1.

BLACKBODY RADIATION

1.1 Introduction
Following Hertz experiment (transmission and receiving of electromagnetic waves), the
fundamental nature of light appeared clear. Light be made up of electromagnetic waves that obeyed
Maxwells theory. It travels with constant velocity c, in vacuum. It is transverse in nature and hence
it may be polarized and it can exhibit interference and diffraction. This certainly lasted only two
years. The first indication that something was seriously incorrect came from the attempts to
understand the origin of the radiation emitted by bodies of matter.
When a material is heated, it radiates heat and its color depends on its temperature of the
material, going from IR to red to yellow to white as it becomes hotter and hotter. All materials
constantly exchange energy to the surroundings by absorbing and emitting energy at the same rate to
maintain the constant temperature. At room temperature most of the radiation is in the infrared part
of the spectrum and hence is invisible.
An surface( body) one that absorbs all the radiation fall incident on it and emit all the
radiation absorbed when heated, Such a body is called Blackbody. The spectrum of the blackbody
radiation is shown below. The intensity of radiation corresponding to different wavelengths is
measured at different temperatures and plotted.

From this study it is observed that

1. The radiation emitted by a black body varies with temperature.
2. At a given temperature, the energy is not uniformly distributed.
3. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation is maximum at a particular wavelength max.
4. With increase in temperature, max decreases and increase in the energy emitted.

1.2 Stefan- Boltzmann`s law

The area under each energy spectrum curve represents the total energy emitted at that
particular temperature. The area increases with the increase in the temperature. In 1879 Josef
Stefan experimentally observed that the power per unit area of a blackbody is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E T4
E = T4

Where is proportionality constant know as Stefans constant equal to 5.6705 108Wm-2K-4

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
1.3 Wien's laws of radiation .
Wien's displacement law
From thermodynamical consideration, Wien showed that the product of the wavelength
corresponding to the maximum energy max and absolute temperature is a constant.
max T = constant

Wien's displacement constant, equal to 2.8977685103 mK

Wien's distribution law

Wien deduced the radiation law for the energy emitted at a given temperature T for a given
wavelength is
C2

E d C1 e 5 T
d
Where C1 and C2 are constants. Wiens law holds good only for shorter wavelength region. but does
not match the experimental results for larger wave length region.

1.4 Rayleigh-Jeans law

According to Rayleigh and Jeans the energy density per unit volume , Ed, emitted by a
blackbody in a wavelength interval and + d is given by
8KT
E d d
4

where k is the Boltzmanns constant whose value is equal to 1.381 1023JK1

`
Rayleigh- Jeans law holds good with experimental
measurements for long wavelengths only. From the above
equation as the decreases towards the ultraviolet end of the
spectrum , then the energy density Ed should increase . In the
limit of low wavelength energy density should go to infinity.
This was not supported by experiments, the energy density falls
to 0 as 0 and the failure is known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe of classical physics or Rayleigh-Jeans catastrophe.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
1.4 Plancks law of black-body radiation

In 1901 Max Planck derived a theoretical expression for the energy distribution on the basis
of quantum theory of heat radiation. According to him

1. The blackbody contains number of oscillators in the atomic dimensions.

2. Energy is emitted in the form of packets called quanta or photons.
3. Each photon has an energy h, where h is the Plancks constant.
4. According to this theory the energy in not emitted continuously by the body but it is
emitted in certain multiples of fundamental frequencies h

In general, the possible values of the energies are

En = n h (quantum number, n = 1,2,3,n...)
By using Maxwell Boltzmann distribution function,

( )
=
Planck`s derived radiation formula for the energy density per unit volume , Ed, emitted by
a blackbody in a wavelength interval and + d as

8hc 1
E ( )d d
5 e hc / kT 1

The energy density per unit volume , Ed, emitted by a blackbody in a frequency interval and +
d as

8h 3 1
E (v)dv e dv
c 3 hv / kT
1

This is Plancks radiation law. It is seen from the formula that the exponential term in the
denominator prevents E() from rising to infinity at small wavelength values. Plancks formula gives
complete fit with experimental observations at all wavelength and for all temperatures.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
Derivation Wiens law and Rayleigh-Jeans law from Plancks law
The Plancks law of blackbody radiation expressed in terms of wavelength is given by

Plancks law , 8hc 1

E ( )d d
5 e hc / kT 1
Case :1

For shorter wave length

In the limit of shorter wavelengths, hc/kT becomes very small resulting in

() 1

Therefore ()-1 1 ()-1 ()

This reduces the Plancks law to

d =8 5 ( ) d

Now identifying 8hc as C1 and hc/kC2, the above equation takes the form

2
d= C15 ( ) d

This represents Wiens radiation law

Case:2

For longer wave length region

is small

x x 2 x3
() = 1+ ex 1
1! 2! 3!
8
d = d
4
This represents Rayleigh-Jeans law

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
2. PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

