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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SRINAGAR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
HAZRATBAL, SRINAGAR-190006, J&K) INDIA)

M. Tech. 3RD Semester Geotechnical Engineering

COURSE NO: CGE-301: DEEP FOUNDATIONS
(Session: Autumn Aug.- Nov. 2016)

e- LEARNING HAND-OUT NOTES FOR UNIT-I

(Course Instructor: B. A. Mir)
Contact details:
Prof. B. A. Mir
Ph.D. (IITB), M. E.* (IISc), M.B.A.* (ICM), B.E.* (UoK)
MASCE (USA), MISSMGE (UK), MISCMS, MIGS, MISTE,
MISRMTT, C. Engg (I), P.Engg. (UK)

Office : Room No. 203 (1ST Floor), Main Building Deptt. of Civil Engg
Mobile : 94190 02 500 / 99065 23 924
Phone : 0194-2429423 Extn: 2216(O), 2211 (Geotech Lab), 2145 (P&D)
E-mail : p7mir@nitsri.net, bashiriisc@yahoo.com, bamiriitb@gmail.com

URL : http://profbamir.blogspot.in/
Details of Course for unit-I as in tabular form below (For detailed syllabus please visit-
http://www.nitsri.net/civil/courses.htm):
Course Coordinator: Prof. B. A. Mir

Unit No. Course Contents Contact Hours

a. Introduction to Foundation Engineering:

Foundation, Foundation types, Construction materials, Principles of 02
foundation Engineering, Challenging problems
Design requirements/ information needed for Deep Foundations. 02
Unit -1 Terminology involved in Foundation Analysis and Design, Gross
bearing capacity, ultimate bearing capacity, net-ultimate bearing
capacity, safe bearing capacity, net safe bearing capacity, safe bearing 02
pressure, allowable bearing pressure.
b. Pile Classifications & Load Transfer Principle
Classification of piles, Factors governing choice of type of pile, 02
Situations in which deep foundations
Load transfer mechanism, Piling equipments and methods 02
Effect of pile installation on soil condition criteria for pile socketing
- responsibility of engineer and contractor. 02

E-mail: p7mir@nitsri.net / bashiriisc@yahoo.com / bamiriitb@gmail.com; Cell No.: 09419002500 / 09906523924

Ph. No.: 0194-2429423 ext. 2216 (O), 2145 (O), Fax No.: 0194-2420475

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COURSE TEXTBOOK: Some useful resources are:

1. Kasmalkar, B. J. (1997). Foundation. Engineering. Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan-1786, Sadashiv

Peth, Pune-411030
2. Murthy, V. N. S. (2013). Advanced Foundation Engg, CBS publishers & distributors, 4819/XI, 24
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-002.
3. Das, B.M., Principles of Foundation Engineering, Design and Construction", Fourth Edition, PWS
Publishing, 1999.
4. Poulos, H.G., Davis, E.H., "Pile foundation analysis and design", John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1980.
5. Tomlinson, M.J. "Foundation engineering", ELBS, Longman Group, U.K. Ltd., England 1995.
6. Cernica, J.N. "Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Design", John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1995.
7. Bowles, J.E., "Foundation Analysis and Design", 5 th Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1996.
8. Donald, P., Coduto, "Foundation Design Principles and Practices", Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1996.
9. Varghese P. C. ,"Foundation Engineering, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 2005.
10. Varghese P. C., "Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations, PHI Learning Private Limited, New
Delhi, 2009

COURSE PREREQUISITE
Knowledge of Geotechnical Engineering-Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engg

Dear Students,
Welcome to the e-learning in the subject: DEEP FOUNDATIONS.
I expect that you have had undergraduate courses in Soil Mechanics/Geotechnical Engineering. Moreover, simply
having taken these courses is not sufficient. You are expected to apply these concepts at a high level in the current
course and be able to integrate all that is learned in this course into concepts of soil mechanics, which can be
applied to practical engineering situations. For situations where shallow foundations are inappropriate for support of
structural elements, deep foundations are necessary to transfer structure load through unsuitable subsurface to
suitable bearing strata. This course, as a part of Geotechnical Engineering Series, covers basic theories, engineering
evaluations, design approaches, and practical construction quality control (CQC) procedures for design and
construction of deep foundations. Therefore, the student will be exposed to the design of piles, pile groups and
caissons with respect to vertical and lateral loads for various field conditions. The final goal is for students to be
able to integrate all that is learned in this course, which is intended to provide you with the following specific
knowledge and skills:
Understanding the general approach to foundation design
Learning about the various types of deep foundations including driven and CIP (cast-in-place) piles
Familiarizing with the pile design concept and procedure
Learning how to assess pile side and tip resistances
Understanding the practical design approaches of load tests and deformation-compatible side/tip resistances
Hand-out notes have been prepared (after referring various sources-Lecture notes, Journals, Text books, Ref. books,
online web browsing etc) as per given course details (unit-I) for your guidance. Some useful resources are also
given for your reference. However, full class room Lectures will be delivered as soon as classes resume.
Furthermore, you are encouraged to refer NPTL web page @: nptel.ac.in/, which provides E-learning
through online Web and Video courses for various streams. For any sort of doubt/clarification, you can
contact me any time without any hesitation.
With Best Wishes, (B. A. Mir)

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 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016
UNIT-I
Hand-out Note-1: INTRODUCTION

FOUNDATION
The foundation is that portion of a structure that transmits the loads from the superstructure to
the underlying soil.
There are two major requirements to be satisfied in the design of foundations:
1. Provision of an adequate factor of safety against failure of the foundation material. Failure of
the foundation material may lead to failure of the foundation and may also lead to failure of
the entire structure.
2. Adequate provision against damage to the structure which may be caused by total or
differential settlements of the foundations.
A foundation system for a shallow footing and a Deep foundation is illustrated in Fig. 1.1. From
Fig. 1.1, it is clearly illustrated that in which case a shallow footing is acceptable (e. g. Case-I)
and ruled out (Case-II). When a shallow footing is ruled out, then there is requirement of a deep
foundation (Case-III) for transferring the given loading beneath soil layer without shear failure
and excessive settlements.

P, P1 = load from superstructure; qn=P/Af

B = Footing width L = Pile length
Df = Footing depth (<B)
Af = Footing area
d = Pile dia.
Qf = Frictional resistance
P1>P
qn = Net loading intensity P1>P Qb = Base resistance <Q
qa = Allowable soil pressure S=Spacing c/c piles = Qb+Qf
qn=P/Af
Case-III
P Case-II
Case-I
PILE CAP
P
B qn Df I
1 L
E S S
2 qn<qa 2B
Shallow foundation
L
F
Ruled out O
U
qa qn>qa Qf D
Shallow A
foundation Pressure bulb T d
I
acceptable O
Soft soil layer
N
Stiff/Dense Soil Layer Qb

Fig. 1.1. Foundation system (Mir 2016)

