CCTV Course Notes

COPYRIGHT 2005 STAM Multimedia Inc. All rights reserved.
WARNING
The copyright of the Course Notes is owned by STAM Multimedia Inc. and is
protected by US copyright laws and other copyright laws by international
treaties.
Any infringement of the copyright by unauthorized reproduction, adaptation,

distribution or any use other than the use permitted under the license
agreement is prohibited.
As a registered user of the the Web Based Training course CCTV The
Complete Review you are allowed to make a single print of these Course
Notes.
_____________________________________________________________
Prepared by:
Jayant Kapatker
STAM Multimedia Inc.
P O Box 466 Plainsboro NJ 08536
USA
Tel: (609) 750 9827

Fax: (609) 750 1936
Email: jayant@stamweb.com.
Web: www.stamweb.com
STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 1

LAUNCH THE ONLINE COURSE
Step 1:
Log on to the website you used to enroll in the course with the username and password entered at
the time of enrollment.
Step 2:
Navigate through the various windows until you come upon the Main Menu,shown below:
Note: If a window appears blank,the actual content may be represented as an icon at the top
left corner of the window.(This may be caused by pop-up blockers)
Step 3:
There are six topics appearing on the Main Menu.You will explore most of these topics later in
this section.
CCTV Review: Contains the body of the online course.

Program Support: Contains a brief explanation of how to navigate
through the online course.
Pre-Test: A self-assessment that you use to find your level of
existing knowledge about CCTV before you begin the online course.
Quit: Click this item to exit the online course.

Knowledge Assessment: This Workbook prompts you to complete this assessment after you
have completed every lesson of
the online course.
Survey: This Workbook will prompt you to complete this survey after you have completed the
online course.
TAKE THE ONLINE PRETEST

Step 4: Before you continue, complete the Pre-Test:
1. Click Pre-test on the Main Menu of the online course.
2. Complete the questions to the best of your ability.
3. When complete, submit your answers and print your results for later
reference.
Note: No one will see these results but you!
4. When you have completed the Pretest and have printed the results, return to the Main Menu.
BEGIN THE CCTV REVIEW COURSE
Step 5: Click CCTV Review on the Main Menu.
The Component Menu will appear as shown below:

Note:
The topics on the Component Menu are not numbered.The lessons in the Work Book will guide you
through to complete the course.
Step 6: For practice, click on CCTV Applications on the Component Menu.
A typical lesson content window will appear, as shown below.

The topics are
shown in line.For
some topics you will
find another row of
sub-topics under the
row of topics
Body of
Course
Content for
this
Subtopic
Control Panel
Step 7: Roll your mouse on each icon of the Control Panel to see its description..
Step 8: Click on the Main Menu and Component Menu icons to see where they take you.Then return to
this page.
Step 9: Click on the Glossary icon.When done click the Close button at the top of the
window.
Tip: The Email icon allows you to contact the experts involved with this online course.Reply is prompt.
Step 10:
Click the Help icon in the Control Panel.
1. In the resulting window click on each button on the left to read the description.Pay particular attention to
these important items:
Control Panel
Icon of the circuit board

Flashing mouse symbol (appears to remind you to click items to get more information)
Hot Words (which appear as blue throughout the online course)

Quiz icon
Blue Buttons (click them to see additional important details)
Related Topics
2.After exploring the Help Section Close the window to return to the topic.
Step 11.
After studying Introduction ,click on the Security topic button to advance to the next topic.
Read the text and view the photos and proceed.
.Tip: Whenever blue buttons appear click them to see additional details.
Step 12 :
Click on each topic on the top to move through the lesson.
Step 13: When you are finished with the CCTV Applications lesson, return to the Component
Menu (by clicking the icon in the Control Panel along the bottom of the window).
Step 14:
Examine the figure below which is from the online course:

Current Topic(Types) and Sub-topic(B&W CCD Cameras)
This topic(Types) has a Quiz)
Always click
on Blue
buttons and
Circuit
Boards
Title of current lesson
Tip: After completing each of the sub-topics,click on the Quiz button to review the topic by taking the
quiz.You only will see the score.
Note: Most of the displayed content windows also have sound.( A human voice discussing the topic in
addition to the test and graphics)
Step 15:
Investigate more by navigating around the course.For this,return to the Main Menu (select it from the
Control Panel),.
1. Click on the Program Support option.Notice that it provides the same Help that you see when you select
Help(?) from the Control Panel.
2. Click on the circuit board icon to open the sample window. Click on the circuit board in the resulting
sample window to demonstrate how a blue box appears containing the detail.
3. Notice that this example has a Next>> option.Click on Next>> to continue.
4.When finished click anywhere in the blue box.The window closes.
5.Click on the Close button to close the Help(Program Support) window.
Step 16:
Return to the Main Menu to continue.
DOWNLOAD THE COURSE NOTES

Note: The online course includes Course Notes that can be a useful reference after you complete the online
course and after your access to the course has expired (after 60 days).
Step 17: Download the Course Notes for future reference and to serve as a reference to details as you
complete the Workbook for the CCTV Basics Course:
1.While launching the online course you opened many related windows.
Minimize all windows until you see the one shown below:
2. Select Click here to download the zip files containing the notes to your computer.
Tip: If you cannot locate this window log off the online course and log back in. Then, as you follow the
windows to access the online course, the window shown above will appear.
3. Restore the Main Menu window that you minimized.

Tip: You can close the other windows related to the online course as you work through the course, if
desired.
4. Open the Course Notes and browse through it to get an idea of the type of information it contains
.Note: It is recommended that you print the Course Notes.The Workbook will often refer
to these Course Notes as you proceed through the lessons.
5.Close or minimize the Course Notes.
SECTION SUMMARY
As you proceed through the online course, be sure to:

Complete each sub-topic for each online topic.
After completing the sub-topics, watch for the Quiz button; if it appears, complete the quiz questions and
check your answers.
Repeat any window, if needed, to review its content.
Watch for and click:
- The icon of the circuit board (for technical detail)
- The flashing mouse symbol to get more information)
- Hot Words (highlighted as blue) to get definitions)
- Blue Buttons (to see additional important details)

Let the Workbook tell you when to begin each lesson.
CCTV: A COMPLETE REVIEW
DEFINITION OF CCTV
CCTV stands for Closed Circuit Television. Some people define CCTV as " A
distribution system which limits reception of an image to those receivers or monitors
which are directly connected to the origination point by coaxial cable, microwave link or
other transmission mediums.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A SECURITY SYSTEM

The major components of any security system are
- Guards
- Patrol
- Alarms and Alarm Monitoring
- Access Control Systems
- CCTV Systems
- Intercom Systems
1. Guards and patrols are the more traditional methods of maintaining security.
2. The latest trend is towards electronic security using all the technology available these
days. Out of all the electronic security systems, alarms are the oldest and therefore have
the greatest penetration in the market place.
3. CCTV and Access Control Systems are the fastest growing segments in the security
industry.
These course notes deal with the CCTV aspect of Security systems.

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF CCTV SYSTEMS
Many people feel that security is the only application of CCTV. This is not true. CCTV
applications are growing everyday and are being used for many different purposes. Some
of the other applications of CCTV are as follows.
- Security
- Monitoring (wildlife, environment etc.)
- Process control
- Audio/ Video communication
- Medical electronics
- Robotics
Currently, CCTV is most popular for its security applications . Here again the uses and
applications are growing very rapidly. If you think about it you will realise that CCTV
covers all segments of society.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CCTV
A CCTV system is made up of various components and as long as you understand the
uses and limitations of each component ,you can design a CCTV system quite easily.
The major components are:
I CAMERAS
II LENSES
III CCTV ACCESSORIES
IV TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
V SWITCHING/ CONTROL SYSTEMS
VI MONITORS
VII RECORDING SYSTEMS
The lens "sees" the view; the camera converts that view into some form of electrical
signal. The transmission system sends that signal to a control room. If you have 40
cameras you cannot have 40 monitors, therefore you require a switching system which
displays the cameras on a limited number of monitors. The monitor converts the signal
back into optics. The recording system is to record the events for later evaluation.
The components remain the same for every application but the design of the CCTV
system varies.
We now discuss each component in more detail:
CAMERA
MONITOR
LENS TRANSMISSION
VCR
SWITCHER

I. CAMERAS
Cameras are generally the heart of any CCTV system and determine its quality . The
term camera comes from Latin which means "dark chamber". In the middle ages it was
an artist's tool to trace images. In the 19th century, the word camera referred to film
cameras. These days cameras refer to film, photographic and video machines.
There are a lot of similarities between the human eye and the CCTV camera. They both
have lenses, irises, a light sensitive imaging area, resolution, colour sensitivities etc.
PRINCIPLES OF PICTURE FORMATION.

