Baseball

This article is about the sport. For the ball used in the 1.1 Origins
sport, see Baseball (ball). For other uses, see Baseball
(disambiguation). Main article: Origins of baseball
Base ball redirects here. For old time baseball, see The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games
vintage base ball.

Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two

teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and
elding.
The batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball
that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the bat-
ter, then running counter-clockwise around a series of
four bases: rst, second, third, and home plate. A run
is scored when a player advances around the bases and
returns to home plate.
Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the
pitcher of the elding team, which tries to prevent runs by
getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the
batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt
to advance to subsequent bases during teammates turns
batting, such as on a hit or by other means. The teams
switch between batting and elding whenever the elding
team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams,
beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. A game from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, c. 1280, involving
A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with tossing a ball, hitting it with a stick and competing with others to
the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. catch it.
Baseball has no game clock, although almost all games
end in the ninth inning. is dicult to trace with precision. A French manuscript
from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a
Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already
game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball.[1]
being played in England by the mid-18th century. This
Other old French games such as thque, la balle au bton,
game was brought by immigrants to North America,
and la balle empoisonne also appear to be related.[2] Con-
where the modern version developed. By the late 19th
sensus once held that todays baseball is a North Amer-
century, baseball was widely recognized as the national
ican development from the older game rounders, pop-
sport of the United States. Baseball is currently popular
ular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We
in North America and parts of Central and South Amer-
Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by
ica, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly Japan.
David Block, suggests that the game originated in Eng-
In the United States and Canada, professional Major land; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this
League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball
National League (NL) and American League (AL), each were actually regional variants of each other, and that the
with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The major games most direct antecedents are the English games of
league champion is determined by playos that culminate stoolball and tut-ball.[3] It has long been believed that
in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split cricket also descended from such games, though evidence
in Japan between the Central and Pacic Leagues and in uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have
Cuba between the West League and East League. been imported to England from Flanders.[4]
The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744
British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John
1 History Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of base-ball
and a woodcut that shows a eld set-up somewhat simi-

1
2 1 HISTORY
lar to the modern gamethough in a triangular rather
than diamond conguration, and with posts instead of
ground-level bases.[5] David Block discovered that the
rst recorded game of Bass-Ball took place in 1749 in
Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player.[6]
William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of
baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey.[7]
This early form of the game was apparently brought
to Canada by English immigrants. Rounders was also
brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and
Irish ancestry. The rst known American reference to
baseball appears in a 1791 Pittseld, Massachusetts, town
bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the towns
new meeting house.[8] By 1796, a version of the game
was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German
scholars book on popular pastimes. As described by Jo-
hann Gutsmuths, "englische Base-ball" involved a contest
between two teams, in which the batter has three at-
tempts to hit the ball while at the home plate. Only one
out was required to retire a side.[9]
Alexander Cartwright, father of modern baseball
By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of un-
codied bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms
of baseball being played around North America. These
games were often referred to locally as "town ball",
though other names such as round-ball and base-ball
were also used.[10] Among the earliest examples to re-
ceive a detailed descriptionalbeit ve decades after
the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life
magazinetook place in Beachville, Ontario, in 1838.
There were many similarities to modern baseball, and
some crucial dierences: ve bases (or byes); rst bye
just 18 feet (5.5 m) from the home bye; batter out if a hit
ball was caught after the rst bounce.[11] The once widely
accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in
Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively
debunked by sports historians.[12]
In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York
Citys Knickerbocker Club, led the codication of the
so-called Knickerbocker Rules.[13] The practice, com-
mon to bat-and-ball games of the day, of soaking or
pluggingeecting a putout by hitting a runner with
a thrown ballwas barred. The rules thus facilitated the
use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Sev-
eral other rules also brought the Knickerbockers game
close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the rst
bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching
was allowed.[14] While there are reports that the New
York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest
long recognized as the rst ocially recorded baseball
game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in
Hoboken, New Jersey: the New York Nine defeated the
Knickerbockers, 231, in four innings[15] (three earlier
games have recently been discovered). With the Knicker-
bocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball
continued to evolve over the next half-century.[16]
1.2 History of baseball in the United States
Main articles: Baseball in the United States and History
of baseball in the United States
1.2.1 The game turns professional
In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York
metropolitan area.[17] By 1856, local journals were re-
ferring to baseball as the national pastime or national
game.[18] A year later, sixteen area clubs formed the
sports rst governing body, the National Association of
Base Ball Players. In 1858 in Corona, Queens New York,
at the Fashion Race Course, the rst games of baseball
to charge admission took place. The games, which took
place between the all stars of Brooklyn, including players
from the Brooklyn Atlantics, Excelsior of Brooklyn, Put-
nams and Eckford of Brooklyn, and the All Stars of New
York (Manhattan), including players from the New York
Knickerbockers, Gothams (predecessors of the San Fran-
cisco Giants), Eagles and Empire, are commonly believed
to be the rst all-star baseball games.[19][20][21] In 1863,
the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a
fair ball on the rst bounce. Four years later, it barred
participation by African Americans.[22] The games com-
mercial potential was developing: in 1869 the rst fully
professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stock-
ings, was formed and went undefeated against a sched-
1.2 History of baseball in the United States
ule of semipro and amateur teams.[23] The rst profes-
sional league, the National Association of Professional
Base Ball Players, lasted from 1871 to 1875; scholars dis-
pute its status as a major league.[24]
The more formally structured National League was
founded in 1876. As the oldest surviving major league,
the National League is sometimes referred to as the se-
nior circuit.[25] Several other major leagues formed and
failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and,
briey, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the
American Association.[26] An injury ended Walkers ma-
jor league career, and by the early 1890s, a gentlemens
agreement in the form of the baseball color line eec-
tively barred black players from the white-owned profes-
sional leagues, major and minor.[27] Professional Negro
leagues formed, but quickly folded. Several independent
African American teams succeeded as barnstormers.[28]
Also in 1884, overhand pitching was legalized.[29] In
1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or
indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the
parent game.[30] Virtually all of the modern baseball rules
were in place by 1893; the last major changecounting
foul balls as strikeswas instituted in 1901.[29] The Na-
tional Leagues rst successful counterpart, the American
League, which evolved from the minor Western League,
was established that year.[31] The two leagues, each with
eight teams, were rivals that fought for the best players,
often disregarding each others contracts and engaging in
bitter legal disputes.[32]
The New York Giants baseball team, 1913. Fred Merkle, sixth in
line, committed a baserunning gae in a crucial 1908 game that
became famous as Merkles Boner.
A modicum of peace was eventually established, lead-
ing to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact for-
malized relations both between the two major leagues
and between them and the National Association of Pro-
fessional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the
countrys minor professional leagues.[33] The World Se-
ries, pitting the two major league champions against each
other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express
major league sanction: The Boston Americans of the
American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the
3
National League.[34] The next year, the series was not
held, as the National League champion New York Gi-
ants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize
the major league status of the American League and its
champion.[35] In 1905, the Giants were National League
champions again and team management relented, lead-
ing to the establishment of the World Series as the major
leagues annual championship event.[36]
As professional baseball became increasingly protable,
players frequently raised grievances against owners over
issues of control and equitable income distribution. Dur-
ing the major leagues early decades, players on var-
ious teams occasionally attempted strikes, which rou-
tinely failed when their jobs were suciently threat-
ened. In general, the strict rules of baseball contracts
and the reserve clause, which bound players to their teams
even when their contracts had ended, tended to keep the
players in check.[37] Motivated by dislike for particu-
larly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers pay-
os, real and promised, members of the Chicago White
Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The
Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new Na-
tional Commission of baseball that drew the two major
leagues closer together.[38] The rst major league baseball
commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in
1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro Na-
tional League; the rst signicant Negro league, it would
operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined
by the Eastern Colored League.[39]
Professional baseball was played in northeastern cities
with a large immigrant-ethnic population; they gave
strong support to the new sport. The Irish Catholics dom-
inated in the late 19th century, comprising a third or more
of the players and many of the top stars and managers.[40]
Historian Jerrold Casway argues that:
Baseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the
American dream and to self-indulgent glory
and fortune. By the mid-1880s these young
Irish men dominated the sport and popularized
a style of play that was termed heady, daring,
and spontaneous.... Ed Delahanty personied
the amboyant, exciting spectator-favorite, the
Casey-at-the-bat, Irish slugger. The handsome
masculine athlete who is expected to live as
large as he played.[41]
1.2.2 Rise of Ruth and racial integration
Compared with the present, professional baseball in the
early 20th century was lower-scoring and pitchers, the
likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson, were
more dominant. The "inside game, which demanded
that players scratch for runs, was played much more ag-
gressively than it is today: the brilliant and often violent
Ty Cobb epitomized this style.[42] The so-called dead-
ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in
4 1 HISTORY
Babe Ruth in 1920, the year he joined the New York Yankees
rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters.
Strict new regulations governing the balls size, shape and
composition along with a new rule ocially banning the
spitball, along with other pitches that depended on the
ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances
after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch
in August 1920, coupled with superior materials avail-
able after World War I, resulted in a ball that traveled
farther when hit. The construction of additional seating
to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often
had the eect of bringing the outeld fences closer in,
making home runs more common.[43] The rise of the leg-
endary player Babe Ruth, the rst great power hitter of
the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the
game. The club with which Ruth set most of his slug-
ging records, the New York Yankees, built a reputation
as the majors premier team.[44] In the late 1920s and
early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch
Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and devel-
oped the rst modern farm system.[45] A new Negro
National League was organized in 1933; four years later,
it was joined by the Negro American League. The rst
elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936.
In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsyl-
vania. By the late 1940s, it was the organizing body for
childrens baseball leagues across the United States.
With Americas entry into World War II, many profes-
sional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A
large number of minor league teams disbanded as a re-
sult and the major league game seemed under threat
as well. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led
Jackie Robinson in 1945, with the eras Kansas City Roy-
als, a barnstorming squad associated with the Negro American
League's Kansas City Monarchs
the formation of a new professional league with women
players to help keep the game in the public eye the
All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed
from 1943 to 1954.[46] The inaugural College World Se-
ries was held in 1947, and the Babe Ruth League youth
program was founded. This program soon became an-
other important organizing body for childrens baseball.
The rst crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks
from white-controlled professional ball occurred the pre-
vious year: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National
Leagues Brooklyn Dodgerswhere Branch Rickey had
become general managerand began playing for their
minor league team in Montreal.[47] In 1947, Robinson
broke the major leagues color barrier when he debuted
with the Dodgers. Larry Doby debuted with the Amer-
ican Leagues Cleveland Indians the same year.[48] Latin
American players, largely overlooked before, also started
entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two
Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel
and black Cuban-born Minnie Mioso, became the rst
1.2 History of baseball in the United States
Hispanic All-Stars.[49][50]
Facing competition as varied as television and football,
baseball attendance at all levels declined. While the
majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues
were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams
dissolved.[51][52] Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953,
only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player
on the roster.[49] That year, the Major League Baseball
Players Association was founded. It was the rst pro-
fessional baseball union to survive more than briey, but
it remained largely ineective for years.[53] No major
league team had been located west of St. Louis un-
til 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York
Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco,
respectively.[54] The majors nal all-white bastion, the
Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959.[49] With
the integration of the majors drying up the available pool
of players, the last Negro league folded the following
year.[55] In 1961, the American League reached the West
Coast with the Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and
the major league season was extended from 154 games to
162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe
Ruths long-standing single-season home run record, one
of the most celebrated marks in baseball.[56] Along with
the Angels, three other new franchises were launched dur-
ing 196162. With this, the rst major league expansion
in 60 years, each league now had ten teams.
1.2.3 Attendance records and the age of steroids
The players union became bolder under the leadership of
former United Steelworkers chief economist and nego-
tiator Marvin Miller, who was elected executive director
in 1966.[57] On the playing eld, major league pitchers
were becoming increasingly dominant again. After the
1968 season, in an eort to restore balance, the strike
zone was reduced and the height of the pitchers mound
was lowered from 15 to 10 inches (38.1 - 25.4 cm) . In
1969, both the National and American leagues added two
more expansion teams, the leagues were reorganized into
two divisions each, and a post-season playo system lead-
ing to the World Series was instituted. Also that same
year, Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the rst
serious legal challenge to the reserve clause. The major
leagues rst general players strike took place in 1972.[58]
In another eort to add more oense to the game, the
American League adopted the designated hitter rule the
following year.[59] In 1975, the unions powerand play-
ers salariesbegan to increase greatly when the reserve
clause was eectively struck down, leading to the free
agency system.[60] In 1977, two more expansion teams
joined the American League. Signicant work stop-
pages occurred again in 1981 and 1994, the latter forc-
ing the cancellation of the World Series for the rst time
in 90 years.[61] Attendance had been growing steadily
since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage,
the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game
5
attendance.[52][62]
In May 2010, the Philadelphia Phillies' Roy Halladay pitched the
20th major league perfect game. That October, he pitched only
the second no-hitter in MLB postseason history.
The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993
season had facilitated another restructuring of the major
leagues, this time into three divisions each. Oensive
productionthe number of home runs in particular
had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994
season.[63] After play resumed in 1995, this trend contin-
ued and non-division-winning wild card teams became
a permanent xture of the post-season. Regular-season
interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-
highest attendance mark for a full season was set.[64]
The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both
surpassed Mariss decades-old single season home run
record and two more expansion franchises were added.
In 2000, the National and American leagues were dis-
solved as legal entities. While their identities were main-
tained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter
distinction), the regulations and other functionssuch as
player discipline and umpire supervisionthey had ad-
ministered separately were consolidated under the rubric
of Major League Baseball (MLB).[65]
In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record
of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long
been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hit-
ting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal
steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent
due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting
signicant media attention in 2002 and there was no
penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs be-
fore 2004.[66] In 2007, Bonds became MLBs all-time
home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major
league and minor league attendance both reached all-time
highs.[67][68] Even though McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds
as well as many other players, including storied pitcher
Roger Clemenshave been implicated in the steroid
abuse scandal, their feats and those of other sluggers had
become the major leagues dening attraction.[69] In con-
trast to the professional games resurgence in popularity
6 1 HISTORY