2.1 Introduction
Heinrich Hertz
Back in 1887
Hertz clarified Maxwells electromagnetic theory of light. He established that light was a
form of electromagnetic radiation. Hertz also proved that electricity can be transmitted as
electromagnetic waves. Hertz was the first person to broadcast and receive electromagnetic waves.
During his experiment on electromagnetic waves, Hertz observed that spark occurred when
accidently ultraviolet rays was directed on metal surface. This phenomenon was studied
experimentally by his assistant Lenard and others. They discovered that the cause was electron
emitted from the metal surface when ultraviolet rays fall on it.
The process of emission of electrons from a material when electromagnetic radiation above
certain frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect. The electron are emitted due to the
interaction of photons with the atoms in the material and the emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons. The current due to this phenomena is called photoelectric current.

2.2 Experimental study of Photoelectric effect

The experimental arrangement used to demonstrate the

photoelectric effect is shown below. The apparatus is made of
evacuated quartz tube Q. The quartz consist of two metal plates,
anode A and cathode C. The photoelectric material is coated on
the cathode C. The light enters through the window W. The
photocurrent and potential can be measured by ammeter and
voltmeter. The applied voltage can be varied by potentiometer.
When a light ray of frequency is incident on the
cathode C through window, photoelectric effect takes place. This
result in emission of photoelectrons and these electrons flow
through the circuit. The existence of the photoelectric effect is not surprising. Light wave carry
energy (based on wave nature of light ), the energy is absorbed by electron and ejected. But three
experimental findings show that no such simple explanation is possible.
The effect of potential difference, effect of intensity, photo metal and frequency
For a given photo metallic surface A and keeping intensity and frequency constant the photocurrent
are studied for various cathode potentials. When the Cathode potential positive is maintained +ve a
photocurrent flows and if increased photocurrent is also increases. Further increase in the +ve
potential photocurrent reaches a certain maximum value called saturation current .

When the cathode potential is zero still photocurrent exists and flows & in the same direction.

For cathode potential negative the photo current does not immediately drops to zero and photo
current flows in the same direction as before.If the negative or retarding potential is further increased
the photo current decreases and finally becomes zero.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
 The negative potential of the cathode at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is
called as cut off or stopping potential

1. 1.This shows that the photoelectrons are emitted with a finite velocity

2. It is an instantaneous phenomenon. By the classical wave front theory over one month may
be need for the electron to absorb energy to escape from the metal surface.
3. The number of photoelectrons emitted is increased with the increase in intensity of the
incident radiation. With the increase in intensity, the energy of the photo electrons remains
same. From classical theory, as intensity increases the energy of the electron should increase.
4. Photoelectric effect is possible only when the incident light radiation exceeds a critical
frequency o, called threshold frequency. Below the frequency o even if the intensity is
increased no electrons was emitted.
The above observed features of photoelectric effect could not be explained on the basis of the
electromagnetic theory of light. Based on Plancks quantum theory of radiation, Einstein explained
the photoelectric effect by considering light as particle by proposing a simple equation known as
Einsteins photoelectric equation.

2.3 Einsteins photoelectric equation

According to Plancks quantum theory of radiation, the energy associated with a photon is
h. Einstein explained photoelectric effect by considering light as particles and the photons have
Plancks energy h. Let us consider that the light of frequency is incident on the surface and its
energy is completely transferred to electron in the material. A part of the is used to remove the
electron from the inner surface and the remaining part is used as kinetic energy by the emitted
electron.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, if the intensity is increased only the number of
photons will increase not the energy, so photoelectric effect could not observed. By quantum theory
if frequency increases the energy of the photon increases. Hence by quantum theory the photoelectric
effect is explained.
The energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material is called
photoelectric work function o. of the material (i.e. the minimum energy required to remove an
electron from the metal surface with zero velocity).
With photoelectric work function of the surface, the kinetic energy acquired by the electron
and the energy of the incident radiation the following relation is given by Einstein.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
 m 2 (1)
h o
2
The above equation is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation. Based on this equation
Einstein explained photoelectric effect as
i) When the frequency of the incident light = o, the photo electrons are ejected from
the metal surface with zero velocity ( v = 0). Then the equation (1) becomes
(2)
h o o
Substituting the value of o in equation (1) we get

m 2
h hvo hvo K .E
2
K .E h hvo
K .E h(v vo ) (3)

The above equation gives the relation between the kinetic energy and the frequency of the
radiation.
If the K.E of the emitted photoelectrons is reduced to zero by applying a potential of V s ,Then
the energy eVs which opposes the electron to reach anode is equal to the maximum kinetic energy.
The electron just stays on the metal surface. This applied potential is called as stopping potential Vs.
1
eVs m max
2
(4)
2
Photoelectric effect finds more applications in LDR ( light dependent resistor), solar cell as
photovoltaic cell (PV cells),etc

3 COMPTON EFFECT
3.1 Introduction
According to the quantum theory of light, photon behaves like particles. Considering the
particle property of light, the scattering of light from matter can be approached as collision between
two particles. Like ordinary light waves X-rays are scattered by matter in two different ways.
Thompson scattering (Coherent scattering)
Compton scattering ( Incoherent scattering)
In Thompson coherent scattering X-rays are scattered in all direction without change in
wavelength this was explained by classical electromagnetic theory.