To understand picture formation in a CCTV camera it is important to know about the
Principle of Persistency of the human eye. Objects seen by the human eye retain images
upto 40ms after they disappear from sight. This means if still images are moved at a rate
faster than 24 images per second (which is approximately equal to 40ms ) the human
eye would perceive them to be continuous.
PAL standard (used in Australia) uses 25 frames per second. This speed makes the
images look continuous. A frame is therefore the basic unit of the image and contains 625
horizontal lines (by PAL definition).
Types of Cameras
TUBE CAMERAS
Traditionally only tube cameras were available in the market place. These cameras had
many major problems. Some of them were:
- High maintenance cost

- Limited life of camera tube
- Ghost images and tube burn outs
- Bulky and very heavy
These drawbacks meant that CCTV applications were quite limited and used only by
people who were ready to take all the pain which came along with the cameras.
CCD CAMERAS
CCD ( charge coupled device) cameras were introduced in the mid eighties for CCTV
applications. In this technology there is no tube but a light sensitive chip. This chip has a
few hundred thousand pixels. Each pixel is light sensitive and produces a charge
proportional to the light falling on it. It is as simple as that. This really means that the
CCD cameras are extremely small, light, rugged and virtually maintenance free . Over
the years the technology for chips has also undergone a rapid change.

IMPORTANT CAMERA FEATURES
1. Resolution
This is defined by the number of lines. The more the number of lines the better is the
resolution of the camera. This in turn depends upon the number of pixels in the chips .
Horizontal resolution: This is the number of vertical lines.

Vertical resolution: This is the number of horizontal lines.
Vertical Resolution = Horizontal Resolution =

No of Horizontal lines No of Vertical lines
The resolution is measured by using a resolution chart or using the bandwidth technique.
2 Sensitivity/Minimum Scene Illumination

This is defined in lux and is the indication of the light level the camera can go down to.
The lower the value means the better the sensitivity of the camera. Unfortunately this is
one area which causes a great deal of confusion in the market . Every manufacturer has
his own method of measuring the performance of the camera. Some of the variables are:
Usable Video: There are no standards for this .

Lens Speed: Some use F1.4 lens while others use F1.2 lens
Reflectance levels: Some use 89% while others use 75%.
AGC On/Off: Some manufacturers put the AGC "on" while others
switch "off" the AGC .
The best test is to compare two cameras under similar environments using similar lenses.
To ensure picture formation at the chip level it is important that the above 3 criteria of
specifications are matched. This is always difficult. The camera may be seeing a dark
surface where the reflectance is only 5%, no picture will be formed because the camera
specifications have been measured at 75% reflectance.
Some suppliers define the light level in lux required at the chip while others define the
light required at the scene. This is another source of confusion.
3. S/N (Signal to Noise) ratio:

Image noise is present in any video signal. This noise cannot be eliminated but minimised
by superior design .S/N Ratio gives the ratio between the video signal and noise. Good
cameras generate a smaller noise which in turn means that the S/N ratio will be larger.

This ratio is expressed in decibels (dB) and a ratio of more than 48 dB is considered
good.
4. Camera Voltages:
Most CCTV cameras come in the following 3 voltages
- 240 VAC, 12 DC and 24 VAC.
24 VAC is the most popular voltage for all major projects mainly because it has the
ability to synchronise the cameras and thereby avoid picture roll.
5. What is Synchronisation (sync)?

Every camera has its own internal sync to start the formation of a picture frame. This
means that when a group of cameras are sequenced through a switcher the
Monitor
Switcher
Time Scale
Cam-1 Cam-4
T=0 Frame
T = 1sec
T = nsec
formation of the frame will be at different times, which leads to picture rolling. This is a
source of irritation to the operator watching the pictures and also causes the tearing of
video pictures at the time of playback. To avoid this it is extremely important to
synchronise all the cameras. This is done in the following way:
- Using a common sync generator

- Line lock the cameras to the 24 VAC power supply
- Use the first camera as the master and loop it to other
cameras.
6. Camera Temperature
Most cameras operate between a range of -10 deg C to 50 deg C. This range is wide
enough to suit most situations. The only point to remember is that on hot days when the
outdoor temperature is 35 deg plus, the temperature within the camera housing maybe as

high as 50 deg C. Under such circumstances it would be better to put a blower in the
housing otherwise it is possible that the camera life will be shortened.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CCD CHIPS
- Frame transfer chips

- Interline transfer chips
- Frame Interline transfer chips
- On Chip Lens (OCL) chips
Frame Transfer Chip

The frame transfer chips has a very inefficient way of reading the charge from the pixels
and therefore the picture quality is never the best. The way the charge is read is that the
reading from a pixel is transferred to the next column and then moved to the next column
till the last column. This means that there is only one path available to read the charge of
so many pixels.
Interline Transfer Chip

In between each row of pixels a vertical shift register is installed. In this way the charge
from the pixels is transferred to the vertical shift registers and removed in a more orderly
fashion and this also gives a lot of flexibility..
A major problem of this chip is the smearing effect. This is caused by the over loading of
the pixel/s by light and the entire row of pixels shuts down. The effect can be reduced by
using infrared filters, but then the sensitivity of the camera is reduced.
Frame Interline Transfer Chip

This chip was developed to reduce the smearing problem of the interline chip. The
vertical shift registers along with a multi chip layer means that the charge transfer is
extremely fast and efficient.
This chip is expensive to manufacture and therefore the applications are restricted to the
broadcasting industry.
On Chip Lens (OCL) Chip

This is the latest technology in CCD chips. A tiny condensing lens is positioned precisely
over each pixel. The sensitivity is improved because the previously wasted light is now
concentrated on the pixel.
DIFFERENT CHIP SIZES

Traditionally all the cameras were 2/3 inch( diagonal size of the chip). About 5 years
back 1/2 inch formats were introduced and these days this has more or less become the
standard in the industry. Since about 2 years many 1/3 inch cameras have been

introduced in the market place and this format is about to displace the 1/2 inch format. If
the video intercom is any indication then a 1/6 inch chip may be the next standard.
BLACK AND WHITE CAMERAS

Since the inception of CCD chips , B/W cameras have made rapid improvements in their
performance and the prices have also come down.
The major advantages of black and white cameras are

They give a much better resolution and therefore the pictures are neat and well
defined.
They give a much better performance under low light conditions
B/W cameras are extremely sensitive to Infrared. The human eye cannot see in
infrared but a CCD camera can . This allows the B/W cameras to see in total
darkness by using infrared illuminators.
COLOUR CAMERAS
When tube cameras were available colour was an unknown concept for the CCTV
market. With the introduction of CCD chips colour was introduced for the first time
around 1986-87.
Colour cameras work on the same principle of having hundreds of thousands of light
sensitive pixels. The number of effective pixels is much lower as compared to a black
and white camera because in colour cameras a combination of pixels works as one
effective pixel. This means that resolution of colour cameras has always been much
lower as compared to B/W cameras. Till recently there was not much improvement in
this area. However the recent introduction of the new generation of colour chips has
improved resolution and a 470 line colour camera is about to be the standard in the
industry.
The area where the maximum improvement has taken place in colour technology has
been in the area of sensitivity and the downward movement of prices.
This, along with the narrowing of the price difference means that colour has become the
standard for CCTV systems. B/W cameras will be used only in areas where the light
levels are extremely low.
LIGHT RESPONSE OF CCD CAMERAS

This is an important area to understand. Different light sources have different frequencies
of response. Also the human eye, the CCD chip and the monitor have different
frequencies of response making the whole issue quite complicated. Below are some of
the light sources which are used on a regular basis:

Natural Light Sources:
The sun is the main natural light source, while moonlight is a reflected natural light
source. Sunlight covers the entire frequency range.
Artificial Light Sources:

The most popular artificial light sources are
- Tungsten lamps
- Fluorescent
- Mercury Vapour
- High Pressure Sodium Vapour
- Low Pressure Sodium Vapour
The CCD chips also respond to the light differently. CCD chips are extremely responsive
to Infrared light. The monitors and VCR also respond to light differently and finally the
human eye also has a unique frequency of response. All this makes the question of light
in designing a CCTV system extremely complex.
The human eye is sensitive to green light, while the CCD chip is very sensitive to
infrared light which is not visible to the human eye. The CCD chip functions much better
with a light source having more of infra-red. It is for this reason cameras respond
differently to different light sources.