after the 1994 interruption, Little League enrollment was

in decline: after peaking in 1996, it dropped 1 percent
a year over the following decade.[70] With more rigorous
testing and penalties for performance-enhancing drug use
a possible factor, the balance between bat and ball swung
markedly in 2010, which became known as the Year of
the Pitcher.[71] Runs per game fell to their lowest level
in 18 years, and the strikeout rate was higher than it had
been in half a century.[72]
Before the start of the 2012 season, MLB altered its rules
to double the number of wild card teams admitted into
the playos to two per league.[73] The playo expansion
resulted in the addition of annual one-game playos be-
tween the wild card teams in each league.[74]

1.3 Baseball around the world

Main article: History of baseball outside the United

States
See also: Category:Baseball by country.

Baseball, widely known as Americas pastime, is well

established in several other countries as well. The his-
tory of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked
with that of the sport in the United States. As early as
1877, a professional league, the International Associa-
tion, featured teams from both countries.[75] While base-
ball is widely played in Canada and many minor league
teams have been based in the country, the American ma-
jor leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969,
when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as
an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue
Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the
World Series in 1992 and 1993, the rst and still the only
club from outside the United States to do so. After the
2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Ex-
pos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known
as the Nationals.
In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been
the rst baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in
Xalapa, Veracruz. A few days after the Battle of Cerro
Gordo, they used the wooden leg captured (by the Fourth
Illinois regiment) from General Santa Anna".[76] The rst
formal baseball league outside of the United States and
Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a
rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been
one of the worlds strongest since international play be-
gan in the late 1930s (all organized baseball in the coun-
try has ocially been amateur since the Cuban Revolu-
tion). The Dominican Republic held its rst islandwide
championship tournament in 1912.[77] Professional base-
ball tournaments and leagues began to form in other coun-
tries between the world wars, including the Netherlands
(formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mex-
ico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938).[78] The Japanese ma-
jor leaguesthe Central League and Pacic League
Sadaharu Oh managing the Japan national team in the 2006
World Baseball Classic. Playing for the Central League's Yomiuri
Giants (195980), Oh set the professional world record for home
runs.
have long been considered the highest quality professional
circuits outside of the United States.[79] Japan has a pro-
fessional minor league system as well, though it is much
smaller than the American versioneach team has only
one farm club in contrast to MLB teams four or ve.[80]
After World War II, professional leagues were founded
in many Latin American nations, most prominently
Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic
(1955).[81] Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean
Series has matched the championship clubs from
the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the
Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican
Pacic League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball
League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League.
In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China
(2003) all have professional leagues.[82]
Many European countries have professional leagues as
well, the most successful, other than the Dutch league,
being the Italian league founded in 1948.[83] Compared
to those in Asia and Latin America, the various European
leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no
more than niche appeal. In 2004, Australia won a surprise
silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Israel Baseball
League, launched in 2007, folded after one season.[84]