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Foundation system
The type of structure which gives structural support to a building beneath its lowest floor or
ground base. A structure's foundation is the structure which supports it in the ground. The forms
and materials of foundations vary according to ground conditions, frame material,
framing system, and other factor. The foundation system comprises of two components:
1. The structural part of foundation such as the footing or pile and
2. The natural foundation, meant to indicate the soil bed.
Similarly the design of foundation system consists of two phases. These are referred to as:
1. Geotechnical (GT) design and
2. Structural design.
The aim of GT design essentially is to arrive at the plan dimensions of the foundation, satisfying
the soil design parameters, viz bearing capacity and settlement. The structural design is taken up
only after its GT design is completed, which determines the footing thickness and also the
quantum and location of reinforcement. However the design has to be carried out as per local
codes of practice.
From Fig. 1.1, it is seen that in case of Case-I, pressure bulb induced due to superstructure
loading (P) lies above soft soil layer and net loading intensity (qn) is less than allowable soil
pressure (qa). Hence, both the requirements mentioned above are full-filled. Therefore, shallow
foundation is acceptable in this case. However, in Case-II, as the superstructure increases but
soil conditions are same and pressure bulb lies in the soft soil layer where-in allowable soil
pressure is less than net loading intensity. Thus, the design requirements are not full-filed.
Therefore, shallow footing is ruled out and for same soil conditions, DEEP FOUNDATION is
recommended as illustrated in Case-III. In this case, end-bearing pile is used where maximum
base resistance (Qb) is obtained to resist the superstructure load. However, some frictional
resistance (Qf) is also achieved as shown in Fig. 1.1 (Case-III). Thus, P < (Qb+Qf) and design
criteria is full-filled and the superstructure load is safely transferred into the soil through
foundation or also known as foundation system with out failure. The load distribution from
superstructure to foundation system and from foundation to beneath soil bed is illustrated in
Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2. Distribution of superstructure loads to soil bed through foundation system

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Foundation Engineering
Foundation Engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics
(Geotechnical engineering) in the design of foundation elements of structures.
Foundation Engineering is both a Science and an art. It is different from structural
engineering as we are dealing with a natural material and not a manufactured product.
Structural Definition of Foundation
A foundation is that part of the structure that is in direct contact with the ground. It is that part of
the structure that transmits the weight of the structure to the ground. The foundation is,
therefore, a connecting link between the superstructure and the ground that supports it.
Foundation transfers the load of the structure to the soil below on a large area. It prevents the
differential settlement by evenly loading the substrata. Foundations are generally built of bricks,
stones, concrete, steel, etc. Therefore, a foundation is a structural member that must be capable
of transmitting applied loads (from superstructure) to the foundation bed (i. e. ground beneath
foundation) safely. In short, the soil beneath structures responsible for carrying the loads is the
FOUNDATION
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
There are three major types of foundations which are used to transmit the loads from the
structure to the underlying material. These foundations types are illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The most
common type of foundation is the footing which consists of an enlargement of the base of a
column or wall so that the pressure transmitted to the foundation material will not cause failure
or excessive settlement. In order to reduce the bearing pressure transmitted to the foundation
material the area of the footing may be increased.

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DEEP FOUNDATION
Deep Foundation
A pile is a vertical structural
element of a deep foundation,
driven deep into the ground at the
building site. A deep foundation is a
type of foundation where the
embedment is larger than its
maximum plane dimension
(Fig. 1.4). The foundation is
designed to be supported on deeper
geologic materials because either
the soil or rock near the ground
surface is not competent enough to
take the design loads or it is more
economical to do so. Fig. 1.4. Deep Foundation

The merit of a deep foundation over a shallow foundation is manifold. By involving deeper
geologic materials, a deep foundation occupies a relatively smaller area of the ground surface.
Deep foundations can usually take larger loads than shallow foundations that occupy the same
area of the ground surface. Deep foundations can reach deeper competent layers of bearing soil
or rock, whereas shallow foundations cannot. Deep foundations can also take large uplift and
lateral loads, whereas shallow foundations usually cannot.
A Deep foundation is one, which has a depth to diameter ratio greater than 4, e. g.:
L/D > 4 or L > 4D
A deep foundation derives its support from competent strata at significant depths below the
surface. A deep foundation is used in lieu of a shallow foundation when adequate bearing
capacity or tolerable settlements cannot be obtained with a shallow foundation. The term deep
foundation includes piles, piers, or caissons, as well as footings or mats set into a deep
excavation. Drilled piers (or caissons) are simply large-diameter piles, but the design process is
somewhat different. An arbitrary distinction between a caisson and pier is that the caisson is 30
inches or more in diameter.
This course will provide you with an introduction to methods for analysis and design of deep
foundations. It discusses problems of placing footings and mats in deep excavations and design
of drilled piers. This course is intended for civil engineers, structural engineers, geotechnical
engineers, geologists and other design and construction professionals wanting an introduction to
deep foundations for buildings and other structures.
Deep foundation or PILE
Piles are common foundation tools for transferring superstructure through water and/or soft soil
deposits. The loads may be distributed through the soils (friction piles) or transferred to firm,
underlying soil or rock strata (end bearing piles). Most piles function as a combination of the
two (e. g., friction + end bearing). The element of a structure that transfers loads to the
underlying ground with performance consistent with the design of the structure. Loads are a
combination of:
Static
Dynamic

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 Horizontal
Vertical

FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & METHODS

Foundation Materials
Piles are structural members that are made of steel, concrete, and/or timber. Different types of
piles are used in construction work, depending on the type of load to be carried, the subsoil
conditions, and the location of the water table. Based on construction materials, piles can be
divided into the following categories (Fig. 1.5):
Wooden (timber) piles
Steel piles
Concrete piles, and
Composite piles

Fig. 1.5. Pile construction materials

The type of foundation materials (listed below) affects how a foundation may be damaged,
cracked, settled, or moved and significantly, the foundation material must be considered in
understanding pattern, location, size, and significance of cracks or other signs of foundation
movement. The same crack location size may have different significance in different foundation
materials.
Masonry block for building foundations
Poured concrete for building foundations

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 Brick for building foundations
Stone for building foundations
Wood for building foundations
Pre-cast Concrete for building foundations

*******************************************************************
Assignment 1a. Discuss briefly: Foundation Construction Types/Methods
b. What are typical characteristics of a deep foundation?
ANS: b-Typical characteristics of a deep foundation are:
It is relatively smaller diameter shaft
Is either driven or bored in the ground by different suitable means
*******************************************************************

Factors to Consider When Evaluating Foundation Damage

Below we list the broad categories of topics that a foundation inspector may need to consider
when inspecting and evaluating the condition of a building foundation.

1. Site Factors: Observe site factors affecting the structure such as slope, drainage, rock, or
nearby activities such as blasting.

2. Construction type, materials: Identify construction type, materials, sequence of

construction - the history of the site, the foundation, and its construction details.

3. Foundation Defects of Occurrence: Observe defects of occurrence - things that have

happened to the structure such as signs of movement, history, other clues. A foundation
crack, foundation movement, foundation lean or foundation bulge, or foundation damage
due to impact, frost, or point loads are all defects of occurrence. Damage that occurs to
foundations is organized according to several viewpoints such as:

Foundation failures by type & material

Foundation failures by movement type
Flood damage to foundations
Foundation crack dictionary
Concrete slab crack evaluation

4. Foundation Defects of Omission: Observe defects of omission - things that have been
left-out or removed (harder to spot) such as possible absence of supporting posts, piers,
footings, or other critical components. Defects of omission are not an event that
happened to a foundation, but rather things that were forgotten or removed, such as
omitting footings or removing a supporting Lally column in a building.

5. Evaluate Foundation Observations: Evaluate the information which has been collected
(history, observations, clues), visual evidence of their impact on the structure, and their
importance. Any building inspector, building contractor, masonry repair contractor, or
carpenter needs to be able to recognize when additional expert evaluation or repair is
needed by a foundation or structural engineer or foundation repair specialist.