II LENSES
As mentioned earlier the basic purpose of the lens is to pick up the view which has to be
seen. In this section we will give an indication of what is available and what the trends
are in the market place. It is important to know more about light to give a better
understanding of lenses
THEORY OF LIGHT
Light is a very small portion of the Electro Magnetic Radiation (EMR) that exists in the
universe and covers a frequency of 400nm ( violet colour) to 700 nm (red colour).
Reflection and Refraction

The speed of light is 300,000 km/s in air and vacuum. The speed of light reduces when it
moves from air to a denser medium, the reduction would depend upon the index of
refraction. This reduction of speed "bends" the light beam and this forms the basis of the
construction of lenses. We are all aware from our school physics that there are two basic
types of lenses.
- Concave lenses
- Convex lenses
A CCTV lens is made up of group of different lenses to correct the chromatic aberration.
Different frequencies of light bend differently when they pass through a single convex
lens, which means a scattered focal point. To avoid and correct this, a group of lenses is
required.
FEATURES OF LENSES
1. ANGLE OF VIEW
The focal length of a lens is the distance between the focus point and the optical plane
and is measured in millimetres. In the camera the CCD chip is placed at the focal point of
the lens. There is a range of lenses which are available which have different focal
lengths. This range can be divided into 3 groups:
f=CD/W

C = Chip Size ( 2/3 in = 8.8mm, 1/2 in = 6.4mm & 1/3 in = 4.8mm )
Wide angle lens 3.5mm, 4.8mm

Standard lens 6mm, 12mm, 16mm
Telephoto lens 25mm, 50mm, 75mm
- A wide angle lens normally gives a wide view of the scene, but the drawback of this is
that when you have a wide view you do not get the depth . An object 10m away may be
a small point in the monitor. This fact creates a lot of confusion for prospective buyers.
- The standard fixed lenses copy the human eye pretty closely. Therefore they are the
most popular lenses.
- Telephoto lenses are used to see far away objects. They have a very good depth of view
but the viewing angle is very narrow.
2. F Stop
The F- number of a lens relates to the amount of light that can be gathered by the lens.
The F number is calculated by the focal length divided by the effective diameter of the
lens.
F Stop = f/D
Each increase of one F-stop decreases the relative brightness of the lens by half.
Following is a comparison
F-stop Relative Brightness
1 1
1.4 1/2
2 1/4
2.8 1/8
4 1/16
5.6 1/32
8 1/64
11 1/128
16 1/256
As you can see, a difference of only one F-stop can make a large difference in the light
available for the chip.
3. Depth of Field

Depth of field is the area in front and behind the point of focus which appears sharp on
the monitor. Some of the factors which affect the depth of field are
- F-stop. The larger the F-stop, the larger the depth of field. This is why an auto
iris lens has a large depth of field during the day (the iris is shut, meaning a large F- stop
and a large depth of field) as compared to the night scene (the iris is open fully, meaning
a small F-stop and thereby a small depth of field).
- Focal length. Depth of field increases as the focal length decreases, which is
why wide angle lenses provide sharp foregrounds and backgrounds.
4. Neutral Density (ND) Filters

Very bright images have their illuminance reduced when light enters the lens by the use
of ND filters. For bright images, a high F-stop is required. It is very hard to make a
mechanical iris that will have the precision to operate at high F-stop. The easiest way to
achieve this is by optically blocking the light by means of ND filters when a mechanical
iris is used.
TYPES OF LENSES
Lenses can be divided into the following major groups:
- Fixed lens
- Zoom lens
- Varifocal lens

- Pinhole Lens
1. Fixed lens
Manual iris fixed lens
This is a lens where the iris can be adjusted manually depending upon the light level in
the target area. It is most suited to applications were the light levels are constant.
Auto iris fixed lens

The auto iris lens is more like the human eye . If too much light is present, the eye tends
to automatically close and conversely if too little light is available then the eye opens
up. The auto iris lens functions in exactly the same fashion. It is therefore used in
applications where light fluctuations are expected.
2. Zoom lens
In situations where a wide angle and telephoto views are required the use of zoom lens
becomes necessary. Zoom lenses come in two standard formats.
- 6 :1 or 6X zoom, in which the magnification ratio of the wide angle to the telephoto is 6
. 11mm-69mm or 12.5mm- 75mm are the well known formats for 2/3 inch cameras and
8mm-48mm for the 1/2 inch cameras.
- 10:1 or 10X zoom is the next format available and is a bigger zoom lens with a larger
magnification ratio. 11mm-110mm is the standard for 2/3inch camera while 8mm-80mm
is the format for 1/2 inch cameras.
In the past few years the size of the zoom lens has reduced considerably. There was a
time when zoom lenses were very heavy and twice the size of the cameras. They required
very huge housings. New compact zoom lenses can fit into small housings, and are much
faster.
Motorised iris zoom lens

A motorised iris is used in applications were the client wishes to keep control of the iris
function from a remote location by using some form of lens controller.
Auto iris zoom lens

An auto iris zoom lens is used in environments were some form of light fluctuation is
expected.
3. Pin Hole Lenses

In applications were covert monitoring of a location is to be done, the use of
pinhole lenses becomes very important. The diameter of the pinhole lens is very small
(typical size is 3.5mm) and therefore can be hidden very well. Pinhole lenses have a very
large F stop and therefore require a lot of light. The angle of views too are limited. Pin
hole lenses come in two formats

- Straight pin hole lens
- Right angle pin hole lens
Most pinhole lenses have a fixed iris but there are a few pin hole lenses which are auto
iris.
4. Vari-focal Lenses
These days some lens manufacturers have introduced vari-focal lenses. The main
advantage with them is that they give the option to fine tune the lens to meet the
requirement of the scene to be viewed. The most standard lens has focal length of 6mm to
12mm.
DIFFERENT LENS FORMATS

These days due to the introduction of so many different camera formats (2/3 , 1/2, 1/3
inch) there is a fair amount of confusion in the market place. If, for example, a user had
a tube camera (2/3 inch) which needed replacement and used his existing lens with the
new 1/2 inch camera , he will notice that the area being covered is much narrower. To
get the same view , a special 1/2 inch lens would be needed which will have a smaller
focal length. However the converse is not true, a 1/2 inch lens cannot be used with a
larger format camera.
DIFFERENT LENS MOUNTS

Unfortunately lens format is not the only source of confusion in the market place. Until
recently the standard format in the CCTV industry was C mount lenses, which had a
flange of 17mm. A few years back a new format was introduced , the CS mount, which
has a flange of 12.5mm. The reduction in the flange meant a rapid drop in the size of the
optics required, which resulted in smaller lenses which were obviously cheaper.
Most new cameras are designed to use CS mount lenses. A C mount lens cannot be
used with these cameras by putting an adapter. A CS mount lens cannot be used with a C
mount camera.
CCD Iris
Until recently the iris was a mechanical function. A motor opened and closed the iris
when required. This mechanical aspect was the cause of many problems, like the iris
getting stuck and not responding. These days most new cameras come with electronic
irises which means the iris function is located in the camera and not the lens. In such
situations an auto iris lens is not required, but a simple manual lens will do instead.
Response to light fluctuation is controlled electronically within the camera.
CAMERA INSTALLATION
Camera Adjustments
While installing a camera the following adjustments need to be done:
- AGC: On/Off

- Gamma correction: 1 or 0.45
- Adjust shutter speed
- Camera phase adjustments
- Back focus
Precaution
Before a camera is installed these precautions should be taken:
- Match the format and chip size of the camera with the lens.
- It is always advisable to do the back focus in the workshop, specially if the camera is
being used along with a zoom lens. Doing this at the site can prove to be tough.
- For DC cameras check the polarity and ensure no errors are made. Many cameras do not
have any fuse protection.
- The auto iris plug is always in the camera. Also every camera has a different plug.
Make sure you have the correct plug.
- Always switch off the CCD iris if you are using with an auto iris lens.
- Make sure you have the mounting screws for installing the camera in a housing or
bracket. Some times such simple things can hold up a installation. Also these screws are
not readily available in hardware stores.
LENS INSTALLATION
Adjustments
The following are the adjustments needed in an auto iris lens:
Level
It mechanically opens or shuts the iris to increase or decrease the illumination on the
CCD chip. The level should be adjusted so that we get an optimum picture during the day
and night light
Automatic Light Compensation (ALC)
It compensates the back light and should be adjusted in locations where there is a lot of
contrast light. Usually should not be touched.
Precautions and Trouble Shooting

The following should be checked before installing:
- Wiring of the auto iris lens. Also the wiring of the zoom, focus and presets.
- Ensure the voltage of the camera controller and the zoom lens match. Otherwise it
needs to be modified.
- If pinhole lens is used, check if the picture is upside down.
- Do not touch the optics with the fingers and clean the lens surface with approved
photographic cleaning kits
The following are some of the problems encountered with lens:

- Bad focus, the picture is not sharp. The back focus needs to be corrected.