The Confdration Europene de Baseball (European
Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a
number of competitions between clubs from dierent
countries, as well as national squads. Other competi-
tions between national teams, such as the Baseball World
Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were admin-
istered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF)
from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with
the International Softball Federation to create the current
joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball
Softball Confederation (WBSC). By 2009, the IBAF had
117 member countries.[85] Womens baseball is played
on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries
where it is a leading mens sport. Since 2004, the IBAF
and now WBSC have sanctioned the Womens Baseball
World Cup, featuring national teams.
After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport
beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped
from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005
International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained
part of the 2008 Games. The elimination of baseball,
along with softball, from the 2012 Olympic program en-
abled the IOC to consider adding two dierent sports, but
none received the votes required for inclusion.[86] While
the sports lack of a following in much of the world was
a factor, more important was Major League Baseballs
reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow
its players to participate, as the National Hockey League
now does during the Winter Olympic Games. Such a
break is more dicult for MLB to accommodate because
it would force the playos deeper into cold weather.[87]
Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics,
the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed
to facilitate the participation of top players, but the ef-
fort failed.[88] Major League Baseball initiated the World
Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede the major league
season, partly as a replacement, high-prole international The game is played on a eld whose primary boundaries,
tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006,
was the rst tournament involving national teams to fea-
ture a signicant number of MLB participants.[89][90] The
Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edi-
tion in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic.[91]
2 Rules and gameplay
Main article: Baseball rules
A game is played between two teams, each composed of
nine players, that take turns playing oense (batting and
baserunning) and defense (pitching and elding). A pair There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat,
of turns, one at bat and one in the eld, by each team con- and the glove or mitt:
stitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven
innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in
college and minor leagues). One teamcustomarily the
visiting teambats in the top, or rst half, of every in-
ning. The other teamcustomarily the home teambats
7
in the bottom, or second half, of every inning. The goal
of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other
team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs
by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the
corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player
bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to
rst base, second base, third base, and back home in or-
der to score a run. The team in the eld attempts both to
prevent runs from scoring and to record outs, which re-
move opposing players from oensive action until their
turn in their teams batting order comes up again. When
three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next
half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine
innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest.
Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, in-
volve dierent numbers of players and innings.[92]
Outeld (grass)
distance from home plate can vary between 290' to 400' to fence
e
in
Gr
ll
Fo
ass
u
Fo
ul
lin Li
e ne
2nd base
)
irt
(d
95' (28.9 m)
ld
e
In
Pitcher's mound
diameter 18' (5.47 m)
3rd base 1st base
Coach's box 60'-6" Coach's box
(18.39 m)
Right-handed batter's box Left-handed batter's box
On-deck circle Catcher's box On-deck circle
Diagram of a baseball eld (the term diamond may be used to
refer to the square area dened by the four bases or to the entire
playing eld). The dimensions given are for professional and
professional-style games. Children often play on smaller elds.
the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-
degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines
is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area out-
side them is foul territory. The part of the eld enclosed
by the bases and several yards beyond them is the ineld;
the area farther beyond the ineld is the outeld. In the
middle of the ineld is a raised pitchers mound, with a
rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The
outer boundary of the outeld is typically demarcated by
a raised fence, which may be of any material and height
(many amateur games are played on unfenced elds). Fair
territory between home plate and the outeld boundary is
baseballs eld of play, though signicant events can take
place in foul territory, as well.[93]
The baseball is about the size of an adults st,
around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference.
It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and
covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.[94]
8 2
The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a sin-
gle, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now
commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a
hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters)
in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a nar-
rower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used
by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 cen-
timeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (106
centimeters).[95]
The glove or mitt is a elding tool, made of padded
leather with webbing between the ngers. As an aid
in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various
shapes to meet the specic needs of dierent elding
positions.[96]
Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all
batters.[97]
At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players
on the elding team arrange themselves around the eld.
One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitchers mound.
The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on
the rubber, pushing o it to gain velocity when throwing
toward home plate. Another player, the catcher, squats
on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest
of the team faces home plate, typically arranged as four
inelderswho set up along or within a few yards out-
side the imaginary lines between rst, second, and third
baseand three outelders. In the standard arrange-
ment, there is a rst baseman positioned several steps to
the left of rst base, a second baseman to the right of sec-
ond base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third
baseman to the right of third base. The basic outeld po-
sitions are left elder, center elder, and right elder. A
neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.[98] Other um-
pires will be distributed around the eld as well, though
the number will vary depending on the level of play, ama-
teur or childrens games may only have an umpire behind
the plate, while as many as six umpires can be used for
important Major League Baseball games.
David Ortiz, the batter, awaiting a pitch, with the catcher, and
umpire
Play starts with a batter standing at home plate, hold-
ing a bat.[99] The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a
RULES AND GAMEPLAY
pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the
ball[100] with the bat.[99] The catcher catches pitches that
the batter does not hitas a result of either electing not
to swing or failing to connectand returns them to the
pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the eld of play
must drop the bat and begin running toward rst base,
at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or,
until the play is over, a batter-runner). A batter-runner
who reaches rst base without being put out (see below)
is said to be safe and is now on base. A batter-runner may
choose to remain at rst base or attempt to advance to
second base or even beyondhowever far the player be-
lieves can be reached safely. A player who reaches base
despite proper play by the elders has recorded a hit. A
player who reaches rst base safely on a hit is credited
with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as
a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If
the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire
outeld (and outeld fence, if there is one), it is a home
run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely cir-
cle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desir-
able result for the batter. A player who reaches base due
to a elding mistake is not credited with a hitinstead,
the responsible elder is charged with an error.[99]
Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on
batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair terri-
tory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on rst base
must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball
hit into play rolls foul before passing through the ineld,
it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base
they were at when the play began. If the ball is hit in the
air and caught before it lands, the batter has ied out and
any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they
tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began,
as or after the ball is caught. Runners may also attempt to
advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process
of delivering the ball to home platea successful eort
is a stolen base.[101]
A pitch that is not hit into the eld of play is called either
a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are
recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls
are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free
advance to rst base. (A batter may also freely advance
to rst base if the batters body or uniform is struck by
a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does
not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.)[102] Crucial
to determining balls and strikes is the umpires judgment
as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone,
a conceptual area above home plate extending from the
midpoint between the batters shoulders and belt down to
the hollow of the knee.[103]
A strike is called when one of the following happens:
The batter lets a well-pitched ball (one within the
strike zone) go through to the catcher.
The batter swings at any ball (even one outside the
 9

strike zone) and misses, or foul tips it directly into advancebut fails to reach the next base before a
the catchers hands. elder touches the base while holding the ball. The
ground out is technically a special case of the force
The batter hits a foul ballone that either initially out.
lands in foul territory or initially lands within the di-
amond but moves into foul territory before passing The tag out: recorded against a runner who is
rst or third base. If there are already two strikes touched by a elder with the ball or a glove holding
on the batter, a foul ball is not counted as a third the ball, while the runner is not touching a base.
strike; thus, a foul ball cannot result in the immedi-
ate strikeout of the batter. (There is an exception to It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same
this exception: a two-strike foul bunt is recorded as play. This is called a double play. Even three outs in
a third strike.) one play, a triple play, is possible, though this is very
rare. Players put out or retired must leave the eld, re-
A ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is turning to their teams dugout or bench. A runner may be
outside the strike zone, provided the batter has not swung stranded on base when a third out is recorded against an-
at it.[103][104] other player on the team. Stranded runners do not benet
the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins
with the bases empty of runners.[105]
An individual players turn batting or plate appearance is
complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run,
makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the teams third
out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare
occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the
batters hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a
teammatefor instance, a runner getting caught stealing
(tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this
sort of incomplete plate appearance starts o the teams
next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the
batter the previous inning are erased. A runner may cir-
A shortstop tries to tag out a runner who is sliding headrst, at-
tempting to reach second base. cle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can
score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player
has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat
While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in
again until the eight other members of the players team
the eld is attempting to record outs. Among the various
have all taken their turn at bat. The batting order is set
ways a member of the batting team may be put out, ve
before the game begins, and may not be altered except for
are most common:
substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a sub-
stitute, that player may not reenter the game. Childrens
The strikeout: as described above, recorded against games often have more liberal substitution rules.[106]
a batter who makes three strikes before putting the
ball into play or being awarded a free advance to rst If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in eect, each team
base (see also uncaught third strike). has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and
run). The DH takes the place of another playeralmost
The yout: as described above, recorded against a invariably the pitcherin the batting order, but does not
batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a eld. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting
elder, whether in fair territory or foul territory, be- order of nine players and a elding arrangement of nine
fore it lands, whether or not the batter has run. players.[107]

The ground out: recorded against a batter (in this

case, batter-runner) who hits a ball that lands in fair
territory which, before the batter-runner can reach
3 Personnel
rst base, is retrieved by a elder who touches rst
base while holding the ball or relays it to another See also: Baseball positions
elder who touches rst base while holding the ball.