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 6. Report Observations & Make Foundation Repair Recommendations: Communicate
the observations and recommendations to the client with clarity so that the client
understands the implications of the findings and the need for action (if any).

7. Repair the Damaged Foundation: depending on the condition of the foundation system,
repairs may be needed, and in emergency cases such as the threat of imminent collapse,
other measures such as installation of temporary foundation support, or even evacuating
an unsafe structure and keeping people away from it could be in order. An example is
the discovery of a bulged structural brick wall - a condition that can cause sudden
catastrophic building collapse.

Principles of Foundation Engineering

Foundation Engineering does not fit completely within any of the traditional Civil Engineering
sub-disciplines. Lack of accepted standards in foundation design is largely the consequence of
the enormous number of variables involved in Soil Mechanics in general and Foundation
Engineering in particular. Theories have been developed for the design of foundations to suit
ideal soil conditions. However, such conditions rarely exist in nature since soils found in natural
conditions are mostly heterogeneous in character. Further, shear strength parameters (c & ) are
site specific and not constant strength parameters. Furthermore, the actions of nature may
produce many complex forms of loading, the magnitude and direct influence of which are
generally unpredictable and largely unknown quantitatively. The intelligent estimates made as to
the magnitude of the actions causing effects on foundations are provided by the science of Soil
Mechanics.
Foundation Engineering is a subject built on the basic principles of:
1. Soil Mechanics Covers complete characterization of soil both as construction material as
well as Foundation material at a site under question/consideration
2. Soil Hydraulics Covers complete study of hydraulic structures, seepage analysis, pore
pressure, ground water table prediction etc
3. Structural Mechanics Covers complete study about service loads, design methods and
analysis based on safe bearing capacity or Geotechnical design parameters for safe design of
a structure under consideration.
All these three principles together may be considered as the PILLARS of Foundation
Engineering. A wrong application of the principles of any one of the three subjects may lead to a
faulty design of the Foundation system under consideration.

Assignment-2. What are challenging problems in Foundation Engineering?

************************************************************************
NOTE: Students are encouraged to attempt assignments for every lecture themselves and
submit soft copy at the earliest. Further, each student is advised to prepare PPT
for each assignment. Each student has to present his/her assignment in the class
(whenever classes resume).

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

9
 M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016
UNIT-I

Hand-out Note-2: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS/ INFORMATION NEEDED

FOR DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Design Concept
The current practice of foundation design mainly employs two types of design concepts, i.e., the
permissible stress approach and the limit state approach. By using the permissible stress
approach, both the demanded stresses from loading and the ultimate stress capacity of the
foundation are evaluated. The foundation is considered to be safe as long as the demanded
stresses are less than the ultimate stress capacity of the foundation. A factor of safety of 2 to 3 is
usually applied to the ultimate capacity to obtain various allowable levels of loading in order to
limit the displacements of a foundation. A separate displacement analysis is usually performed
to determine the allowable displacements for a foundation, and for the bridge structures.
Design based on the permissible concept is still the most popular practice in foundation design.
Starting to be adopted in the design of large critical bridges, the limit state approach requires that
the foundation and its supported bridge should not fail to meet performance requirements when
exceeding various limit states. Collapse of the bridge is the ultimate limit state, and design is
aimed at applying various factors to loading and resistance to ensure that this state is highly
improbable. A design needs to ensure the structural integrity of the critical foundations before
reaching the ultimate limit state, such that the bridge can be repaired a relatively short time after
a major loading incident without reconstruction of the time-consuming foundations.

Design Procedures
Under normal conditions, the design procedures of a foundation should involve the following
steps:
1. Evaluate the site and subsurface geologic and geotechnical conditions, perform borings or
other field exploratory programs, and conduct field and laboratory tests to obtain design
parameters for subsurface materials;
2. Review the foundation requirements including design loads and allowable displacements,
regulatory provisions, space, or other constraints;
3. Evaluate the anticipated construction conditions and procedures;
4. Select appropriate foundation type(s);
5. Determine the allowable and ultimate axial and lateral foundation design capacity, load vs.
deflection relationship, and load vs. settlement relationship;
6. Design various elements of the foundation structure; and
7. Specify requirements for construction inspection and/or load test procedures, and incorporate
the requirements into construction specifications.
Design Capacities
Capacity in Long-Term and Short-Term Conditions
Depending on the loading types, foundations are designed for two different stress conditions.
Capacity in total stress is used where loading is relatively quick and corresponds to an undrained

10
condition. Capacity in effective stress is adopted where loading is slow and corresponds to a
drained condition. For many types of granular soil, such as clean gravel and sand, drained
capacity is very close to undrained capacity under most loading conditions. Pile capacity under
seismic loading is usually taken 30% higher than capacity under static loading.
Axial, Lateral, and Moment Capacity
Deep foundations can provide lateral resistance to overturning moment and lateral loads and
axial resistance to axial loads. Part or most of the moment capacity of a pile group are provided
by the axial capacity of individual piles through pile cap action. The moment capacity depends
on the axial capacity of the individual piles, the geometry arrangement of the piles, the rigidity
of the pile cap, and the rigidity of the connection between the piles and the pile cap. Design and
analysis is often concentrated on the axial and lateral capacity of individual piles.
Structural Capacity
Deep foundations may fail because of structural failure of the foundation elements. These
elements should be designed to take moment, shear, column action or buckling, corrosion,
fatigue, etc. under various design loading and environmental conditions.
Determination of Capacities
In the previous sections, the general procedure and concept for the design of deep foundations
are discussed. Detailed design includes the determination of axial and lateral capacity of
individual foundations, and capacity of pile groups. Many methods are available to estimate
these capacities, and they can be categorized into three types of methodology as listed in the
following:
Theoretical analysis utilizing soil or rock strength;
Empirical methods including empirical analysis utilizing standard field tests, code
requirements, and local experience; and
Load tests, including full-scale load tests, and dynamic driving and restriking resistance
analysis.
The choice of methods depends on the availability of data, economy, and other constraints.
Usually, several methods are used; the capacity of the foundation is then obtained through a
comprehensive evaluation and judgment. In applying the above methods, the designers need to
keep in mind that the capacity of a foundation is the sum of capacities of all elements.
Deformation should be compatible in the foundation elements, in the surrounding soil, and in the
soilfoundation interface. Settlement or other movements of a foundation should be restricted
within an acceptable range and usually is a controlling factor for large foundations.