- Very poor picture in the night, even when there is adequate light. The level needs to be
adjusted.
- Good picture in the night, but very bright in the day. It has a stick iris.
- Hunting of the auto iris lens. Needs level adjustment.
CHOOSING A CAMERA
Some factors which should be considered in choosing a camera are discussed below:
Lighting levels
In indoor applications where lighting levels are constant and adequate all through the
day and night there is not much of a problem. The real problem comes when the camera
is an external camera or if it operates indoors in low light levels. How does one choose a
camera under these conditions? The actual field conditions must be compared with the
specifications in the data sheet and then the illumination modified.
Resolution
Once the lighting level problem has been resolved it is worthwhile to consider what sort
of resolution the camera should have. As explained earlier, resolution is the definition of
clarity and is measured in number of lines. The larger the number of lines, the better the
definition and clarity. The factors to be considered while choosing the resolution are:
- If the area to be considered is a high movement area, then it is worthwhile choosing a

high resolution camera because we would get a clearer picture. Shutter speed would be
important also.
- If clear identification is important , specially on replay from the VCR, then a high
resolution camera should be used
- For mostly static pictures , low resolution cameras would be adequate.
Budgets
Clients budgets are also very important while choosing the camera.
CHOOSING A LENS
Choosing a lens is the second most important factor . Unfortunately, not much
consideration is given to this area. The following consideration must given to choose the
correct lens.
- Action view. In this mode the critical viewing areas cover about 10% of the monitor
screen. The action can be viewed clearly but no positive identification can be made. The
object of the viewing is to cover larger areas and proper identification is not that
important.
- Identification view. In this mode proper identification is very important and the critical
viewing areas should cover at least 25% of the monitor screen. When this is required the
area covered on the screen would be relatively small.

In this step it is important to decide between the two alternatives.
Light fluctuations
- If no light fluctuations take place and the lighting levels are constant, then use manual
iris lens.
- In situations where the light fluctuations are minor, then use a manual iris lens and
switch on the CCD iris.
- In situations where large light fluctuations are expected, use an Auto iris lens and
switch off the CCD iris.
Polarising filters
In some applications, to overcome bright spots or the reduction of the picture quality due
to an unwanted heat source, polarising filters can enhance picture quality. These are
readily available at any photographic shop.

III CCTV ACCESSORIES
At the camera point certain accessories are used depending on the application involved.
The following are the major accessories used:
1. Pan tilt heads

2. Housings
3. Brackets
PAN TILT HEADS

A pan tilt head is a device which moves the camera around for extended coverage of an
area. It is useful in some of the following applications
- To have a moveable camera so that large areas can be covered
- You can look at more than one critical point
- You can follow peoples' movements.
- In combination with a zoom lens it can be used to identify far away objects quite
easily.
FEATURES OF PAN TILT HEADS

1. Angle of Pan
The standard pan tilt head comes with a fixed pan angle, which is 0 deg to 355 deg. The
other type of pan tilt which is becoming popular is the continuous one, where the pan has
no stop. It is perfect to follow people. These are more expensive and do not have any
advantages in locations where 360 deg rotation of the pan tilt head is not possible maybe
due to a wall behind the camera.
2. Angle of Tilt
This normally is from -90 deg to +90 deg

3. Speed of Rotation
This sometimes is quite important, because you do not want a situation where a person is
walking too fast for the pan tilt head or the other way around that the pan speed is so fast
that it is always ahead of the person to be followed. There are many pan tilt heads which
have variable speeds, where pressure on the joy stick changes the speed. Pan tilt heads
with speeds between 6 deg to 24 deg per sec are the most popular.
There are DC pan tilt heads which can achieve very high speeds, varying from 60 deg to
200 deg per sec. Quite obviously these are very expensive.
4. Weight of Pan Tilt Heads

Pan tilt heads need to carry a camera, a zoom lens, a housing and in some cases one or
two infra red illuminators. The thumb rule states that the pan tilt should be able to carry 3
times the actual weight of the above equipment. This is for the additional torque which is
generated when the camera is at its lowest tilt position.
5. Preset Pan Tilt Head

Upon request a potentiometer can be added to a pan tilt head and thereby positions could
be nominated to the pan tilt head. This has many benefits.
6. Voltages Used
Like cameras, a pan tilt head comes in either 24 VAC, 12 DC or 240 VAC .The 24 V AC
pan tilt head is the most popular.
7. Backlash
This feature becomes quite critical for pan tilt heads with pre set positions. When the pan
tilt head stops, it should stop instantaneously. There will always be some backlash error.
TYPES OF PAN TILT HEADS

The following are the different types of pan tilt heads available
1. Indoor:
This is used indoor and need not be of robust construction.
2. Outdoor:
These have to be weatherproof and normally have to carry a much heavier load.
3. Dome:
These days lot of pan tilt heads come in a dome. With a dome, a casing is not required
thereby bringing the cost down.

4. Track:
A PTZ camera is moved on a pre laid out track. The major advantage is that it covers
very large areas. It is ideal in warehouses, retail shops and loading docks.
5. Pan Only:
On the face of it, pan only devices seem to have an advantage in that they cover large
areas, but in reality they are not very practical, because being a mechanical function,
they tend to break down if used regularly.
Debate between Fixed vs PTZ Cameras

In the industry there is always a debate as to which is better: fixed cameras or cameras on
pan tilt heads. There is no doubt in certain applications a PTZ camera is more effective,
but in many other applications, fixed cameras are better.
PTZ cameras have the disadvantage that their effectiveness really depends on how well
the operator moves the cameras around. If he/she does not move the camera and look at
the critical areas regularly then it may be worthwhile to have an individual fixed camera
looking at the critical areas. This way there is no interaction with the system and the
operators only looks at the monitors, which is what their job is.
In that way a camera with pre-sets gives the best of both worlds. At the press of a
command the camera goes through all the pre determined positions for the selected dwell
time. It obviously has the manual override to use it like a normal PTZ camera. This
concept should be considered regularly in CCTV systems.
CHOOSING PAN TILT HEADS

The following factors should be considered while choosing a pan tilt head:
Weight:
Add the weight of the camera, lens, housing and infra-red illuminator. Multiply this by 3.
The pan tilt head should be able to handle this weight.
Location:
In a high wind area it is always advisable to use a heavy pan tilt head so that it will not
move around.
Speed:
The speed of the pan tilt head depends upon the type of objects which need to be
followed or observed.
PAN TILT INSTALLATION

Precautions
- Orientation of the pan tilt head and limit switchers
- Wiring details and mounting screws

- Adequate wiring between the pan tilt and the receiver driver
- Load rating of the pan tilt head and bracket.
Trouble Shooting
The following are some of the typical problems with pan tilt heads:
- Oxidation of the pan tilt head due to the moisture. Needs drying, cleaning and
lubrication
- Water inside the pan tilt head. Seal needs replacement.
- Broken cable due to constant movement of the connecting cable.
- Pan tilt head does not move. Increase in the payload or the current reaching the motor
not adequate. Clean the capacitance. It may also be due to the voltage drop in the cable.
- Broken cable between the control room and the pan tilt head. Needs recabling
HOUSINGS
A housing is used to protect the camera. A full range of housings are available depending
upon the application.
External housings
These are normally weather proof and available with various accessories, such as
- Sunshield
- Heater
- Blower
- Wiper/washer
Heaters usually require 10-20W of power and Blowers need a modest 1-2 W.
Internal housings
These are used to protect the cameras against dust or vandals.
Discreet Domes
Domes are used both indoors and outdoors where the surveillance is done discreetly
where no one knows what the camera is looking at. They are quite powerful if used along
with PTZ cameras.
3. Brackets
Various brackets are available to mount the cameras, depending upon the location and the
application.
CHOOSING A HOUSING
1. Discreet Surveillance