The force out: recorded against a runner who is re-

quired to attempt to advanceeither because the 3.1 Player rosters
runner is on rst base and a batted ball lands in
fair territory, or because the runner immediately be- Roster, or squad, sizes dier between dierent leagues
hind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to and dierent levels of organized play. Major League
10 4 STRATEGY AND TACTICS

Defensive positions on a baseball eld, with abbreviations and

scorekeepers position numbers (not uniform numbers).

Baseball teams maintain 25-player active rosters. A typ-

ical 25-man roster in a league without the DH rule, such
as MLBs National League, features:[108]

Relief pitchers warming up, overseen by a bullpen coach. A

eight position playerscatcher, four inelders,
manager will often have both a right-handed and a left-handed
three outelderswho play on a regular basis reliever warm up to maximize strategic options.
ve starting pitchers who constitute the teams pitch-
ing rotation or starting rotation

six relief pitchers, including one specialist closer,

who constitute the teams bullpen (named for the
o-eld area where pitchers warm up)

one backup, or substitute, catcher

two backup inelders
two backup outelders
one specialist pinch hitter, or a second backup
catcher, or a seventh reliever
In the American League and others with the DH rule,
there will usually be nine oensive regulars (including
the DH), ve starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a
backup catcher and two or three other reserves; the need
for late inning pinch-hitters (usually in the pitchers spot)
is reduced by the DH.
3.2 Other personnel
The manager, or head coach of a team, oversees the
teams major strategic decisions, such as establishing the
starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, be-
fore each game, and making substitutions during games
in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are
typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have
specialized responsibilities, such as working with play-
ers on hitting, elding, pitching, or strength and condi-
tioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches
are stationed on the eld when the team is at bat: the
rst base coach and third base coach, occupying des-
ignated coaches boxes just outside the foul lines, assist
in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play,
and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and
runners during pauses in play.[109] In contrast to many
other team sports, baseball managers and coaches gener-
ally wear their teams uniforms; coaches must be in uni-
form in order to be allowed on the playing eld during a
game.[110]
Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who
make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a mini-
mum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have
a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes.
Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases,
thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted
force outs and tag outs. In Major League Baseball, four
umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In
the playos, six umpires are used: one at each base and
two in the outeld along the foul lines.[111]
4.2 Batting and baserunning tactics
Matthew Dipasupil Summer 2014 Baseball Video
4 Strategy and tactics
See also: Baseball positioning
Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in
baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general,
right-handed batters tend to be more successful against
left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-
handed batters tend to be more successful against right-
handed pitchers.[112] A manager with several left-handed
batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be
facing a left-handed starting pitcher may respond by start-
ing one or more of the right-handed backups on the teams
roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitch-
ers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing man-
agers will often go back and forth trying to create favor-
able matchups with their substitutions: the manager of
the elding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-
batter matchups, the manager of the batting team trying
to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that
has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove
a starting position playerespecially one whose turn at
bat is not likely to come up againfor a more skillful 4.2
elder.[113]
4.1 Pitching and elding tactics
A rst baseman receives a picko throw, as the runner dives back ner on rst base, including the fundamental choice of
to rst base.
The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in the runner takes o with the pitch drawing the shortstop
11
a baseball game involves pitch selection. By gripping
and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and
by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the
baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it ap-
proaches the batter.[114] Among the resulting wide vari-
ety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are
the fastball, the changeup (or o-speed pitch), and two
breaking ballsthe curveball and the slider.[115] Pitchers
have dierent repertoires of pitches they are skillful at
throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher
signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well
as its general vertical and/or horizontal location.[116] If
there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may
shake o the sign and the catcher will call for a dier-
ent pitch. With a runner on base and taking a lead, the
pitcher may attempt a picko, a quick throw to a elder
covering the base to keep the runners lead in check or,
optimally, eect a tag out. Picko attempts, however, are
subject to rules that severely restrict the pitchers move-
ments before and during the picko attempt. Violation of
any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling
a balk against the pitcher, with the result being runners
on base, if any, advance one base with impunity.[114] If
an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may
call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately o the plate,
allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw
quickly to a base.[117] Facing a batter with a strong ten-
dency to hit to one side of the eld, the elding team may
employ a shift, with most or all of the elders moving to
the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner
on third base, the inelders may play in, moving closer
to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the
runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is
more likely to carry through a drawn-in ineld.[118]
Batting and baserunning tactics
A batter squares to bunt, moving his hands up the barrel of the
bat to increase his control and deaden the ball on impact.
Several basic oensive tactics come into play with a run-
whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and
run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter:
12
or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in
the ineld for the batter to poke the ball through.[119] The
sacrice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making con-
tact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the
ineld, allowing the runner to advance into scoring posi-
tion even at the expense of the batter being thrown out
at rsta batter who succeeds is credited with a sacri-
ce. (A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may
also attempt to bunt for a hit.) A sacrice bunt employed
with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner
home, is known as a squeeze play.[120] With a runner on
third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead con-
centrate on hitting a y ball that, even if it is caught, will
be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score
a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrice
y.[118] The manager will sometimes signal a batter who
is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to
take, or not swing at, the next pitch.[121]
5 Distinctive elements
Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the
other popular team sports in the countries where it has
a following, including American and Canadian football,
basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All of these sports use
a clock; in all of them, play is less individual and more
collective; and in none of them is the variation between
playing elds nearly as substantial or important. The
comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates
that many of baseballs distinctive elements are shared in
various ways with its cousin sports.
5.1 No clock to kill
A well-worn baseball
In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that
holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing ag-
gressively against the opposing team. In contrast, base-
ball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the
5 DISTINCTIVE ELEMENTS
last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At
almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advanta-
geous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy.[122] In
contrast, again, the clock comes into play even in the case
of multi-day Test and rst-class cricket: the possibility of
a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and
well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance
at a win to avoid a loss.[123] Baseball oers no such reward
for conservative batting.
While nine innings has been the standard since the be-
ginning of professional baseball, the duration of the av-
erage major league game has increased steadily through
the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typ-
ically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s,
they averaged just less than two hours, which eventu-
ally ballooned to 2:38 in 1960.[124] By 1997, the aver-
age American League game lasted 2:57 (National League
games were about 10 minutes shorterpitchers at the
plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters).[125]
In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal
was an average game of merely 2:45.[124] By 2014,
though, the average MLB game took over three hours
to complete.[126] The lengthening of games is attributed
to longer breaks between half-innings for television com-
mercials, increased oense, more pitching changes, and
a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time be-
tween each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box
more frequently.[124][125] Other leagues have experienced
similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball
took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from
the preceding decades average of 3:18.[127]
5.2 Individual focus
Although baseball is a team sport, individual players are
often placed under scrutiny and pressure. In 1915, a
baseball instructional manual pointed out that every sin-
gle pitch, of which there are often more than two hun-
dred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one con-
test: the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits.[128]
Contrasting the game with both football and basketball,
scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that baseball is the
one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individ-
ual sports.[129] Pitcher, batter, and elder all act essen-
tially independent of each other. While coaching stas
can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the
execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If
the batter hits a line drive, the outelder is solely respon-
sible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce
and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of
baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces
it. As described by Mandelbaum,
It is impossible to isolate and objectively
assess the contribution each [football] team
member makes to the outcome of the play ...
[E]very basketball player is interacting with all
5.3 Uniqueness of each baseball park
of his teammates all the time. In baseball, by
contrast, every player is more or less on his own
... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete
transparency and total responsibility. A base-
ball player lives in a glass house, and in a stark
moral universe ... Everything that every player
does is accounted for and everything accounted
for is either good or bad, right or wrong.[130]
Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team
sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket
is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership
and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by
the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour
or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket
for the elding error and thus less emphasis on personal
responsibility in this area of play.[131]
5.3 Uniqueness of each baseball park
Main article: Baseball park
Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing elds can
vary signicantly in size and shape. While the dimensions
of the ineld are specically regulated, the only constraint
on outeld size and shape for professional teams following
the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is
that elds built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must
have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home
plate to the fences in left and right eld and 400 feet (122
m) to center.[132] Major league teams often skirt even this
rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became
the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford
Boxes in left eld are only 315 feet (96 m) from home
plate.[133] There are no rules at all that address the height
of fences or other structures at the edge of the outeld.
The most famously idiosyncratic outeld boundary is the
left-eld wall at Bostons Fenway Park, in use since 1912:
the Green Monster is 310 feet (94 m) from home plate
down the line and 37 feet (11 m) tall.[134]
Fenway Park, home of the Boston Red Sox. The Green Monster
is visible beyond the playing eld on the left.
Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the
13
dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul y ball may be
entirely out of play in a park with little space between the
foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more
expansive foul ground.[135] A fence in foul territory that is
close to the outeld line will tend to direct balls that strike
it back toward the elders, while one that is farther away
may actually prompt more collisions, as outelders run
full speed to eld balls deep in the corner. These vari-
ations can make the dierence between a double and a
triple or inside-the-park home run.[136] The surface of the
eld is also unregulated. While the adjacent image shows
a traditional eld surfacing arrangement (and the one used
by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced elds),
teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or
bare.[137] Some eldsincluding several in MLBuse
an articial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations
can have a signicant eect on how ground balls behave
and are elded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the
presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in sta-
diums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly
aect how y balls are played.[138] While football and
soccer players deal with similar variations of eld surface
and stadium covering, the size and shape of their elds
are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on
a football or soccer eld does not aect play the way foul
territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are
largely insignicant.[139]
These physical variations create a distinctive set of play-
ing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such
as altitude and climate, can also signicantly aect play.
A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitchers
park or a hitters park, if one or the other discipline
notably benets from its unique mix of elements. The
most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home
of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude5,282 feet
(1,610 m) above sea levelis responsible for giving it
the strongest hitters park eect in the major leagues.[140]
Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for
its ckle disposition: a hitters park when the strong winds
o Lake Michigan are blowing out, it becomes more of a
pitchers park when they are blowing in.[141] The absence
of a standardized eld aects not only how particular
games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players
statistical records. For example, hitting a y ball 330 feet
(100 m) into right eld might result in an easy catch on the
warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A
team that plays in a park with a relatively short right eld,
such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its ros-
ter with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it.
On the individual level, a player who spends most of his
career with a team that plays in a hitters park will gain an
advantage in batting statistics over timeeven more so if
his talents are especially suited to the park.[142]
14
6 Statistics
Main article: Baseball statistics
Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater
degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and
has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In
the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-
born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was re-
sponsible for the development of the box score, tabular
standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average,
and most of the common statistics and tables used to de- The basic baserunning statistics include:
scribe baseball.[143] The statistical record is so central
to the games historical essence that Chadwick came to
be known as Father Baseball.[143] In the 1920s, Ameri-
can newspapers began devoting more and more attention
to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and histo-
rian Alan Schwarz describes as a tectonic shift in sports,
as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go
to individual players and their statistics lines.[144]
The Ocial Baseball Rules administered by Major
League Baseball require the ocial scorer to categorize
each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide de-
tailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is
the ocial basis for both the box score of the game and
the relevant statistical records.[145] General managers,
managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate
players and make strategic decisions.
Rickey Hendersonthe major leagues all-time leader in runs
and stolen basesstealing third base in a 1988 game.
Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball
fans. The basic batting statistics include:[146]
At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit
by pitcheswhere the batters ability is not fully
testedand sacrices and sacrice ieswhere the
batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance
one or more baserunners
Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair
ball without elding error or elders choice
Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home
safely
6 STATISTICS
Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who
scored due to a batters action (including the bat-
ter, in the case of a home run), except when batter
grounded into double play or reached on an error
Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully
touched all four bases, without the contribution of
a elding error
Batting average: hits divided by at batsthe tradi-
tional measure of batting ability
[147]
Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base en-
tirely due to the runners own eorts, generally while
the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the
ball
Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting
to steal a base
Cy Youngthe holder of many major league career marks, in-
cluding wins and innings pitched, as well as lossesin 1908.
MLBs annual awards for the best pitcher in each league are
named for Young.
The basic pitching statistics include:[148]
Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last
pitched before the team took a lead that it never re-
linquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least ve
innings to qualify for a win)
Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was
pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it
never relinquished
Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by
the pitchers team, nishes the game without surren-
dering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either
(a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher
entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on
 15