Other Design Issues

Proper foundation design should consider many factors regarding the environmental conditions,
type of loading conditions, soil and rock conditions, construction, and engineering analyses,
including:
Various loading and loading combinations, including the impact loads of ships or vehicles
Earthquake shaking
Liquefaction
Rupture of active fault and shear zone
Landslide or ground instability

11
 Difficult ground conditions such as underlying weak and compressible soils
Debris flow
Scour and erosion
Chemical corrosion of foundation materials
Weathering and strength reduction of foundation materials
Freezing
Water conditions including flooding, water table change, dewatering
Environmental change due to construction of the bridge
Site contamination condition of hazardous materials
Effects of human or animal activities
Influence upon and by nearby structures
Governmental and community regulatory requirements
Local practice

Uncertainty of Foundation Design

Foundation design is as much an art as a science. Although most foundation structures are
manmade, the surrounding geomaterials are created, deposited, and altered in nature over the
geologic times. The composition and engineering properties of engineering materials such as
steel and concrete are well controlled within a variation of uncertainty of between 5 to 30%.
However, the uncertainty of engineering properties for natural geomaterials can be up to several
times, even within relatively uniform layers and formations. The introduction of faults and other
discontinuities make generalization of material properties very hard, if not impossible.
Detailed geologic and geotechnical information is usually difficult and expensive to obtain.
Foundation engineers constantly face the challenge of making engineering judgments based on
limited and insufficient data of ground conditions and engineering properties of geomaterials. It
was reported that under almost identical conditions, variation of pile capacities of up to 50%
could be expected within a pile cap footprint under normal circumstances. For example, piles
within a nine-pile group had different restruck capacities of 110, 89, 87, 96, 86, 102, 103, 74,
and 117 kips (1 kip = 4.45 kN) respectively.
Conservatism in foundation design, however, is not necessarily always the solution. Under
seismic loading, heavier and stiffer foundations may tend to attract more seismic energy and
produce larger loads; therefore, massive foundations may not guarantee a safe bridge
performance. It could be advantageous that piles, steel pipes, caisson segments, or reinforcement
steel bars are tailored to exact lengths. However, variation of depth and length of foundations
should always be expected. Indicator programs, such as indicator piles and pilot exploratory
borings, are usually a good investment.
Assignment-3. Discuss briefly-various design issues
ANS-The key design issues in the design of pile foundations are:
1. Selection of the type of pile and installation method;
2. Estimation of the pile size in order to satisfy the requirements of an adequate margin of safety
against failure of both the supporting soil and the pile itself, both in compression and tension;

12
3. Estimation of the settlement of the foundation, and the differential settlement between
adjacent foundations;
4. Consideration of the effects of any lateral loading, and the design of the piles to produce an
adequate margin of safety against failure of the soil and the pile, and an acceptable lateral
deflection;
5. Consideration of the effects of ground movements which may occur due to external causes
(such as soil settlement and swelling), and the estimation of the movements and forces induced
in the pile by such movements;
6. Evaluation of the performance of the pile from appropriate pile loading tests, and the
interpretation of these tests to evaluate parameters which may be used to predict more
accurately the performance of the pile foundation.
The selection of a pile foundation type for a structure should be based on the specific soil
conditions as well as the foundation loading requirements and final performance criteria.
There are numerous types of foundation piles. A pile classification system may be based on
type of material, installation technique and equipment used for installation.
Foundation piles can also be classified on the basis of their method of load transfer from the
pile to the surrounding soil mass.

Design requirements/ information needed for foundation design

When a site is selected for a particular project, the job of the Foundation Engineer is to design
the Foundation for the structure under consideration at that site. The following information is
needed for the safe design of the project foundation.

1. From Geotechnical Design view point-To perform satisfactorily, foundations must carry the
loads (and moments) and have two main characteristics:
a. Be safe against overall shear failure (Bearing Capacity Failure) and not to undergo
excessive displacement (Settlement Failure).
b. Have complete study of soil hydraulic conditions of the project site
These conditions will insure that the foundation is safe i.e. the soil and can carry the loads
without major problems. Therefore, when designing foundations, these two characteristic must
be satisfied.

2. From Structural point of view- To perform satisfactorily, Designer should have:

a. A layout plan of the project site
b. A plan of load-bearing elements such as columns, walls, caissons etc, with the estimated
dead load and live load.
c. Soil parameters, e. g., Geotechnical design in-hand.
Based on the above information/data, the depth and type of foundations have to be decided (e. g.
proportioning of foundation). Foundation Engineer will be then in a position to design a proper
and safe foundation. The foundations so designed should satisfy all the requirements of safety.

Necessity for Foundation design

Foundation design is required for all structures to ensure that the loads imposed on the
underlying soil will not cause shear failures or damaging settlements. Therefore, the duty of the
foundation design specialist is to establish the most economical design that safely conforms to
prescribed structural criteria and properly accounts for the intended function of the structure.

13
General Approach to Foundation Design
For a rational method of design, whereby various foundation types are systematically evaluated
and the optimum alternative selected, the following foundation design approach is
recommended:
1. Determine the direction, type and magnitude of foundation loads to be supported, tolerable
deformations and special constraints such as:
a. Underclearance requirements that limit allowable total settlement.
b. Structure type and span length that limits allowable deformations and angular distortions.
c. Time constraints on construction.
d. Extreme event loading and construction load requirements.
In general, a discussion with the structural engineer about a preliminary design will provide this
information and an indication of the flexibility of the constraints.
2. Evaluate the subsurface investigation and laboratory testing data with regard to reliability and
completeness. The design method chosen should be commensurate with the quality and
quantity of available geotechnical data, i.e., doesnt use state of-the-art computerized
analyses if you have not performed a comprehensive subsurface investigation to obtain
reliable values of the required input parameters.
3. Consider alternate foundation types where applicable

CONCEPTS IN DESIGN
1. Visit the Site
2. Obtain Information on Geology at Site
3. Obtain Information on Magnitude and Nature of Loads on Foundation
4. Obtain information on Properties of Soil at Site
5. Consider of Long-Term Effects: The foundation engineer is obligated to consider effects
on the structure that could occur with time. Examples are settlement due to consolidation
of clays, settlement due to compaction of sand by vibration, movement of a foundation
due to swelling and shrinkage of a clay, and the adverse effects of time related erosion.
6. Pay Attention to Analysis
7. Provide Recommendations for Tests of Deep Foundations
8. Observe the Behavior of the Foundation of a Completed Structure

DESK STUDIES
Site History
Details of Adjacent Structures and Existing Foundations
Geological Studies
Groundwater
Design Considerations for Deep Foundations
General
Pile foundations shall be designed in such a way that the load from the structure can be
transmitted to the sub-surface with adequate factor of safety against shear failure of sub-surface
and without causing such settlement (differential or total), which may result in structural damage

14
and/or functional distress under permanent/transient loading. The pile shaft should have
adequate structural capacity to withstand all loads (vertical, axial or otherwise) and moments
which are to be transmitted to the subsoil and shall be designed according to IS 456.

Adjacent Structures
When working near existing structures, care shall be taken to avoid damage to such structures.
IS 2974 (Part 1) may be used as a guide for studying qualitatively the effect of vibration on
persons and structures.
In case of deep excavations adjacent to piles, proper shoring or other suitable arrangement shall
be made to guard against undesired lateral movement of soil.