The first decision to make is whether the camera system has to be discreet or is its
presence acceptable. If it has to be discreet, then the use of tinted domes is required ,
otherwise normal housings would be adequate. A wide range of housings and brackets
are available and they come in various shapes to be used for various applications.
2. Level of Security
Depending upon the location of the camera, the security of the housing may have to be
enhanced. Use of tamper switches or special screws etc. need to be added.
3. Local Environment
Heaters, blowers or wipers/washers need to be added depending upon the local
conditions. If they are being included, then care should be taken to include cables and
power supply for them.
HOUSING INSTALLATION
- Ensure the camera/lens and BNC connector fits in the housing.
- Provide power for the blower and heater.
- Ensure proper adjustments of the sunshield
- Make sure mounting screws are available
INFRARED ILLUMINATORS
We have seen that CCD chips are very sensitive to infrared light. The use of infrared
light in low light conditions will improve the performance of the cameras. Infrared light
comes with the following variables
- Different wattage
- Different angle of beams
- Different wave lengths of the infrared
- Different types, either a LED or Thermal light source

IV TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Transmission systems are necessary to send video signals from remote camera location
to the control room; and then send control and power from the control room to the
camera location. In this section we will discuss all these three areas in greater detail.
VIDEO TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

There are 7 different ways a video signal can be sent from the remote camera location to
the control room . These are:
1. Co-axial cable
2. Twisted pair cable
3. Fibre optics cable
4. Microwave
5. Infrared links
6. Slow scan/ Fast scan
7. ISDN networks
1. CO-AXIAL (CO-AX) CABLE

Co-ax cable is definitely the most popular and cheapest mode of sending video signals
for short to medium distances.
Drawbacks
1. Limited distance
RG- 59 cable is suitable for distances upto 800 ft or 250 m. For long distances the loss in
high frequencies is very great. Almost 90% of the high frequencies are lost for cable runs
of 800 ft or 250m. For distances greater than this it is possible to use video amplifiers,
but with some reservations.
For distances upto 2500 ft or 800m it is also possible to use the thicker RG-11 co-ax
cable. This cable is quite expensive and the BNC connectors are non-standard.
Electrical Interference
Co-ax cables have very poor immunity against noise like high voltages, electric sparks,
electric motors, radio frequencies and other EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference)
radiation. During cable runs all care should be taken to avoid these areas.
Ground Loop Currents

The different ground potentials where the ends of the coaxial cable are connected or
where different television equipment is located in a building causes ground loop currents.
2. TWISTED PAIR CABLE

In this transmission mode the video signal from the camera is converted to a balanced
output by using a twisted pair transmitter. Depending upon the cable thickness the signal
can be transmitted for distances upto 1500m to 3000m. At the other end a twisted pair
receiver is required which will convert the signal to normal format for viewing. This is a
very powerful transmission medium but still quite unknown in the industry. The other
advantages of this medium are
- The output is balanced, therefore RF and other interference is minimal
- With repeaters one can run video signals upto 20km.
The disadvantages of twisted pair cable are:
- Since additional equipment is required this medium becomes economical for long
distances only.
- The bandwidth of this medium is limited to 5 MHz and only 400 lines of resolution can
be sent down the cable.
3. FIBER OPTICS CABLE

Fibre Optics is the best transmission medium and its usage is going to increase in the
coming years.
What is Fiber Optics?

Fibre Optics is a new technology whereby a signal-video, data or voice is modulated on a
light beam and sent down a glass tube with a diameter as small as a hair.
The basic principle of fibre optics is very simple to understand. When light travels from
air to another denser medium, like glass, the speed of light reduces by a factor equal to
the optical index of the material. This reduction results in bending of the light beam. All
of us have seen the "broken straw" effect in a glass of water.
When light enters from a dense medium to a less dense medium, light again bends, but if
the angle of entry is increased, there comes a stage when the light is reflected back. This
is called the angle of Total Reflection. Fibre Optics uses this simple principle for

transmission. The core of the fibre optics cable has an higher index of refraction than the
index of the cladding. So when light enters the cable at the correct angle, it reflects back
from the surface and continues doing this in its forward travel. In other words light
cannot "escape" from the fibre optics cable.
Different Types of Fibre Optics Cable

There are 3 different types of fibre optics cable available. These are:
1. Step Index
This cable has a distinct index of refraction for the core and the cladding. It is the
cheapest type of cable available. Its disadvantage is that it causes deformation of the
signal due to the different lengths of the light ray. This is called modal distortion.
2. Graded index or multimode

In order to equalise the path lengths and improve pulse response, the multimode cable
was developed. The index of refraction of the core is done in a smooth fashion.
3. Single mode:
The single mode has the best pulse response because the diameter of the core is very
narrow and the light virtually travels straight. Obviously this is the most expensive cable.
Passive components in fibre optics

The following passive components are used in fibre optics.
- Splices
Permanent or semi-permanent junction between fibres.
- Connectors
Connectors are junctions which allow an optical fibre to be repeatedly connected and/or
disconnected to and from another fibre or to a device such as a source or detector.
- Couplers
These are devices which distribute optical power among two or more fibres or combine
optical power from two or more fibres into a single fibre. Multiplexers fall into this
category.
- Switches
Switches are devices which can reroute optical signals under either manual or electrical
control.
Advantages of fibre optics

1. A very large bandwidth of transmission. Bandwidth of 100MHz as compared to 5MHz
for copper wire.

2. Light used as carrier of signal therefore no interference.
3. Complete electrical isolation therefore no ground loop currents
4. Fibre optics is immune to EMI
5. Fibre optics is immune to lighting
6. Fibre optics is very small and low in weight
7. Security of information
Disadvantages of Fibre optics

1. High cost of fibre optics cable
2. Termination requires special tools
4. MICROWAVE
It is possible to convert video signals and control signals into high Radio Frequency
(RF) and send the signals through free space using a microwave transmitter. At the other
end the receiver will convert the signal back into video and control. Since the frequency
used is very high a clear line of sight between the transmitter and the receiver is
absolutely essential. An elliptical zone is formed between the transmitter and receiver
and there should be no obstacles in the zone.
Microwave links have limited distance which depend upon the transmission power.
There are some small and compact links which cover distances upto 1km. These are ideal
to use in areas where the cabling and trenching costs are extremely high. There are also
more powerful microwaves which cover upto 25 to 30kms.
To achieve longer distances it is possible to use active repeaters on the way. Passive
reflectors can be used to change direction.
One major problem with microwaves is that they require a licence and approval from the
Department of Communication.
Another problem with microwave is that heavy rain can absorb partially or completely
the video signal .
5. INFRARED LINKS
Like the remote used at home for the TV or Video, it is possible to send video signals
between two points using infrared laser beam. Since the beam is extremely narrow the
transmitter and the receiver must be aligned properly and in a straight line. The only
advantage of infrared links over microwave is that they do not require any approval.
6. PHONE NETWORKS
1.SLOW SCAN / FAST SCAN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Slow scan

Slow scan technique converts the video signals into digital pulses and then sends one
frame at a time using modems through the telephone network. At the receiving end the
picture is slowly formed on the monitor, like the fax machine. Once the first picture has
been formed the next frame is transmitted.
The telephone network is usually analog and it is really a pity that the digital signal has to
reconvert itself to analog signal using modems.. The maximum speed using modems is
9.6 kbits/sec. One frame of video signal has 384 kbits of information. The normal time to
send 384 kbits of information is 384/9.6 or 40 sec. If less quantity of information is sent,
at the expense of resolution, it is possible to get a faster update.
Slow scan has tremendous possibilities for many interesting applications but
unfortunately it never caught on in the market place. The main reasons were:
- It is not real time. In one frame you see a person and the next frame you do not. It is no
good for monitoring purposes but it could still be used for alarm verification purposes.
- Also, the resolution of the picture is not acceptable to many users.
Fast Scan Video Transmission System

Slow scan has been replaced by fast scan. The following two styles are being used to
improve the transmission speed.
1. Picture Compression:
Under this development new picture compression algorithms have been written to
compress the video picture down to 15 to 20KB, as compared to a normal frame size of
384KB. This compression makes it possible to transmit at a much faster rate.
2. Update movement only:

Under this technique only the movement taking place in the frame is transmitted. This
definitely enhances the transmission speed, but the limitation here is that if there is a lot
of movement then the picture update slows down.
This technology has a tremendous future for multi-site organisations to set up a central
video monitoring station and keep a watch on all their sites .
2. ISDN NETWORKS
ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network . As the name indicates this is a
digital network and it does not require any modem. This means that the transmission
speed possible is 64kbits/sec on a single line or 128KB on dual lines. these normally are
available with an ISDN line.
Recently a number of products have been developed specially for ISDN networks. Using
the picture compression technique it is possible to send a few frames every sec. It would
be worthwhile keeping a close watch on this technology.