base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched
three or more innings
Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching di-
vided by three (partial innings are conventionally
recorded as, e.g., 5.2 or 7.1, the last digit ac-
tually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)
On-base percentage measures a batters ability to get
on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the
batters successes in getting on base (hits plus walks
plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batters
total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit
by pitches plus sacrice ies), except for sacrice
bunts.[153]

Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter Slugging percentage measures a batters ability to hit
for power. It is calculated by taking the batters total
Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions bases (one per each single, two per double, three per
(wins plus losses) triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by
the batters at bats.[154]
Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding
those resulting from elding errors, per nine innings
Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians
pitched
have gained wide use:

The basic elding statistics include:[149]
Putouts: times the elder catches a y ball, tags or
forces out a runner, or otherwise directly eects an
out
Assists: times a putout by another elder was
recorded following the elder touching the ball
On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batters
overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batters
on-base percentage and slugging percentage.[155]
Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) mea-
sures a pitchers ability at preventing hitters from
reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name
suggests.[156]

Errors: times the elder fails to make a play that

should have been made with common eort, and the 7 Popularity and cultural impact
batting team benets as a result

Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors

Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus

assists) divided by total chances

Among the many other statistics that are kept are those
collectively known as situational statistics. For example,
statistics can indicate which specic pitchers a certain
batter performs best against. If a given situation statis-
tically favors a certain batter, the manager of the elding
team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the
pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one
who is less likely to succeed.[150]

6.1 Sabermetrics

Sabermetrics refers to the eld of baseball statistical study

and the development of new statistics and analytical tools.
The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics
themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one
of the elds leading proponents, Bill James, and de-
rives from the Society for American Baseball Research
(SABR).[151]
The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early
1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics Two players on the baseball team of Tokyo, Japans Waseda Uni-
that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a versity in 1921
batters skill than batting average:[152]
16
An Afghan girl playing baseball in August 2002
Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen de-
scribed baseball as Americas national religion.[157] In the
words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long
been a unique paragon of American culturea status
he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal.[158]
Baseball has an important place in other national cul-
tures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes how
deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of
a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radi-
cally reshaped and nativized in Japan.[159] Since the early
1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of
San Pedro de Macors, has been the major leagues pri-
mary source of foreign talent.[160] Hall-of-Famer Roberto
Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes
in Puerto Ricos history.[161] While baseball has long
been the islands primary athletic pastime, its once well-
attended professional winter league has declined in pop-
ularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players be-
gan to be included in the major leagues annual rst-year
player draft.[162] In the Western Hemisphere, baseball is
also one of the leading sports in Canada, Colombia, Mex-
ico, the Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, and
Venezuela. In Asia, it is among the most popular sports
in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan.
The major league game in the United States was origi-
nally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audi-
ence: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National
Leagues set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high,
while the location of playing elds outside the inner city
and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were
7 POPULARITY AND CULTURAL IMPACT
also obstacles to a blue-collar audience.[163] A century
later, the situation was very dierent. With the rise in
popularity of other team sports with much higher av-
erage ticket pricesfootball, basketball, and hockey
professional baseball had become among the most blue-
collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports.[164]
In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseballs position
compared to football in the United States moved in con-
tradictory directions. In 2008, Major League Baseball
set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFLs
revenue for the rst time in decades.[165] A new MLB
revenue record of $6.6 billion was set in 2009.[166] On
the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans
polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was
16%, compared to pro football at 31%. In 1985, the re-
spective gures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%.[167]
Because there are so many more major league baseball
games played, there is no comparison in overall atten-
dance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games
was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% o
the record set the previous year.[67] The following year,
amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4
million.[166] Attendance at games held under the Minor
League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007, with
42.8 million;[68] this gure does not include attendance at
games of the several independent minor leagues.
Opening day of 1961 baseball season. President John F.
Kennedy throws out rst ball.
In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading specta-
tor team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in
Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that over-
sees both the Central and Pacic leagues, was estimated
at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year
was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding
two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and
revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB gures were
stagnant. There are concerns that MLBs growing inter-
est in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game
7.1 Baseball in popular culture 17

