
S S
10
if we set the centre of the ball to be at the origin of the coordinate system.
The local heat flux is
h = C(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 2C(x ex + y ey + z ez ) = 2Cr.
The outward unit normal to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 is
r
b= .
n
R
Hence, ZZ ZZ
h dS = (h n
b ) dS.
S S
In particular,
rr r2
hnb = 2C = 2C .
R R
The flux across S becomes
ZZ ZZ ZZ
2C
h dS = (h n
b ) dS = r2 dS.
S S R S
Notice that if the surface S lies on the xy-plane with upward orientation
(b
n = ez ), then Stokes theorem reduces to Greens theorem since
Z ZZ ZZ
F dr = ( F) dS = ( F) n
b dS,
C S S
ZZ ZZ
= ( F) ez dS = ( F)z dS,
Z ZS S
= (x Fy y Fx ) dS.
S
11
Example 9 Consider the vector field
F(x, y, z) = yz ex + xz ey + xy ez .
Compute ZZ
( F) dS,
S
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, x2 + y 2 = 1
12
and the vector field F along C will be
F(x, y, z) = yz ex + xz ey + xy ez = 3 sin t ex + 3 cos t ey + sin t cos t ez .
The line integral (9) can now be computed by the formula for line integrals
of vector fields and we have
Z Z 2
dr
F dr = dt F(r(t)) ,
C dt
Z0 2
= dt [ 3 sin t ex + 3 cos t ey + sin t cos t ez ] [ sin t ex + cos t ey ],
0
Z 2 2 2
Z 2
= 3 dt (cos t sin t) = 3 dt cos (2t),
0 0
2
3
= sin (2t) = 0.
2
0
to compute the net charge inside a closed surface S of the solid hemisphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 a2 , z 0 when the electric field is given by
E(x, y, z) = x ex + y ey + 2z ez .
First of all notice that due to the symmetry of the problem the charge inside
the given solid hemisphere will be one half of the total charge inside the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 . If denote the surface of that sphere we have
ZZ ZZ
0
Q = 0 E dS = E d
S 2
13
and applying the divergence theorem we find
ZZZ
0
Q= ( E) dV,
2 E
where E denotes the solid region whose boundary is the surface of the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 . A trivial computation shows that
E = x x + y y + z (2z) = 4.
() = (x ex + y ey + z ez ) ( x ex + y ey + z ez ),
= x ( x ) + y ( y ) + z ( z ),
= x x + xx + y y + yy + z z + zz ,
= xx + yy + zz + x x + y y + z z ,
= (xx + yy + zz )+
+(x ex + y ey + z ez ) (x ex + y ey + z ez )
= 2 + () ().
14
Practice problems
1. Prove the following identity
( F) = grad(divF) 2 F
assuming that the appropriate partial derivatives exist and are contin-
uous.
2. If
r
F=
rp
find F. Is there a value of p for which F = 0?
3. This exercise shows a connection between the curl vector and rotations.
Let B be a rigid body (for instance a disk) rotating about the z-axis.
The rotation can be described by the vector w = ez , where is
the angular velocity of B, that is, the tangential speed of any point
P in B divided by the distance d from the axis of rotation. Let r =
x ex + y ey + z ez be the position vector of P .
divE = 0,divB = 0,
1 1
E = t B, B = t E,
c c
where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Use these equations to prove
the following
1
(a) ( E) = tt E
c2
1
(b) ( B) = 2 tt B
c
1
(c) 2 E = 2 tt E (Hint: Use problem 1.)
c
15
1
(d) 2 B = tt B.
c2
5. Identify the surface with the following vector equation
8. Find the area of the helicoid (or spiral ramp) with vector equation
with 0 u 1 and 0 v .
where S is the part of the plane z = y + 3 that lies inside the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = 1.
ZZ
11. Evaluate the surface integral F dS for the given vector field F and
S
the oriented surface S. In other words, find the flux of F across S. For
closed surfaces, use the positive (outward) orientation.
p y, z) = y ex + x ey + 3z ez , S is the hemisphere z =
(c) F(x,
16 (x2 + y 2 ) with upward orientation.
16
12. Use Gauss law to find the charge enclosed by the cube with vertices
(1, 1, 1) if the electric field is
E(x, y, z) = x ex + y ey + z ez .
F(x, y, z) = (xx + z 2 ) ex + (y y + x2 ) ey + (z z + y 2 ) ez
when a particle moves under its influence around the edge of the part
of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 that lies in the first octant, in a coun-
terclockwise direction as viewed from above.
18. Use the divergence theorem to evaluate the flux of F across S for
17
(b) F(x, y, z) = xz ex yz ey + z 2 ez and S is the ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + = 1.
a2 a2 a2
19. Verify that E = 0 for the electric field
Q
E(x, y, z) = x.
|r|3
18