Pile Capacity
The piles shall have necessary structural strength to transmit the loads imposed on it, ultimately
to the soil. In case of uplift, the structural capacity of the pile, that is, under tension should also
be considered. The load-carrying capacity of a pile depends on the properties of the soil in which
it is embedded.
Axial Pile Capacity
Axial load from a pile is normally transmitted to the soil through skin friction along the shaft
and end-bearing at its tip. Where a pile is wholly embedded in the soil (having an undrained
shear strength not less than 0.01 N/mm2), its axial load-carrying capacity is not necessarily
limited by its strength as a long column. Where piles are installed through very weak soils
(having an undrained shear strength less than 0.01 N/mm2), special considerations shall be made
to determine whether the shaft would behave as a long column or not. If necessary, suitable
reductions shall be made for its structural strength following the normal structural principles
covering the buckling phenomenon.
Lateral Pile Capacity
A pile may be subjected to lateral force for a number of causes, such as, wind, earthquake, water
current, earth pressure, effect of moving vehicles or ships, plant and equipment, etc. A
horizontal load on a vertical pile is transmitted to the subsoil primarily by horizontal subgrade
reaction generated in the upper part of the shaft. The lateral load capacity of a single pile
depends not only on the horizontal subgrade modulus of the surrounding soil but also on the
structural strength of the pile shaft against bending, consequent upon application of a lateral
load. While considering lateral load on piles, effect of other co-existent loads, including the axial
load on the pile, should be taken into consideration for checking the structural capacity of the
shaft. Because of limited information on horizontal subgrade modulus of soil and pending
refinements in the theoretical analysis, it is suggested that the adequacy of a design should be
checked by an actual field load test. In the zone of soil susceptible to liquefaction the lateral
resistance of the soil shall not be considered.
Ultimate load capacity of a pile
The ultimate load capacity of a pile may be estimated by means of static formula on the basis of
soil test results, or by using a dynamic pile formula using data obtained during driving the pile.
However, dynamic pile driving formula should be generally used as a measure to control the pile
driving at site. Pile capacity should preferably be confirmed by initial load tests [IS 2911
(Part 4)].
The settlement of pile obtained at safe load/working load from load-test results on a single pile
shall not be directly used for estimating the settlement of a structure. The settlement may be

15
determined on the basis of subsoil data and loading details of the structure as a whole using the
principles of soil mechanics.

Uplift Capacity
The uplift capacity of a pile is given by sum of the frictional resistance and the weight of the pile
(buoyant or total as relevant). The recommended factor of safety is 3.0 in the absence of any
pullout test results and 2.0 with pullout test results. Uplift capacity can be obtained from static
formula by ignoring end-bearing but adding weight of the pile (buoyant or total as relevant).

Negative Skin Friction or Dragdown Force

When a soil stratum, through which a pile shaft has penetrated into an underlying hard stratum,
compresses as a result of either it being unconsolidated or it being under a newly placed fill or as
a result of remolding during driving of the pile, a dragdown force is generated along the pile
shaft up to a point in depth where the surrounding soil does not move downward relative to the
pile shaft. Existence of such a phenomenon shall be assessed and suitable correction shall be
made to the allowable load where appropriate.

Spacing of Piles
The minimum centre-to-centre spacing of pile is considered from three aspects, namely:
1. Practical aspects of installing the piles,
2. Diameter of the pile, and
3. Nature of the load transfer to the soil and possible reduction in the load capacity of piles
group.

Reinforcement
The design of the reinforcing cage varies depending upon the driving and installation conditions,
the nature of the subsoil and the nature of load to be transmitted by the shaft-axial, or otherwise.
The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement of any type or grade within the pile shaft
shall be 0.4 percent of the cross-sectional area of the pile shaft. The minimum reinforcement
shall be provided throughout the length of the shaft.
- The curtailment of reinforcement along the depth of the pile, in general, depends on the
type of loading and subsoil strata. In case of piles subjected to compressive load only, the
designed quantity of reinforcement may be curtailed at appropriate level according to the design
requirements. For piles subjected to uplift load, lateral load and moments, separately or with
compressive loads, it would be necessary to provide reinforcement for the full depth of pile. In
soft clays or loose sands, or where there may be danger to green concrete due to driving of
adjacent piles, the reinforcement should be provided to the full pile depth, regardless of whether
or not it is required from uplift and lateral load considerations. However, in all cases, the
minimum reinforcement as specified above shall be provided throughout the length of the shaft.
Clear cover to all main reinforcement in pile shaft shall be not less than 50 mm. The laterals
of a reinforcing cage may be in the form of links or spirals. The diameter and spacing of the
same is chosen to impart adequate rigidity of the reinforcing cage during its handling and
installations. The minimum diameter of the links or spirals shall be 8 mm and the spacing of the
links or spirals shall be not less than 150 mm.
Stiffner rings preferably of 16 mm diameter at every 1.5 m centre-to-centre should be
provided along the length of the cage for providing rigidity to reinforcement cage. Minimum 6
numbers of vertical bars shall be used for a circular pile and minimum diameter of vertical bar

16
shall be 12 mm. The clear horizontal spacing between the adjacent vertical bars shall be four
times the maximum aggregate size in concrete. If required, the bars can be bundled to maintain
such spacing.

*************************************************
Assignment- 4. Enlist various Design requirements for foundation design
*************************************************

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

17
 M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016
UNIT-I

Hand-out Note-3: TERMINOLOGY INVOLVED IN FOUNDATION

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Terminology involved in Foundation Analysis and Design

Bearing surface
The contact surface between a foundation unit and the soil or rock upon which the foundation
rests.
Bearing capacity
The general term used to describe the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock in terms
of average pressure that enables it to bear and transmit loads from a structure. The unit load at
failure is termed the bearing capacity.
Design bearing capacity or Allowable Bearing Pressure
The maximum net average pressure applied to a soil or rock by foundation unit that the
foundation soil or rock will safely carry without the risk of both shear failure and permissible
settlement. It is equal to the least of the two values of net allowable bearing capacity (Shear
failure Criteria or Ultimate limit Criteria) and safe bearing pressure (Settlement Failure Criteria
or Serviceability criteria). This may also be called ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE (qa),
e. g.,
q = q if q > q [3.1a]
a ns n ns
q = q if q > q [3.1b]
a n ns n
Where: qns = Net safe/allowable bearing capacity (for FOS = 1.5 3)
qn = Safe bearing pressure or net safe settlement pressure (for a = 25mm or 40mm)

Bearing capacity chart is illustrated in Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.1. Bearing capacity chart

settlement criterion
based on shear and

18
 Net safe bearing capacity
Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without the risk of shear
failure. It is obtained by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by an adequate factor of
safety, e. g.
q
q = nu [3.2]
ns FOS
Net ultimate bearing capacity
Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can support at the level of foundation. It is
obtained by subtracting soil surcharge (i.e. soil overburden pressure from ultimate bearing
capacity (qu) at foundation depth, e.g.
q = q D [3.3]
nu u f
Where: Df = Soil overburden pressure at foundation depth Df from ground surface

Ultimate bearing capacity

Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can support against shear failure is called
ultimate bearing capacity, e. g.
q u = from bearing capacity calculation [3.4]

Gross bearing capacity/Gross soil pressure

Total pressure at the level of foundation including the weight of superstructure, foundation, and
the soil above foundation, e. g.

P P
q = + + Z [3.5]
g A A

(a). Foundation self wt+soil

surcharge
(b). Gross soil pressure, qg

(c). Net soil pressure, qn

19
 Gross safe bearing capacity
Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without the risk of shear
failure. It is obtained by adding soil overburden pressure to net safe bearing capacity, e. g.
q
q =q + D = nu + D [3.6]
gs ns f FOS f
Net loading intensity
Pressure at the level of foundation causing actual settlement due to stress increase. This includes
the weight of superstructure and foundation only, e.g.
q = q D [3.7]
n g f
Safe bearing capacity
The maximum average pressure of loading that the soil will safely carry without the risk of shear
failure. This may be calculated by dividing net ultimate bearing capacity with a factor of safety.
Safe bearing pressure or net safe settlement pressure
Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil without settlement exceeding
the permissible limit, e.g.
q = from settlement analysis [3.8]
n
The maximum average pressure of loading that the soil will safely carry without the risk of
permissible settlement.
Some typical values are given in Table 3.1 (IS: 19041966).