in their home country.[80] In Cuba, where baseball is by

every reckoning the national sport,[168] the national team
overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in
the top-level domestic leagues.[169] Revenue gures are
not released for the countrys amateur system. Similarly,
according to one ocial pronouncement, the sports gov-
erning authority has never taken into account attendance
... because its greatest interest has always been the devel-
opment of athletes.[170]
As of 2007, Little League Baseball oversees more than
7,000 childrens baseball leagues with more than 2.2 mil-
lion participants2.1 million in the United States and
123,000 in other countries.[171] Babe Ruth League teams
have over 1 million participants.[172] According to the
president of the International Baseball Federation, be-
tween 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play base-
ball around the world, including Little League and the
introductory game of Tee Ball.[173]
A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical
education departments at most high schools and col-
leges in the United States. In 2008, nearly half a mil-
lion high schoolers and over 35,000 collegians played
on their schools baseball teams.[171] The number of
Americans participating in baseball has declined since
the late 1980s, falling well behind the number of soc-
cer participants.[174] By early in the 20th century, in-
tercollegiate baseball was Japans leading sport. To-
day, high school baseball in particular is immensely
popular there.[175] The nal rounds of the two annual
tournamentsthe National High School Baseball Invi-
tational Tournament in the spring, and the even more
important National High School Baseball Championship The American Tobacco Company's line of baseball cards fea-
in the summerare broadcast around the country. The tured shortstop Honus Wagner of the Pittsburgh Pirates from
tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien 1909 to 1911. In 2007, the card shown here sold for $2.8
and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium million.[177]
where they are played.[176] In Cuba, baseball is a manda-
tory part of the state system of physical education, which
begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.[180]
are sent to special district schools for more intensive
trainingthe rst step on a ladder whose acme is the na- Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertain-
tional baseball team.[169] ment. One of the rst major examples, Ernest Thayer's
poem "Casey at the Bat", appeared in 1888. A wry de-
scription of the failure of a star player in what would
7.1 Baseball in popular culture now be called a clutch situation, the poem became the
source of vaudeville and other staged performances, au-
Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both dio recordings, lm adaptations, and an opera, as well as
in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English- a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There
language idioms have been derived from baseball; in par- have been many baseball movies, including the Academy
ticular, the game is the source of a number of widely Awardwinning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and
used sexual euphemisms.[178] The rst networked radio the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of
broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Se- Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selec-
ries: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play- tion of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride
by-play from New York Citys Polo Grounds on WJZ of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at
Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to number 5.[181] Baseball has provided thematic material
WGYSchenectady, New York, and WBZSpringeld, for hits on both stagethe AdlerRoss musical Damn
Massachusetts.[179] The baseball cap has become a ubiq- Yankeesand recordGeorge J. Gaskin's Slide, Kelly,
uitous fashion item not only in the United States and Slide, Simon and Garfunkel's "Mrs. Robinson", and
Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not John Fogerty's "Centereld".[182] The baseball-inspired
18 9 REFERENCES

comedic sketch "Whos on First", popularized by Abbott

and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six
decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of
the 20th century.[183] Baseball is also featured in various
video games including MLB: The Show, Wii Sports, Kinect
Sports: Season 2 and Mario Baseball.
Literary works connected to the game include the short
ction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Mala-
mud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert
Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J.
Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe
(the source for Field of Dreams). Baseballs literary
canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Run- A New York Yankees batter and a Boston Red Sox catcher at
yon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Fenway Park.
Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger
Angell. Among the celebrated nonction books in the
eld are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Baseball clothing and equipment
Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's
Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher List of organized baseball leagues
Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a
List of Major League Baseball single-game records
turning point in the reporting of professional sports.[184]
Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural Outline of baseball
forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th
century as trade cards. A typical example would feature Related sports
an image of a baseball player on one side and advertis-
ing for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they
were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco Brnnboll (Scandinavian bat-and-ball game)
and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the pop-
British baseball
ularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a
player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics Lapta (game) (Russian bat-and-ball game)
and biographical data. Baseball cardsmany of which
are now prized collectiblesare the source of the much Oin (Romanian bat-and-ball game)
broader trading card industry, involving similar products
for dierent sports and non-sports-related elds.[185] Pespallo (Finnish baseball)
Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention Softball
of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel
Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie Stickball
league draft notional teams from the list of active Major
League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary Stoop ball
season with game outcomes based on the players latest
real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became Wieball
a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy
baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array Cricket
of dierent sports.[186] The eld boomed with increasing
Internet access and new fantasy sportsrelated websites.
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Bradbury, J.C. The Baseball Economist: The Real
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894963-40-7
 25

Euchner, Charles. The Last Nine Innings: Inside
the Real Game Fans Never See (Sourcebooks, 2007).
ISBN 1-4022-0579-1
Fitts, Robert K. Remembering Japanese Baseball:
An Oral History of the Game (Southern Illinois Uni-
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Carlin, George. Baseball and Football. Baseball
Almanac. Retrieved 2009-05-06.

Gutkind, Lee. The Best Seat in Baseball, But You
Have to Stand: The Game as Umpires See It (South-
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8093-2195-7
Gillette, Gary, and Pete Palmer (eds.). The ESPN
Baseball Encyclopedia, 5th ed. (Sterling, 2008).
ISBN 1-4027-6051-5
Gmelch, George (September 2000). Baseball
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original on April 22, 2007. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
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We Knew It: Whats the French for 'Juiced'? (book
review)". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-06-27.

James, Bill. The New Bill James Historical Base- 12 External links
ball Abstract, rev. ed. (Simon and Schuster, 2003).
ISBN 0-7432-2722-0
Leagues and organizations
James, Bill. The Bill James Handbook 2009 (ACTA,
2008). ISBN 0-87946-367-8 Major League Baseball

Mahony, Phillip, Baseball Explained (McFarland International Baseball Federation

Books, 2014) ISBN 978-0-7864-7964-1.
Minor League Baseball
Pepe, Phil. (2005). Catsh, Yaz, and Hammerin'
British Baseball Federation
Hank: The Unforgettable Era That Transformed
Baseball. Triumph Books; Chicago. ISBN 978-1-
57243-839-2 Statistics and game records

Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball was White: A Baseball Almanac

History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black
Professional Teams (Oxford University Press, 1992 Baseball-Reference.com
[1970]). ISBN 0-19-507637-0
Retrosheet
Posnanski, Joe (2007) The Soul of Baseball New
York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-085403-4 News and other resources
Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of
Baseball in Asia (Bison, 2004). ISBN 0-8032-3943- Baseball. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
2 Baseball at DMOZ
Ritter, Lawrence S. The Glory of Their Times: The BaseballLibrary.com
Story of the Early Days of Baseball Told by the Men
Who Played It, enlarged ed. (Harper, 1992). ISBN Baseball Prospectus
0-688-11273-0
Society for American Baseball Research
Tango, Tom, Mitchel G. Lichtman, and Andrew E.
Mister Baseball European baseball news
Dolphin, The Book: Playing the Percentages in Base-
ball (Potomac, 2007). ISBN 1-59797-129-4 Baseball Heritage Museum at League Park in
Cleveland, Ohio
Sexton, John (2013) Baseball as a Road to God: See-
ing Beyond the Game New York: Gotham Books.
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Ward, Georey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An