3.2 Compton Scattering

When a monochromatic X-rays of wavelength is allowed to fall on a block of paraffin or
carbon, then the scattered beam consist of x-rays of two components, one with a wave length equal
to the incident wavelength along the incident beam. The other with higher wavelength , which
depends on angle of scattering. This effect is known as Compton Scattering or Compton effect.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
 The change in wavelength was explained by Compton on
the basis of quantum theory of radiation. According to this
theory, X-rays consists of photon with energy h collides
elastically with free electron which is at rest. During this elastic
collision, the incident photon transfers some of its energy to the
electron. Due to this energy transfer the electron acquire kinetic
energy and recoils with a velocity v. The scattered photon comes
out with a reduced energy h or increased wavelength .
The momentum of the photon from relativity is

E 2 p 2 c 2 (mo c 2 ) 2 (1)
For mass less particle ( photon) the rest mass, mo = 0

The momentum for mass less particle is

E 2 p 2c 2
E h (2)
p
c c

By the principle of
Conservation of energy
Total energy before collision = total energy after collision

Energy of photon energy of energy of the photon energy of the recoil

+ = +
before collision electron at rest after collision electron
hv m0 c 2 hv mc 2

mc 2 hv hv m0 c 2

m 2 c 4 h 2 v 2 h 2 v 2 2h 2 vv m02 c 4 2(hv hv)m0 c 2 (3)

Conservation of momentum
As momentum is a vector quantity it has to be resolved in to X and Y components
Along X axis

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
 hv hv
0 cos m cos (4)
c c
Along Y axis
hv
00 sin m sin (5)
c
From equation (4) and (5)
m c cos hv hv cos
m c sin hv sin
Squaring and adding above two equations we get
m 2 2 c 2 h 2 v 2 h 2 v 2 cos 2 2h 2 vv cos h 2 v 2 sin 2
m 2 2 c 2 h 2 v 2 h 2 v 2 2h 2 vv cos (6)
Subtract equation (6) from equation (3) we get
m 2 c 2 (c 2 2 ) m02 c 4 2h 2 vv (1 cos ) 2h(v v )m0 c 2 (7)
From relativity, the relation for variation of mass with velocity
m0 m0 c 2 m02 c 4
m m 2 m c 2
2 2

2 c 2 c 2
1 2
c
m 2 c 2 (c 2 2 ) m02 c 4 (8)
substitute equation(8) in (7), we get
2h(v v )m0 c 2 2h 2 vv (1 cos )
(v v ) h
(1 cos )
vv m0 c 2
1 1 h
(1 cos )
m0 c 2
c c h
(1 cos )
m0 c
h
(1 cos )
mo c

h
or
2 sin 2
mo c 2

h
c is called Compton wavelength
mo c
The above relation shows that, is independent of the wavelength of the incident light as well as
the nature of the scattering substance. It depends only on the angle of scattering.

CaseI : when =0, cos = 1

The change in wave length = 0

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED
Case II: when =90, cos 90= 0
Then Change in wavelength

h 6.626 X 10 34
31 8
0.02427 Ao
mo c (9.1X 10 )(3 X 10 )

Case III: when =180, cos 180= 1

Then Change in wavelength
2h 2 X 6.626 X 10 34
31 8
0.0485 Ao
mo c (9.1X 10 )(3 X 10 )

3.3 Experimental verification

A monochromatic beam of X-rays of
wavelength 0.0709 nm is allowed to fall on the
carbon scatter. A Braggs spectrometer which has
calcite single crystal and ionization chamber is used
to measure the wavelength of scattered rays.
The X-rays is made to fall on the calcite
crystal directly to measure the wavelength of the
incident ray. By using Braggs formula 2d sin = n
wavelength () of incident X-rays can be calculated.
The X-rays made to fall on carbon and scattered
towards the calcite crystal then for different
angles were calculated by using Braggs law. The
change in wavelength for different angels was
calculated.
For 90 = 0.0709nm = 0.0731nm
=0.0022nm or 0.022A which is in agreement
theoretical value 0.02427A.

Dr.H.Aswathaman,ACED