Table 3.1. Typical values of safe bearing capacity

20
Presumptive Bearing Capacity
The net approximate pressure prescribed as appropriate for the particular type of ground to be
used in preliminary designs of foundations.
Some typical values are given in Table 3.2 (IS: 19041966, 1966; Ramiah and Chickanagappa,
1981; Bowles, 1996).

Table 3.2. Summary of presumptive/safe bearing capacities from some building codes (in
kN/m2)

a: Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.

Allowable Load - The maximum load that may be safely applied to a foundation unit,
considering both the strength and settlement of the soil, under expected loading and soil
conditions.
Allowable Load - The load which may be applied to a pile after taking into account its
ultimate load capacity, group effect, the allowable settlement, negative skin friction and
other relevant loading conditions including reversal of loads, if any.
Design Load - The expected unfactored load to a foundation unit.
Service Load - The expected unfactored load to a foundation unit.
Factor of Safety - It is the ratio of the ultimate load capacity of a pile to the safe load on the
pile.
Elastic Displacement - This is the magnitude of displacement of the pile head during
rebound on removal of a given test load. This comprises two components:
Elastic displacement of the soil participating in the load transfer, and
Elastic displacement of the pile shaft.
Consolidation Settlement - A time dependent settlement resulting from gradual reduction
of volume of saturated soils because of squeezing out of water from the pores due to increase
in effective stress and hence pore water pressure. It is also known as primary consolidation
settlement. It is thus a time related process involving compression, stress transfer and water
drainage.

21
 Differential Settlement - The difference in the total settlements between two foundations or
two points in the same foundation.
Elastic/Distortion Settlement - It is attributed due to lateral spreading or elastic
deformation of dry, moist or saturated soil without a change in the water content and
volume.
Immediate Settlement - This vertical compression occurs immediately after the application
of loading either on account of elastic behavior that produces distortion at constant volume
and on account of compression of air void. For sands, even the consolidation component is
immediate.
Secondary Consolidation Settlement - This is the settlement speculated to be due to the
plastic deformation of the soil as a result of some complex colloidalchemical processes or
creep under imposed long term loading.
Total Settlement - The total downward vertical displacement of a foundation base under
load from its as constructed position. It is the summation of immediate settlement,
consolidation settlement and secondary consolidation settlement of the soil.
Gross Displacement - The total movement of the pile top under a given load.
Net Displacement - The net vertical movement of the pile top after the pile has been
subjected to a test load and subsequently released.
Pile Spacing - The spacing of piles means the centre-to-centre distance between adjacent
piles.
Routine Test Pile - A pile which is selected for load testing may form a working pile itself,
if subjected to routine load test up to not more than 1.5 times the safe load.
Working Pile - A pile forming part of the foundation system of a given structure.
Safe Load - It is the load derived by applying a factor of safety on the ultimate load capacity
of the pile or as determined from load test.
Initial Load Test - A test pile is tested to determine the load-carrying capacity of the pile by
loading either to its ultimate load or to twice the estimated safe load.
Initial Test Pile - One or more piles, which are not working piles, may be installed if
required to assess the load-carrying capacity of a pile. These piles are tested either to their
ultimate load capacity or to twice the estimated safe load.
Load Bearing Pile - A pile formed in the ground for transmitting the load of a structure to
the soil by the resistance developed at its tip and/or along its surface. It may be formed
either vertically or at an inclination (batter pile) and may be required to resist uplift forces.
Ultimate Load Capacity - The maximum load which a pile can carry before failure, that is,
when the founding strata fails by shear as evidenced from the load settlement curve or
the pile fails as a structural member.
Anchor Pile - An anchor pile means a pile meant for resisting pull or uplift forces.
Batter Pile (Raker Pile) - The pile which is installed at an angle to the vertical using
temporary casing or permanent liner.
Cut-off Level - It is the level where a pile is cut-off to support the pile caps or beams or any
other structural components at that level.

22
 Driven Cast In-situ Pile - A pile formed within the ground by driving a casing of uniform
diameter, or a device to provide enlarged base and subsequently filling the hole with
reinforced concrete. For displacing the subsoil the casing is driven with a plug or a shoe at
the bottom. When the casing is left permanently in the ground, it is termed as cased pile and
when the casing is taken out, it is termed as uncased pile. The steel casing tube is tamped
during its extraction to ensure proper compaction of concrete.
Follower Tube - A tube which is used following the main casing tube when adequate set is
not obtained with the main casing tube and it requires to be extended further. The inner
diameter of the follower tube should be the same as the inner diameter of the casing. The
follower tube should be water-tight when driven in water-bearing strata.
*********************************************************************
Assignment-5. Explain clearly: Difference between loading intensity and
allowable soil pressure
*********************************************************************

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

23
 M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016

UNIT-I
Hand-out Note--4: Classification of Pile Foundations
Deep foundations are of many different types and are classified according to different aspects of
a foundation as listed below:
1. Geologic conditions
Geologic materials surrounding the foundations can be soil and rock. Soil can be fine grained or
coarse grained; from soft to stiff and hard for fine-grained soil, or from loose to dense and very
dense for coarse-grained soil. Rock can be sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic; and from very
soft to medium strong and hard. Soil and rock mass may possess predefined weaknesses and
discontinuities, such as rock joints, beddings, sliding planes, and faults. Water conditions can be
different, including over river, lake, bay, ocean, or land with groundwater. Ice or wave action
may be of concern in some regions.
2. Installation methods
Installation methods can be piles (driven, cast-in-place, vibrated, torqued, and jacked); shafts
(excavated, drilled and cast-in-drilled-hole); anchor (drilled); caissons (Chicago, shored, benoto,
open, pneumatic, floating, closed-box, Potomac, etc.); cofferdams (sheet pile, sand or gravel
island, slurry wall, deep mixing wall, etc.); or combined.
3. Structural materials
Materials for foundations can be timber, precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, compacted dry
concrete, grouted concrete, post-tension steel, H-beam steel, steel pipe, composite, etc.
4. Ground effect
Depending on disturbance to the surrounding ground, piles can be displacement piles, low
displacement, or non-displacement piles. Driven precast concrete piles and steel pipes with end
plugs are displacement piles; H-beam and unplugged steel pipes are low-displacement piles; and
drilled shafts are non-displacement piles.
5. Function
Depending on the portion of load carried by the side, toe, or a combination of the side and toe,
piles are classified as frictional, end bearing, and combination piles, respectively.
6. Embedment and relative rigidity
Piles can be divided into long piles and short piles. A long pile, simply called a pile, is
embedded deep enough that fixity at its bottom is established, and the pile is treated as a slender
and flexible element. A short pile is a relatively rigid element that the bottom of the pile moves
significantly. A caisson is often a short pile because of its large cross section and stiffness. An
extreme case for short piles is a spread-footing foundation.
7. Cross section
The cross section of a pile can be square, rectangular, circular, hexagonal, octagonal, H-section;
either hollow or solid. A pile cap is usually square, rectangular, circular, or bell shaped. Piles
can have different cross sections at different depths, such as uniform, uniform taper, step-taper,
or enlarged end (either grouted or excavated).