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EEMIV, Kyle Barbour, Figaro, Halabuda, DeadEyeArrow, Kassie, Psy guy, Jhinman, CalgaryWikifan, Nlu, David Underdown, Max
Schwarz, Wknight94, Ncsaint, Daimaoh, WikiWonka, FF2010, Iang77, Emijrp, Deville, Theodolite, Zzuuzz, Shinhan, Lt-wiki-bot, Chase
me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Donald Albury, Fang Aili, Th1rt3en, Atlasgames, GraemeL, JoanneB, TBadger, Aqua 01, Brianlucas, Fram,
Shyam, Paddy O'Leibowitz McGoldstein, Stk992, Dool325, JLaTondre, Spliy, Easter Monkey, Skittle, Fractalchez, Archer7, Marlas-
dad, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, TLSuda, RG2, Red Darwin, GrinBot~enwiki, Samuel Blanning, Amberrock, DVD R W, Barry Wells,
Dsreyn, The Wookieepedian, TravisTX, Sintonak.X, Amalthea, SmackBot, Nick Dillinger, MetalmanCaE, Tigerghost, Cubs Fan, Man-
goe, Bobet, Schyler, Honza Zruba, Reedy, Dav2008, KnowledgeOfSelf, DCGeist, Hydrogen Iodide, Falustra77, David.Mestel, Pgk,
Awilcox1533, Jacek Kendysz, Anubis2051, Scooterdman, MrBoyt, Nickst, Delldot, Piper108, Vanished user 3dk2049pot4, Swerdnaneb,
TharkunColl, Nscheey, HalfShadow, Alsandro, VSquared, Nicodh, Bullsfan80586, Yamaguchi , Nhansen, Aksi great, Peter Isotalo,
Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Carl.bunderson, Cs-wolves, Jereymarcil, Tv316, Saros136, Izehar, Chris the speller,
Zouf, Kurykh, Keegan, Jburge, Persian Poet Gal, SMP, DetlevSchm, Sweaty414, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Delfeye, Christopher51191,
Daniel1991, MalafayaBot, Timneu22, Benjamin9003, Victorgrigas, Kingogojr, JoeBlogsDord, Dlohcierekims sock, Whispering, Ctbolt,
DHN-bot~enwiki, Souris2005, Colonies Chris, Mkamensek, U, Nintendude, Yanksox, Milalwi, D-Rock, RuudVisser, Royboycrashfan,
Jcb10, Mihai Capot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, Quartermaster, Dushman, Onorem, Nixeagle, Jsol5, Rrburke, Naja
Haje, Mugsyrules27, New World Man, Hairouna, Jordz, Flubbit, Kcordina, Syberghost, Meepster, Mr.Z-man, Jjjsixsix, Phaedriel, Elendils
Heir, Soosed, Brianptorres, Nakon, VegaDark, RJN, MichaelBillington, Isfalk, Dreadstar, MartinRe, Farski, Only, MetroStar, Superduck-
toes, Doc80808, BryanG, DMacks, Wizardman, Hunter2005, Maelnuneb, Metamagician3000, N Shar, Kalathalan, Where, Ck lostsword,
Pilotguy, Fyver528, Wossi, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Michael J, Mukadderat, Swatjester, Harryboyles, JKBrooks85, Brown-
HairedGirl, Mouse Nightshirt, Vanished user 9i39j3, Kuru, John, Scoobs197, Cesium 133, Buchanan-Hermit, Iliev, J 1982, Heimstern,
SilkTork, Ontopic, NewTestLeper79, Weinerheadshaboom, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Blinutne, Kcaptk, Donboyll, Accurizer,
Minna Sora no Shita, SarahTeach, Ezn, Dakern74, Gnevin, Nbmq, Majorclanger, Isaacl, Rippwallet, IronGargoyle, Enelson, PseudoSudo,
Kakadinho2210, Tatvasoft, CPAScott, Aaronstj, Mr. Zarniwoop, JHunterJ, MarkSutton, BillFlis, Willy turner, Slakr, Hvn0413, Bfjs123,
Smguy101, Mr Stephen, Bollinger, Dicklyon, Waggers, Clq, , Buckboard, SandyGeorgia, Michael Greiner, Tuspm, Back2buk, Ryu-
long, Rkw1111, Andrwsc, Jose77, BigT2006, Darry2385, TJ Spyke, Hu12, Politepunk, Bal00, Facts&moreFacts, Levineps, Nehrams2020,
Fan-1967, Grblomerth, StuHarris, Polymerbringer, Large farva, I love wikipedia :), Splitpeasoup, Jamesr@thesportbar.com, KsprayDad,
13.1 Text 27