CHOOSING A TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
The conditions at each site determine which transmission system is best for the situation.
It is possible to have a combination of various transmission systems at a site. We will
now evaluate all the transmission systems against certain criteria and this will help in
deciding the required system for a particular site.
Distance
- upto 300m, use RG-59 coaxial cable
- upto 800m, use RG-11 coaxial cable
- upto 2000m, use twisted pair cable
- upto 5000m, use fibre optics/ infrared links
- upto 30000m, use microwave (if line of sight available)
- use fast scan/ ISDN network for greater distances.
Harsh environment and high security

- Use fibre optics
Cabling impossible or very expensive

- Check availability of existing telephone cable
- Check hiring of dedicated telephone line from Telecom
- Use microwave or infrared links.
TRANSMISSION OF CONTROL SIGNALS

For PTZ cameras it is necessary to have a transmission system whereby the control signal
can be sent from the control room to move the pan tilt head and the zoom lens. The
different modes to do this are:
- Hard wire or multicore cable

- Twisted pair cable
- Telemetry
We discuss each one of them in some detail.
1. Multicore cable
This mode of cabling means that hard wiring of cables is required for each movement.
For a PTZ camera the following cores of cables are required:
Pan right
Pan left
Tilt up
Tilt down
Zoom in
Zoom out
Focus in

Focus out
A minimum 8 core cable is required to connect the camera controller to the PTZ . The
controller sends an appropriate voltage to undertake that function.
This mode is ideal for simple and small systems and is very cheap. The maximum
distance without appreciable voltage drop is around 150m.
2. Twisted pair cable

In many applications where the distances of the PTZ camera are longer than 150m or
where there are many cameras it would be economical to send different voltages down a
single cable. A receiver driver at the camera point would decode the voltage and trigger
the appropriate function. No multi core cable is required but a single twisted pair can be
used instead. The up front cost is more because a receiver driver is required for each PTZ
camera.
3. Telemetry system
In a telemetry system the control signal is transmitted down the same co-ax cable as the
video signal. The receiver driver at the camera point separates the video from the control
and also decodes the control signal and activates the appropriate function. Telemetry has
been designed for use in small to medium size systems and has tremendous benefits when
a fixed camera is upgraded to a PTZ camera. No additional cable is required and the
control signal is transmitted down the existing co-ax cable.
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1. If the power to a camera system is decentralised and not supplied from a single source
there are very good chances that the power supplied to various cameras could be at
different phase. It is therefore recommended to use a centralised power supply for CCTV
systems.
In DC cameras (12VDC) it is very important to ensure that only regulated power supply
is used.
V SWITCHING / CONTROL SYSTEMS

In any system it is not correct to have a monitor for each camera. It is most appropriate to
have a bank of cameras switched to a limited number of monitors. The device which does
this is called a switcher. There are three major groups of switching systems. These are :
1. Sequential switcher

2. Matrix switcher
3. Multiplexer/ Quad systems
We discuss each one in detail.
SEQUENTIAL SWITCHER
This is the simplest form of switching system whereby 4, 8, 12 or 16 cameras are
switched to either 1 or 2 monitors. All these switchers have a dwell time knob with which
the dwell time for the sequencing can be adjusted. They also have a skip function to
bypass any particular camera from the sequence. The different kinds of sequential
switchers are:
1. Manual switcher
2. Homing switcher
3. Bridging switcher
4. Auto alarming switcher
5. Looping switcher
We will explain what each switcher means. It must be understood that a combination of
the above switchers make up a single switcher.
1. Manual switcher
The camera is switched to the monitor manually by pressing the camera number. That
camera remains on hold until another camera is switched on.
2. Homing switcher
In a homing switcher there is only one output. Normally all the cameras are sequenced,
but any particular camera can be called in for extended viewing.
3. Bridging switcher
In a bridging switcher there are two outputs. One output is a sequencing output while the
other is a spot output, where any camera can be called in for extended viewing.
4. Auto alarming switcher

In an auto alarming switcher, any external alarm like a PIR beam, door contact or video
motion detector will trigger the switcher and bring up the appropriate camera to the spot
monitor. It can be used with both homing and bridging switchers.
5. Looping switcher
In this mode there is a provision to loop out all the camera inputs for viewing to a second
location. The cameras are terminated at the second location.
All sequential switchers are quite economical but have the drawback of bringing up one
camera after a long time. For example in a 16 camera system operating on a 10 sec

sequencing time the same camera will come up for viewing every 160 sec which may not
be adequate in many applications as any thing can happen during that time.
MATRIX SWITCHER
A matrix switcher is normally used for large, sophisticated and complex systems. As the
name indicates a matrix switcher is made of array of video inputs and video outputs.
The basic configuration of a matrix switcher normally starts from 16 inputs and 4
outputs. This is expandable , depending on the brand .Over the years the matrix switcher
has become very intelligent and has made CCTV systems more effective and efficient.
Some of the standard features in a matrix switcher are:
- Modular and flexible, making future expansion possible

- Time, date and address generation.
- Multiple keyboards means multi control points.
- PTZ control is possible
- Salvo switching (even for alarms).
- Time based switching
- Complex alarm responses
- Pre- positioning facility
- Mimic panels
- Graphic Unit Interface (GUI)
- Touch screen controls
Programming a Matrix Switcher

All the matrix switchers need to be programmed to suit the needs of the client. Different
matrix switchers have different ways of being this programmed. The trend is towards
down loading the site parameters into the matrix switcher by means of a floppy disk. The
following are some of the parameters which need to be programmed into the matrix
switcher
- Camera sequences
- Dwell time
- Pre-set positions
- Alarm response
- Time schedule for the different sequences
MULTIPLEXING
In this generation of CCTV systems the video signal is digitised and then compressed and
more than 1 camera is displayed on a single monitor. The different types of multiplexing
systems are:
1. Picture in picture

2. Quads
3. Duo-Quads
4. 16 camera multiplexer
1. Picture in Picture
In this the picture from camera B is compressed and inserted in the monitor which is
showing the image from camera A. It is possible to reverse the images.
2. Quads
Quads accept upto 4 cameras on a single screen. Both B/W and colour quads are
available. Due to the increase in the processing power, most quads give real time
pictures.
3. Duo Quads
Duo quads accept upto 8 cameras. Two pages of quads sequence between each other.
These are available in b/w only.
4. Multiplexers
Multiplexers accept upto 16 cameras and these cameras are displayed simultaneously on
a single monitor. These normally come in colour, and are not in real time but have a jerky
picture. Everyone will agree that it is impossible to watch 16 small images on a monitor,
but multiplexers are more suitable for applications where nothing much happens and it is
then easy to spot any unwanted incidents. Some of the standard features of Multiplexers
are:
- They come with a variety of display options

- They have an inbuilt sequential switcher.
- They are also multi-recorders
CHOOSING A SWITCHING SYSTEM

The main factor which will decide the type of switching is the number of cameras to be
used in the system. It is important at this stage to consider any future expansion that may
take place . It will be necessary to ensure that the switching system has the capacity to
take on the additional cameras in the future. This aspect is often ignored and at the time
of expansion the full switching system needs replacement.
System size
Listed below are the different types of switching systems available for different camera
capacities.
Upto 4 cameras
Video
- Homing sequential switchers

- Black and white quads
- Color quads
Control
- Hard wire camera controllers
Upto 8 cameras
Video
- Bridging sequential switchers
- Black and white duo quads ( 8 inputs )
Control
- 8 camera controller
- 8 camera telemetry system
Upto 16 cameras
Video
- Bridging sequential switchers
- Multiplexers cum sequencers
Control
- 16 camera telemetry system
- 16 camera matrix switcher
Upto 32 cameras
Video/ control
- 32 camera matrix switcher (maximum capacity)
More than 32 cameras

Video/ control
- Large matrix switchers (maximum capacity depends upon brand)
For large systems there is not much of a choice except to use a matrix switcher. .