24
8. Size
Depending on the diameter of a pile, piles are classified as pin piles and anchors (100 to 300
mm), normal-size piles and shafts (250 to 600 mm), large-diameter piles and shafts (600 to 3000
mm), caissons (600 mm and up to 3000 mm or larger), and cofferdams or other shoring
construction method (very large).
9. Loading
Loads applied to foundations are compression, tension, moment, and lateral loads. Depending on
time characteristics, loads are further classified as static, cyclic, and transient loads. The
magnitude and type of loading also are major factors in determining the size and type of a
foundation (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1. Range of Maximum Capacity of Individual Deep Foundations

10. Isolation
Piles can be isolated at a certain depth to avoid loading utility lines or other construction, or to
avoid being loaded by them.
11. Inclination
Piles can be vertical or inclined. Inclined piles are often called battered or raked piles.
12. Multiple Piles
Foundation can be an individual pile, or a pile group. Within a pile group, piles can be of
uniform or different sizes and types. The connection between the piles and the pile cap can be
fixed, pinned, or restrained.

TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS

There are numerous types of deep foundations. Figure 4.1 shows a deep foundation
classification system based on type of material, configuration, installation technique and
equipment used for installation

25
Different Deep Foundations Classifications

Fig. 4.1. Deep foundation classification system (after FHWA, 2006a)

Classification of Piles based on Materials (Fig. 4.2)

1. Timber piles

Timber piles are made of-tree trunks driven with small end as a point

Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 - 20m

Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80 - 240 kN

26
Advantages:
Comparatively low initial cost,
permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay,
easy to handle,
best suited for friction piles in granular material.
Disadvantages of using timber piles:
Difficult to splice,
vulnerable to damage in hard driving,
vulnerable to decay unless treated with preservatives (If timber is below permanent
Water table it will apparently last forever),
if subjected to alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded
piles or piles above Water table are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other
insects unless treated.

2. Steel piles

Maximum length practically unlimited, optimum length: 12-50m

Load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x cross-sectional area

The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams & I beams
proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected. In
HP pile the flange thickness = web thickness, piles are either welded or seamless steel
pipes, which may be driven either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually
filled with concrete after driving.

Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary., dm
Advantages of steel piles:
Easy to splice,
high capacity, small displacement,
able to penetrate through light obstructions,
best suited for end bearing on rock,
reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide corrosion protection.
Disadvantages:

Vulnerable to corrosion.

HP section may be damaged/deflected by major obstruction

3. Concrete Piles

Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite construction

Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be
prestressed.

Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during
picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral loads and to provide
sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed during driving.

27

Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress cables, and
casting the concrete about the cable. When the concrete hardens, the prestress cables are
cut, with the tension force in the cables now producing compressive stress in the concrete
pile. It is common to higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles
because of the large initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the piles,
tend to counteract any tension stresses during either handling or driving.

Max length: 10 - 15 m for precast, 20 - 30 m for prestressed

Optimum length 10 - 12 m for precast. 18 - 25m prestressed

Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast. 8500 kN for prestressed

Optimum load range: 350 - 3500 kN
Advantages:
1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible
2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with
concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.
Disadvantages:
1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain soils (usually organic) contain
materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete.
2. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used for marine
structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and floating debris in the water.
3. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable displacement,
prestressed piles are difficult to splice.
4. Alternate freezing thawing can cause concrete damage in any exposed situation.

4. Composite piles
In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of different materials or
different pile types.
The upper portion could be eased cast-in-place concrete combined with a lower portion
of timber, steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile.
These piles have limited application and arc employed under special conditions.

Fig. 4.2. Classification of Piles based on Materials

28
Classification of Piles according to the Method of Installation of piles

Driven or displacement piles

They are usually pre-formed before being driven, jacked, screwed or hammered into ground.
This category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete and piles formed by driving
tubes or shells which are fitted with a driving shoe. The tubes or shells which are filled with
concrete after driving. Also included in this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the
driven piles are withdrawn.

Bored or Replacement piles

They require a hole to be first bored into which the pile is then formed usually of reinforced
concrete. The shaft (bore) may be eased or uncased depending upon type of soil.
Replacement Piles
These piles are either bored and cast in-situ piles or drilled-in tubular piles. In both the cases, the
earth is removed where the pile has to be installed and is then filled with reinforced concrete or
precast sections are erected. Steel liners, bentonite slurry may also be used according the
prevalent soil condition in the site. These replacement piles do not provide any additional
consolidation or displace the surrounding soil and hence ground heaving is avoided.
Displacement Piles
Displacement piles are either solid sections or hollow sections with a closed end driven into the
soil, thus displacing the soil around them. They are mainly used where there are no restrictions
on ground heaving and lateral displacement of soil. Displacement piles are mainly preferred in
marine structures.

Classification of Piles on the basis of load transfer

Types of piles based on the mechanism of Load Transfer are:

End/Point Bearing Piles

If a bedrock or rocklike material is present at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be
extended to the rock surface. In this case, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends
entirely on the underlying material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles (Fig. 4.3).
In most of these cases the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.

Friction Piles
In these types of piles, the load on pile is resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance along the
side of the pile (pile shaft-Fig. 4.3). Pure friction piles tend to be quite long, since the load-
carrying. Capacity is a function of the shaft area in contact with the soil. In cohesion less soils,
such as sands of medium to low density, friction piles are often used to increase the density and
thus the shear strength. When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable
depth at a site, point/end bearing piles become very long and uneconomical. For this type of
subsoil condition, piles ate driven through the softer material to specified depth

29
 Fig. 4.3. Classification of Piles on the basis of load transfer

Friction cum end bearing piles

In the majority of cases, however,
the load-carrying capacity is dependent
on both end-bearing and shaft friction
(Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4. Friction cum end bearing pile

******************************************************************
Assignment-5. Enlist various advantages and disadvantages of different types
of Foundations
******************************************************************