Haggardina, OTsoccerplaya, Ytny, Phoenixrod, Adambiswanger1, Woodshed, Louis reed, Billy Hathorn, IronJohnSr, Tawkerbot2, Dlo-
hcierekim, Bobby131313, Jctlor, Ericleb01, IJK Principle, Eastlaw, J3wishVulcan, Tifego, JForget, Mattsinclair, Markjoseph125, Cm-
drObot, Pegasusbot, Mattbr, Mustang6172, TimothyHorrigan, Zakatak1797, Prescottbush, Zarex, Ric36, Unionhawk, Triage, BRMo, Mr.
Science, Thajigisup, Coyle022, LotR, Nunquam Dormio, Runningonbrains, CWY2190, GHe, Benwildeboer, Dgw, Jburstein, NickW557,
OMGsplosion, Avillia, SelfStudyBuddy, Cracker017, Reyes1981, Tex, Pnatt, Karenjc, Pewwer42, Nilfanion, TJDay, Mattyh190, Nader23,
Jimmy157, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Conversion script, Reywas92, Rsarlls, P.Shack, Steel, Garyismemeow, Alrin, Kaldosh, Gogo Dodo, Ka-
jinla, Travelbird, JFreeman, Corpx, Llort, Deathklams, QRX, HumbleGod, SuddenStrike, Yeanold Viskersenn, Stoneboy3, B, Tawker-
bot4, Demomoke, Henry garFunkle, DumbBOT, Swimdude315, Archimedez, Laxfreako22, Brooks was here, Dinnerbone, Inkington, Big-
blockjr@msn.com, Em-jay-es, Brad101, Omicronpersei8, Jheditorials, Theirishpianist~enwiki, DarkMasterBob, Centuriono, Gashouse6,
Thijs!bot, JAF1970, Poorleno, Epbr123, Barticus88, C-BOW, Biruitorul, Crockspot, Quakerwildcat, Mercury~enwiki, Pajz, GDMULNI,
Chefgardemanger, TonyTheTiger, Chitomcgee, Jobber, Kablammo, Andyjsmith, Superstooge, Tommie91, Sopranosmob781, Mdawg 64,
Simeon H, Astroholic, West Brom 4ever, John254, Tapir Terric, PYLrulz, Woody, Adamfuhrer, James086, PJtP, Byakuren, AgentPep-
permint, Logan0703, FreeKresge, Dugwiki, Icegabe, Dawnseeker2000, Rel861, Natalie Erin, Alexander lau, Extreme Donut, Dnkidd,
Northumbrian, Escarbot, The Legendary Ranger, I already forgot, GuBu, Hmrox, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Chitownfcko,
Luna Santin, Akradecki, Fnerchei, CobraWiki, ZDKOZMIX, Jayron32, AaronY, Vvijayk, Vic226, TimVickers, Dane 1981, Neptuner,
Mack2, Vanjagenije, Ghost of starman, Clamster5, Jacqke, Sewnmouthsecret, Malcolm, Yellowdesk, GrimGary, Tecmobowl, Borgarde,
Jaredroberts, Canadian-Bacon, Dreaded Walrus, Husond, Ags412, MER-C, Tim Cox, Epeeeche, Caracaskid, Ericoides, Instinct, Ocel0t,
Hello32020, Rocks89, Andonic, Coolhandscot, Roleplayer, Hut 8.5, Loonyloz, Bmv 1978, Kerotan, Funknl, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Siobhan-
Hansa, Acroterion, Joebengo, TroyMarsh, Mewtwowimmer, Magioladitis, FJM, Bennybp, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Brian burton, Auburn-
Pilot, TheK80, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Kuyabribri, Hasek is the best, JNW, Andeeno13, Jos is Fluid, Swpb, Think outside the box,
Ling.Nut, HollaAtYaHero, Bobthebosoxfan, Nacanacoo, Singularity, Jim Douglas, Steven Walling, Aaksp, Zephyr2k~enwiki, Avicenna-
sis, Jessehess990, Indon, Looksalot57, Qued1234567, Just H, BilCat, Alihaig, Ceribik, Ticnatz, TequilaShot, Vssun, Glen, DerHexer, Bald-
Clarke, Megalodon99, Lenticel, Zick0604, Publius3, TheRanger, Wayne Miller, An Earthshine, Tamahone, Patstuart, CONESTIR, Um-
pire No 40, Thatsaspiceymeatball, TJ11, Ripken, Madsicodude, MartinBot, Kellyskus, Mattgoof, Johnmarcshelly, HeeroYuiX, Danjulien,
Robin63, Cobia117, bermann, Boblong, THUGCHILDz, Rettetast, Roastytoast, Estil, Firesprayfett, Mschel, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius,
Harrison612, Scalessec, M bates, Rudizzle, Brain Rodeo, DrKay, Trusilver, Varob911, Johnson311, Mnpeter, Tylerhammond, Richiekim,
Opperkerty, Bigdog9423, Junk06, Richyeilding, Coryb9191, TriviaKing, Matt neary, Gzkn, Acalamari, Carnder, Janus Shadowsong, Ryan
Postlethwaite, Boznia, JayJasper, Tsuite, SchirmerPower, GhostPirate, Vanished User 4517, Omaha77, Maelstrom07, BenBenBlackBen,
NewEnglandYankee, G8master, Staceyelyse, SJP, Master shepherd, FEVB, Smokedadro, ParvatiBai, Btk101, Perdy80, Regetch, David S.
Homan, MrCab, Packerfan386, Joemetts10, Mike V, Bonadea, Kckid2599, Num1dgen, Chiefsfan4life, Philliesfan035, TenniskidACS,
Nate3990, Fbarton, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Wikieditor06, Timpcrk87, Sam Blacketer, ChaosNil, IceJew, Fredgamer5000, VolkovBot,
ICE77, Kelapstick, Rene lp, Leebo, Mr. Bouncy, Je G., Niceley, Metwop, I'mDown, Katydidit, Aknox101, CART fan, Tenis4kr, Umalee,
Philip Trueman, ClemsonTiger, Zeuron, TXiKiBoT, Bualohead, Skinner9000, Eddie6705, GimmeBot, Yankees710, Kww, Alan Rocke-
feller, Vipinhari, .:CoReHaCk:., A4bot, Stumpy man, Super234, Jogersbot, Beta7, Undenyable, Homerdudeasd, YZ450f, Nalef20, Gerrish,
Omy what, Joker0o0o, Bdgoldstein, Qxz, Jeepmtl~enwiki, Lradrama, Sintaku, Corvus cornix, Hswikiuser, JhsBot, Spikeymario, Broad-
bot, Abdullais4u, Pieman93, Seb az86556, SpanishCastleMagic, Cremepu222, Colonel Sanchez, Rdfox 76, Bx0510, Papaya07, Ilyaroz,
RadiantRay, Goaliemaster121, Tman102938, Sccrdd483, Baseketball, OverMyHead, Dirkbb, Jaegoan7, Y, Enviroboy, Suhovare1, Jw-
morris92, East Stirlingshire, Bporopat, Canismajoris, Entirelybs, Bclark7113, Watchdog9, Showers, Loyalgame3, AlleborgoBot, Tapruis,
Beam1985, Logan, Mopyu90, Solicitr, Chuck Sirloin, EmxBot, Iluvelves, Agamus, Riverwaste, Hppynoodleboy, Gamerdude94, Thunder-
wing, Goofball331, The Random Editor, Frylark~enwiki, Darkieboy236, KJFrazier1955, Smallcheese, Littlebug789, Ecleticiconoclast,
SieBot, AlexHillan, TRDCDS1, Incogation, Madman, SheamusO'Brien, Magnum28, YonaBot, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Stichcorn, Brook-
louis, Nay01, VVVBot, Trixxy, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Edmund Patrick, Triwbe, Smsarmad, Yea booooooooooiiiii, Keilana, Hairy Back25,
Happysailor, Dog8, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Poonsdehgah, Patspride14, Arbor to SJ, Undead Herle King, Allmightyduck, Dubend, Oxy-
moron83, Baseball Bugs, Lightmouse, KillrOi!, Iain99, The-G-Unit-Boss, BillTunell, Danelo, Gunmetal Angel, Diego Grez-Caete, Dil-
lard421, Mjdlight, Spitre19, Bcdm, Cjm2192, Anchor Link Bot, HighInBC, Dust Filter, Sphilbrick, Danieltiger45, Ascidian, Flyerdog11,
Dabomb87, Hpsander456, JL-Bot, Randy Kryn, Kickmeitalk, TheCatalyst31, Steve, Barracuda2, Lander777, Macleanrobertson, Azzle13,
Smashville, Kanesue, MBK004, ClueBot, Duncangotmilk4, Jesusfarts, IlikeAIDSinmouth, Ownerguy10, Kl4m, Avenged Eightfold, Jim-
myn94, TonyPisSuper, PipepBot, Mike padilla, Badger Drink, Buttonsandsand, Fyyer, Moishe Rosenbaum, Dobermanji, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Sammmttt, Ldourgarian, Bonds, barry, JustSomeRandomGuy32, J Bone86, Dean Wormer, Ndenison, Sassf, Tcassidycur-
tis, Mpcjr852, UserDoe, Drmies, Cp111, Wefoij, Timberframe, Mayy may y, Gecko1836, Aaronfeldman, El-is-heaps-good, RulerBall,
Peanut4, Pigger 7000, Dawoiks379, Richerman, Unknown17844, Baseballguy144, Boltonblaze, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pws123321, Net-
gear333, Kingbytor, Wct 123, Iscrewalltheshit, Dsrobinson15, Sneezey123, Jharrisonr, Greg matt, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, Pauly243,
Pouyghjk, Kansoku, KahneRacingFan09, Reyes7, Scoops20, Abigpurplemonkey, Tanketz, Jaredhirsch, Chepskate22, Goodey, Excirial,
Fivepounds, Erebus Morgaine, Sllappy, Ottre, Soft carebare, M0M3NTUM, NewYorkDreams, 26nick2004, Mofassir~enwiki, Jotter-
bot, Baseballsucks69, Highy3442, Auntieauntie1, Redthoreau, Dekisugi, H0ttn3ss, Oliver1741, RenamedUser jaskldjslak901, Thingg,
Abh9h, Mctrain, PCHS-NJROTC, Jojolol14, Qwfp, Wkboonec, Snotbrain, DumZiBoT, EdJF, Against the current, Stickee, FellGleaming,
Tonydesh, Iaminahappymood, Rreagan007, Leesw616, Jcl2007, Beach drifter, Mm40, Dunationusa, KAVEBEAR, RyanCross, Basbl
fan, Joetxe, Addbot, Xp54321, Yousou, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Betterusername, Giants2008, Andyman103v, Morriswa, Tanhabot, Vish-
nava, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Noozgroop, Jdogdizzledude, JimmOpeace, Sillyfolkboy, Jreconomy, 10outof10die, LAAFan,
Glass Sword, AndersBot, Favonian, Dakewlio, Bshaw38, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Jdvillalobos, Terrillja, Tide rolls,
SDJ, Meisfunny, Krukouski, Jkent1212, Amateur55, Ben Ben, Legobot, Tartarus, GrumpyGuts, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, Lautre-
homme, Voice99, Nirvana888, Matanya, Aaronzimroth, Rks13, Fpittui, AnomieBOT, Sunshineofyourlove12, Dogwood123, Angry bee,
Nortmannus, JackieBot, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Hbkrishnan, Ckruschke, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Eaglebreath, Bobsmith99,
Xqbot, Spidern, Spike-from-NH, Furdeen, Vidshow, Gilo1969, Anna Frodesiak, Cyphoidbomb, Gap9551, GrouchoBot, Finchinator,
Mark Schierbecker, Wikieditor1988, Amaury, KennethHan, N419BH, Shadowjams, Nwells40, Seoulseekers, Haldraper, Cardiorm,
Bekus, TMBLover, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Johndbarry, Youndbuckerz, RoyGoldsmith, D'ohBot, Wellvrsd, Alex4827, Eagle4000, Finn
Froding, Redrose64, XxTimberlakexx, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Hockeyninja101, 10metreh, Pelmeen10, Ergito,
Slus, RedBot, Fumitol, John123521, White Shadows, Arbero, FoxBot, CarolinahurricanesEr, Ticklewickleukulele, Vinay84, Hamaxides,
Callanecc, Crazyeditor9, Canuckian89, Jhenderson777, Mrpersonwithaname, Tbhotch, Sideways713, El Mayimbe, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, Ernestogon, Fastardul, RjwilmsiBot, Larry.europe, Bossanoven, DRAGON BOOSTER, CoachLookAtMeNow, Danieljo2013, Gron-
demar, NDKilla, Deagle AP, DASHBot, Mukogodo, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Erpert,
JDDJS, Kkm010, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Josve05a, Socioj, MithrandirAgain, Empty Buer, Jordancelticsfan, Gonzalez991,
Jacobharrisonrichter, Meatballofall, Everard Proudfoot, Andjac7, Battoe19, Stevoamilli, Mu3ll3r9, EddieDrood, H3llBot, SporkBot,
28 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

AManWithNoPlan, Ocaasi, Twinsfan133, Cmfusco53515, Ripthatduckey, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Wonderwizard, Flightx52, Div-
ing2010, Pirneezy 31, Lucas B. de Souza, Donner60, Rororocopter57, Gorydragon, Kanetama, Tara969, Rbisht33, EdoBot, RED-
SOXdabomb, Hipnotic88, Mjbmrbot, Kwesiidun91, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, This lousy T-shirt, TerryNF, Joefromrandb, Gwendal, Fash-
ionster, Ekcrbe, Widr, 1000Fast, Anupmehra, Helpful Pixie Bot, Eddie429, Wbm1058, Ibaf wiki, Omkar1234, Lowercase sigmabot,
Smarty, Supernerd11, Sharkmandude4000, Tberli3, Hpsuperfan, Meclee, Mikepabell, Kushared, Ronnielbrown, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot,
Taief.shahed, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, 22dragon22burn, Khazar2, Farhan Khurram, Dexbot, WikiWiki11, BScMScMD, Kennywood
fan, Zenkai5, Lugia2453, Jamesx12345, Stepojevac, , Ueutyi, Epicgenius, Anne Delong, Redd Foxx 1991, Jimhann824, AmaryllisGar-
dener, Information-01152001, Ryenocerous, Jodosma, Jakec, Zhikkon, Ryantheravensfan1, ElHef, The Herald, FDMS4, Kissjessieaero-
smithacdckisslion, Jackmcbarn, MrScorch6200, Rinfrow, Omphalosskeptic, Tyman222, Antrocent, CogitoErgoSum14, Monkbot, Poison-
dartfrog10, Teddybean8947, Swim927, Box20, Prof. Mc, Znorth0818, Zax12, Jden6969, Ttorres1234567890123, Warreb2112, Eleijon,
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13.2 Images
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13.3 Content license 29

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