VI MONITORS
This is one area where nothing much has happened in the past decade. A monitor is a
monitor; basically it converts electrical signal into an image with the help of
CRT(Cathode Ray Tube). The electrical signal hits the phosphorus surface and the image
is formed. In the case of colour monitors it has 3 layers of coatings, producing Red (R),
Green (G) and Blue(B) colours. The natural colours are stimulated by mixing these
colours.
FEATURES AND ADJUSTMENTS

1. Resolution: Black and White monitors have a resolution of 800 lines while the colour
monitors have a much lower resolution
2. Temperatures: 10 deg to 40 deg. Most monitors cannot handle high temperatures and
if proper ventilation is not provided with monitor racks, monitor life is reduced.
3. Contrast: Changes the dynamic range of black and white
4. Brightness: Changes the average level of the video signal.
5. Focus: Changes beam resolution to give sharper pictures.
6. Vertical size: Changes the vertical height of the picture
7. Horizontal hold: Shifts the horizontal sync left or right
8. Vertical hold: To stop picture roll
9 Colour: Changes the amount of all the three colours R,G,B
There are two types of monitors

1. Black and white monitors
2. Colour monitors
BLACK AND WHITE MONITORS

The most popular sizes for monitors are 9", 12", 15" and 19". The size in any application
depends upon the distance from which the monitor will be viewed. The resolution of b/w
monitors is around 700- 800 lines, which more than cover the maximum camera
resolution.
COLOUR MONITORS
There are four different types of colour monitors available in the market place.
- TV monitor
- Low resolution colour monitor

- High resolution monitor
- Computer monitors
TV monitor
These are basically televisions which have video inputs.
Low resolution monitors

The only model available is the 9" colour monitor with a resolution of 330 lines. The
range is pretty limited and is suitable for low resolution cameras.
Hi resolution monitor
These professional monitors are used in the broadcasting industry. The minimum size is
14". The resolution is around 450 lines which is adequate for hi- resolution cameras, but
these monitors are extremely expensive.
Computer monitors
Many of the computer monitors these days have a composite input to accept a CCTV
video signal. The resolution of these monitors is quite good. The only problem is that size
and shape of these monitor is not good for racking.
It is known that colour cameras will be the next standard for CCTV , but unfortunately
the range available for monitors is extremely limited and quite haphazard. In fact no
suitable monitors are available for hi-resolution cameras , except expensive studio grade
monitors.
CHOOSING MONITORS
While choosing monitors three things should be kept in mind:
- The number of monitors

- The size of the monitors
The number of monitors

There is no guarantee that a system with more monitors is a better system. In fact the
reverse could be true. However, it depends upon the role of the CCTV system. If it is a
surveillance application, the number of monitors should be proportional to the number of
cameras. As a thumb rule every 8 cameras should have 1 monitor. Then again, if
monitoring is the main role, then each operator should not watch more then 8 monitors.
In a 16 monitor site, at least 2 operators should handle the system.
The monitor size

The monitor size depends upon the distance from which the operator will watch the
monitor. The general thumb rule is

Monitor size(inches) - 4 = Maximum viewing distance(feet)
MONITOR INSTALLATION
- Use a test pattern generator to set up the linearity and contrast of the monitor correctly.
This should be done before the cameras are adjusted.
No Picture
- The fuse of the monitor is blown
- The video co-axial cable is broken
- The vertical deflection transistor or electric gun driver blown
Wavy picture
- Interference in the transmission system
Horizontal tearing of picture

- Horizontal sync distorted due to the large distance of the camera
- Monitor not able to lock into the VCR during playback
Picture roll
- Vertical sync distorted due to large distance
- the monitor has a faulty vertical sync
Ghost images
- When the monitor gets old, the old images are retained. This causes ghost images
Double images
- The cable connected to the monitor is not terminated properly.

VII RECORDING SYSTEMS
Recording systems in CCTV have become very necessary. The recorder allows the event
to be reviewed . But it is also the weakest link in the CCTV chain . As is obvious from
this the resolution of the VCR has to improve to be acceptable, or an alternative storage
medium needs to be found. Following are the different devices available in the market.
1 Two speed VCR

2 Event Recorder
3 Time lapse VCR
4 Multi camera recorder
5 Video printer
6 Hard Disk
1 Two speed VCR

With a two speed VCR, a four hour tape will record up to eight hours. It is ideal
to cover office hours. The main advantage is its economical cost.
2 Event recorder
This records all alarm activation events. It has a time date generator.
3 Time lapse VCR

In addition to the features found in an event recorder, the time lapse recorder can record
upto 960 hrs (differs from VCR to VCR) on a standard 3 hr video tape.
Features of Time lapse VCR:

1. Time Settings: Each Time Lapse VCR has a different setting for recordings. As the
setting for recording increases, the VCR records frames less often.
TL Mode Intervals (sec)
3hr 1/50 (0.02)
12 0.08
24 0.16
48 0.32
72 0.48
168 1.12
240 1.6
480 3.2
720 4.8
960 6.4

2. Alarm interface:
Upon receipt of an alarm the VCR starts recording in the normal mode either for a pre-
determined period or for the duration of the alarm.
3. Audio Recording:
There is a great potential to use this feature with a CCTV system. The audio recording
during an alarm situation will improve the effectiveness of the CCTV system. These days
most time lapse VCR's can record audio when they are set on either 3, 12 or 24 hr setting.
The quality of sound is not that good for the higher settings.
4. Alarm and Event Scan:

This is now becoming a standard feature in most time lapse VCR's.
5. Resolution
A time lapse recorder gives the following resolutions
B/W COLOUR
CAMERA 400 lines 330 lines

570 lines 470 lines
MONITORS 800 lines 330 lines
450 lines
Time lapse 400 lines 240 lines
The VCR continues to be the weakest link in a CCTV system.
6. MTBF
The mean time between failure (MTBF) for the VCR is 10,000 hrs
4 Multi Camera Recorder

This is a new concept with great potential. A major drawback of a CCTV system when
recording through a switcher is that in all likelihood the event to be reviewed is not
recorded as the VCR at that time was recording another camera. This can be frustrating
and has given CCTV a bad name. For example, 16 cameras were being recorded through
a sequential switcher with a dwell time of 10 sec. The same camera will be recorded after
160 sec which is quite a bit of time. The multi camera recorder is a solution here.
The multi recorder records only one frame per camera in every sequence. If there are 16
cameras, then it will record a frame every 16/25 of a sec or every 0.64 sec. On playback
the multirecorder picks up all the frames of the nominated camera and displays it on the
monitor. In this fashion no information is lost , and a multi-recorder thus becomes a
necessity for any high security application.

However, when the multi-recorder is being used along with a time lapse VCR with
different settings, the time delay increases as the VCR setting is increased. The delay for
the different settings for a system with 16 cameras is shown below.
TL Mode Intervals (sec)

3hr 0.66
12 1.28
24 2.56
48 5.12
72 7.68
168 17.92
240 25.6
480 51.2
720 76.8
960 102.4
To get the best use of the product, it is advisable to use the time lapse VCR on the lowest
possible setting or only attach the critical cameras to the multi-recorder. This will ensure
that more frames are recorded at a faster rate.
The multi recorder is ideal for retrofit as it has looping outputs. It comes with different
inputs (4,8,16,48) and one can choose between a Simplex or a Duplex system.
5. Video Printer
Video printers are becoming popular in a CCTV system for their ability to provide
immediate hard copy.
6. Hard Disk
To overcome the problem of the low resolution of the VCR, the trend is towards the use
of Hard Disk for the recording of the images. The only problem is that the number of
images which can be recorded are limited and therefore should be used to record alarm
situations. This is a new application of technology and more developments are sure to
follow.
VCR INSTALLATION
- It is strongly recommended to use the best quality tapes for recording. In a poor quality
tape, the particles gather on the head thereby reducing the quality of the recording.
Snowy picture
- Dirty head
- Needs tracking adjustments
- Poor quality tape

VCR does not respond
- Check if the tape is in the VCR
- Some VCR needs to be reset
- Check if the VCR is locked
No picture
- Check connection with the monitor
- Check power to the VCR
- Check input signal at the VCR
Horizontal picture break

- Damaged tape
- Adjust horizontal sync of the monitor
- Adjust the tracking on the VCR

VIII OTHER DEVICES IN CCTV
Following are some of the devices which are used in CCTV for different applications.
1. Video Motion Detection

2. Frame Stores
3. Time Date Generator
4. Video Amplifier
5. Video Distribution Amplifiers
6. Cashscan
7. Audio Recording
Each one of them will be discussed in details
1. Video Motion Detection (VMD)

The basic principle of VMD is that it compares the current frame with the previous frame
and if changes are more than the predetermined amount it will generate an alarm. The
VMD is available in the following formats
- Analog
- Digital
-3-D
Analog:
This is the lower end of VMD's where there is one detection area which can be adjusted
to fit the desired sensing area. It is suitable only for indoor applications and can cause
false alarms due to many factors and therefore should be used with care.
Digital:
Here the picture is broken to many thousands of picture elements and the sensitive areas
can be clearly defined. These sensitive picture elements are tracked to find areas of
motion. Advanced microprocessor firmware and software analyse motion for logical size,
position, direction and rate of movement before an intrusion is confirmed. This has
helped in reducing false alarms.
3 D Digital System:
A brand new concept where 4 cameras look at the same area from 4 different points to
give a 3 D coverage of the area. It can detect motion in a pre-determined 3 D zone. It is
ideal to give a 3 - D coverage to expensive assets.
2. Frame Stores:
A sequence of frames is always stored in a frame store. When an alarm occurs, the frame
store stores images before and after the alarm. This gives a wealth of information which

may not be available using the traditional recording methods. These days frame store can
handle 16 cameras at a time. A very useful device for a high security application.
3. Time Date Generator:

This device adds Date and Time to your video pictures. Although most matrix switchers
and time lapse VCR have their own in-built time date generator, there may be
applications using sequential switchers or quads where it may be necessary to add the
time and date to the video picture.
4. Video Amplifiers:
There are a variety of video amplifiers. The basic ones boost the video signal, but the
advanced amplifiers allow the increase in gain and the adjustment of the high frequency.
As we are aware high frequencies attenuate much faster.
5. Video Distribution Amplifiers:

The basic purpose is to create multiple outputs of a video signal. Many people avoid
using this, but instead use T Junctions. This is not very helpful because the video signal is
broken into two.
6. Cashscan:
A very interesting unit where the readings from the cash register are superimposed on the
video signal of a camera looking at the cash register area. This gives a visual
confirmation of all transactions. It is an ideal application in the retail industry.
7. Audio Recording:
There is a growing trend to record audio along with the CCTV system. The main
advantage is that in many situations the audio recording will support the video picture
with vital information. An audio system has the following components:
For Recording
- Microphone
- Pre Amplifier
For Play Back

- Amplifier
- Speaker
CCTV SYSTEM DESIGN

CCTV designing is subjective in its nature. Different people design differently.

The CCTV plan is usually part of an overall security plan. To come up with a security
plan, a detailed security audit, a risk analysis and a security survey of the site is very
important. There are standard procedures which are available for conducting this review.
Once this review is completed, it is important to identify the role the CCTV system will
play in the security strategy. This security review should also lead to the preparation of a
long term security plan (including CCTV) and a phased implementation plan.
Experience plays a major role in the preparation of the CCTV plan. For example a
person who has designed an effective system for a retailer, knows the requirements and
needs for such a client, when he meets another retailer, the designer without much
hesitation can recommend a very good system.
CONDUCTING A CCTV SURVEY

As mentioned earlier a CCTV system is part of a security plan. The main role of a CCTV
system in a security system is to provide "eyes". While conducting a CCTV survey the
following areas should be evaluated to see whether there is a need for a camera.
- Perimeter
- All entry/exit areas
- Protecting assets
* Valuables
* Critical
* Safety
- High activity areas
* Loading docks
* Reception etc.
- Cash handling areas
Once the approximate camera locations have been finalised it is now the question to fine
tune and decide the exact location. The factors to be considered here are:
- The light source. It is always sensible to have the light source behind the camera. This
is impossible with the sun , which moves quite a bit and has a different movement path
for the winter and the summer. Consideration should be taken about this fact, but at times
it is impossible to avoid it. To reduce the impact a poor quality picture could be tolerable
during low activity periods.
- Ease of installation. Some times the best spots may be difficult to reach and more
expensive to cable. This factor must be considered .
After selecting all the components required for the system, we now have to put it all
together in a proposal, tender or on a sheet of paper. There is no denying the different

components being used are varied and therefore a systematic approach will ensure that no
part or component is missed out.
Location wise listing

For each of the camera locations a systematic listing should be made covering the
following
- Camera type
- Lens type
- Housing , if any
- Pan tilt head, if any
- Bracket
- Infrared or other accessories
After covering all the camera locations, make a list for the control room equipment.
- Switching equipment
- Monitor type
- Recording system
- Power supplies
- All cables
The enclosed survey chart is useful and effective.
System Layout
A system layout diagram should be included with every proposal. This layout will show
how all the components are linked up together to make a system.
PUTTING IT TOGETHER
Preparing Specification
The following areas should be covered while preparing the CCTV specifications:
- Describe system operations
- Extent of work
- Equipment specification
- Equipment interfacing
- Installation standards
- Testing and commissioning methods
- Training
- System/operator manuals
Testing and Commissioning

The CCTV system should be tested to ensure that the performance of the various CCTV
components is in accordance with the manufacture's specifications. Besides the detailed

testing of all the equipment, special attention should be paid to the following areas. These
factors are very useful to consider at the time of hand over of the system
1. Adjusting the shutter speed of the camera, depending upon the level of movement at
the location for crisper pictures..
2. Checking out camera performance in all the light levels available at that location.
3. Check if the lens covers the view required for the location. If proper identification is
required at a scene, then it must be ensured the lens being used fulfils this.
4. For a zoom lens, proper back focusing of the lens and camera should be made. This
means that the object of interest always remains in focus during the zoom in and zoom
out situations. This must be checked during the handover of the system.
5. Proper programming of the switcher
- In consultation with site supervisor proper addresses should be given to all the cameras.
6. To ensure all the keyboard functions of the switcher are operating well.
7. Ensure the alarm interface is functioning properly. All the different alarms should be
tried out.
8. Ensure the multi-recording system is operating well and the quality of the picture is
acceptable on playback from the VCR.
9. Ensure that the linearity and contrast of the monitor has been adjusted using a test
pattern generator.
10. Ensure the cameras are properly synchronised by checking for picture roll.
At the time of handover the above functions should be effectively demonstrated.
Installation Manual
Installation manuals should be supplied prior to hand over. Each manual should contain
the following.
1. All as installed drawings giving all details of equipment used
2. Description of the system: The general description of the functions and locations of
each components of the CCTV system.
3. Manufacturers data: The following data should be provided.
- Product catalogue
- Installation manual
- Users manual with basic fault finding
4. Maintenance: Full instructions regarding routine maintenance should be provided
Operator Instructions
Operator instructions should be given in simple and easy to understand language. All day
to day and other frequently used operations should be explained. These instructions will
then be engraved and installed near the system keyboard.
Training

One day for the training of the operator and the people associated with the management
of the system should be allowed and incorporated into the contract. The following areas
should be covered in the training
1. Operation of the switcher
2. Operation of the recording system
3. Explanation of the overall system and the different components used.
System Maintenance
A CCTV system is a big investment and its maintenance is therefore important. Proper
preventive maintenance is the most effective solution. The system should be maintained 2
to 4 times every year. Each maintenance trip should cover the following
1. Cleaning of all the components.
2. Checking the operations of all the components including the VCR.
3. Adjusting and calibrating the equipment to ensure they are working at their optimum
condition
4. A report should be prepared after each visit giving all details about the condition of the
system. Recommendations for solutions for any likely future problems should be
included in every report.

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COPYRIGHT 2005 STAM Multimedia Inc. All rights reserved.

Any infringement of the copyright by unauthorized reproduction, adaptation,

Tel: (609) 750 9827

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 1

CCTV Review: Contains the body of the online course.

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 2

TAKE THE ONLINE PRETEST

1. Click Pre-test on the Main Menu of the online course.

2. Complete the questions to the best of your ability.

Note: No one will see these results but you!

BEGIN THE CCTV REVIEW COURSE

Step 5: Click CCTV Review on the Main Menu.

The Component Menu will appear as shown below:

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 3

Step 6: For practice, click on CCTV Applications on the Component Menu.

A typical lesson content window will appear, as shown below.

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 4

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 5

Hot Words (which appear as blue throughout the online course)

Read the text and view the photos and proceed.

Click on each topic on the top to move through the lesson.

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This topic(Types) has a Quiz)

Title of current lesson

DOWNLOAD THE COURSE NOTES

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 7

3. Restore the Main Menu window that you minimized.

5.Close or minimize the Course Notes.

As you proceed through the online course, be sure to:

STAM Multinedia Inc. 2005 8

CCTV: A COMPLETE REVIEW

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A SECURITY SYSTEM

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PRINCIPLES OF PICTURE FORMATION.

- High maintenance cost

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Horizontal resolution: This is the number of vertical lines.

Vertical Resolution = Horizontal Resolution =

2 Sensitivity/Minimum Scene Illumination

Usable Video: There are no standards for this .

3. S/N (Signal to Noise) ratio:

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5. What is Synchronisation (sync)?

- Using a common sync generator

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF CCD CHIPS

- Frame transfer chips

Frame Transfer Chip

Interline Transfer Chip

Frame Interline Transfer Chip

On Chip Lens (OCL) Chip

DIFFERENT CHIP SIZES

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BLACK AND WHITE CAMERAS

The major advantages of black and white cameras are

LIGHT RESPONSE OF CCD CAMERAS

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Artificial Light Sources:

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Reflection and Refraction

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Wide angle lens 3.5mm, 4.8mm