30
Advantages/Disadvantages of Different Types of Foundations
Different types of foundations have their unique features and are more applicable to certain
conditions than others. The advantages and disadvantages for different types of foundations are
listed as follows.
PILE TYPE ADVANTAGES
Driven concrete pile foundations are
applicable under most ground conditions.
Concrete piles are usually inexpensive
compared with other types of deep
foundations. The procedure of pile
installation is straightforward; piles can
Driven Precast be produced in mass production either on
Concrete Pile site or in a manufacture factory and the
Foundations cost for materials is usually much less
than steel piles. Proxy coating can be
applied to reduce negative skin friction
along the pile. Pile driving can densify
loose sand and reduce liquefaction
potential within a range of up to three
diameters surrounding the pile.
Driven steel piles, such as steel pipe and
H-beam piles, are extensively used as
Driven Steel Piles bridge foundations, especially in seismic
retrofit projects. Having the advantage
and disadvantage of driven piles as
31
DISADVENTAGES
Driven concrete piles are not suitable if
boulders exist below the ground surface
where piles may break easily and pile
penetration may be terminated prematurely.
Piles in dense sand, dense gravel, or
bedrock usually have limited penetration;
consequently, the uplift capacity of this type
of piles is very small.
Pile driving produces noise pollution and
causes disturbance to the adjacent
structures. Driving of concrete piles also
requires large overhead space. Piles may
break during driving and impose a safety
hazard. Piles that break underground cannot
take their design loads, and will cause
damage to the structures if the broken pile is
not detected and replaced. Piles could often
be driven out of their designed alignment
and inclination and, as a result, additional
piles may be needed. A special hardened
steel shoe is often required to prevent pile
tips from being smashed when encountering
hard rock. End-bearing capacity of a pile is
not reliable if the end of a pile is smashed.
Driven piles may not be a good option when
subsurface conditions are unclear or vary
considerably over the site. Splicing and
cutting of piles are necessary when the
estimated length is different from the
manufactured length. Splicing is usually
difficult and time-consuming for concrete
piles. Cutting of a pile would change the
pattern of reinforcement along the pile,
especially where extra reinforcement is
needed at the top of a pile for lateral
capacity. A pilot program is usually needed
to determine the length and capacity prior to
mass production and installation of
production piles.
The maximum pile length is usually up to
36 to 38 m because of restrictions during
transportation on highways. Although
longer piles can be produced on site, slender
and long piles may buckle easily during
handling and driving. Precast concrete piles
with diameters greater than 45 cm are rarely
used.
Steel piles are usually more expensive than
concrete piles. They are more ductile and
flexible and can be spliced more
conveniently. The required overhead is
much smaller compared with driven
 discussed above, driven steel piles have concrete piles. Pipe piles with an open end
their uniqueness. can penetrate through layers of dense sand.
If necessary, the soil inside the pipe can be
taken out before further driving; small
boulders may also be crushed and taken out.
H-piles with a pointed tip can usually
penetrate onto soft bedrock and establish
enough end-bearing capacity.
Large-diameter pipe piles are widely used
as foundations for large bridges. The
advantage of this type of foundation is
manifold. Large-diameter pipe piles can
be built over water from a barge, a trestle,
or a temporary island. They can be used
in almost all ground conditions and
Driven piles are hard to control in terms of
penetrate to a great depth to reach
location and inclination of the piles.
bedrock. Length of the pile can be
Moreover, once a pile is out of location or
Large-Diameter adjusted by welding. Large-diameter pipe
installed with unwanted inclination, no
Driven, Vibrated, or piles can also be used as casings to
corrective measures can be applied. Piles
Torqued Steel Pipe support soil above bedrock from caving
installed with vibration or torque, on the
Piles in; rock sockets or rock anchors can then
other hand, can be controlled more easily. If
be constructed below the tip of the pipe.
a pile is out of position or inclination, the
Concrete or reinforced concrete can be
pile can even be lifted up and reinstalled.
placed inside the pipe after it is cleaned.
Another advantage is that no workers are
required to work below water or the
ground surface. Construction is usually
safer and faster than other types of
foundations, such as caissons or
cofferdam construction.
Drilled shaft foundations are the most Drilled shafts will generate a large volume
versatile types of foundations. The length of soil cuttings and fluid and can be a mess.
and size of the foundations can be tailored Disposal of the cuttings is usually a concern
easily. Disturbance to the nearby for sites with contaminated soils.
structures is small compared with other
types of deep foundations. Drilled shafts Drilled shaft foundations are usually
can be constructed very close to existing comparable with or more expensive than
Drilled Shaft driven piles. For large bridge foundations,
structures and can be constructed under
Foundations their cost is at the same level of caisson
low overhead conditions. Therefore,
drilled shafts are often used in many foundations and spread footing foundations
seismic retrofit projects. However, drilled combined with cofferdam construction.
shafts may be difficult to install under Drilled shaft foundations can be constructed
certain ground conditions such as soft very rapidly under normal conditions
soil, loose sand, sand under water, and compared with caisson and cofferdam
soils with boulders. construction.
Anchors, however, cannot take lateral loads
and may be sheared off if combined lateral
capacity of a foundation is not enough.
Anchors are special foundation elements
Anchors are in many cases pretensioned in
that are designed to take uplift loads.
order to limit the deformation to activate the
Anchors can be added if an existing
Anchors anchor. The anchor system is therefore very
foundation lacks uplift capacity, and
stiff. Structural failure resulting from
competent layers of soil or rock are
anchor rupture often occurs very quickly
shallow and easy to reach.
and catastrophically. Anchors should be
tested carefully for their design capacity and
creep performance.

32
 Caissons are large structures that are
mainly used for construction of large
bridge foundations.
Caisson foundations can take large Caisson construction requires special
compressive and lateral loads. They are techniques and experience. Caisson
used primarily for overwater construction foundations are usually very costly, and
Caissons and sometimes used in soft or loose soil comparable to the cost of cofferdam
conditions, with a purpose to sink or construction. Therefore, caissons are
excavate down to a depth where bedrock usually not the first option unless other
or firm soil can be reached. During types of foundation are not favored.
construction, large boulders can be
removed.
Cofferdams or other types of shoring
systems are a method of foundation
construction to retain
water and soil. A dry bottom deep into Cofferdam construction is often very
water or ground can be created as a expensive and should only be chosen if it is
Cofferdam and
working platform. Foundations of favorable compared with other foundation
Shoring essentially any of the types discussed options in terms of cost and construction
above can be built from the platform on conditions.
top of firm soil or rock at a great depth,
which otherwise can only be reached by
deep foundations.

Both base shear and lateral earth pressures provide lateral resistance of a foundation, and the
contribution of lateral earth pressures decreases as the embedment of a pile increases. For long
piles, lateral earth pressures are the main source of lateral resistance. For short piles, base shear
and end bearing pressures can also contribute part of the lateral resistance (Fig. 4.5). Table 4.2
lists various types of resistance of an individual pile. For a pile group, through the action of the
pile cap, the coupled axial compressive and uplift resistance of individual piles provides the
majority of the resistance to the overturning moment loading. Horizontal (or lateral) resistance
can at the same time provide torsional moment resistance. A pile group is more efficient in
resisting overturning and torsional moment than an individual foundation. Table 4.3 summarizes
functions of a pile group in addition to those of individual piles.

Fig. 4.5. Resistances of an individual foundation

33
 Table 4.2. Resistance of an Individual Foundation

Table 4.3. Additional Functions of Pile Group Foundations

Choice of Pile Type

Ideally, choice of pile type is dependent on several factors such as strata conditions, availability
of equipments, method followed for construction, loading requirements, etc. The most crucial
parameter governing the pile performance is method of construction which is found to have
large variations.
In case of bored pile (non-displacement pile) in cohesion less soil or in stiff clay, constant
presence of bentonite slurry along the wall of the bore hole as well as formation of filter cake
can reduce the frictional resistance. On the other hand, a driven pile (displacement pile) will
densify the surrounding strata in the process of installation. Driving of the pile will normally
result in densification of the surrounding soil and increase in the normal stress on pile surface
resulting in higher frictional resistance. Similar increase is expected in the end bearing resistance
also. In view of the above, the driven piles are known to have better performance compared to
bored pile of similar size, except in sensitive clay stratum where driven pile can have reduced
capacity. Other factors favoring use of precast driven piles are high grade of concrete with good
quality control, neat site condition as no bentonite slurry is used, possibility of applying a slip
layer to reduce the drag load, assessment of pile capacity during driving based on set value,
higher lateral capacity, easy to install with a rake, faster construction, etc.
In sensitive cohesive soil, driving of a pile creates remolding of clay strata in the surrounding.
Depending on the sensitivity of the strata there is corresponding reduction in the shear strength
and hence reduction in capacity of the pile. In such case, bored piles (non displacement method)
prove better.

34
When pile socketing is required in hard strata, either to carry higher compression load or for
uplift load, driven pile cannot penetrate deep into such strata. For soft rocks such as chalk, mud
stone, shale, etc. it is possible to drive the pile into such rock and derive higher capacity. For
other variety of weather rock or hard strata, driving will result in high driving stress and possible
damage to pile, and breaking of rock mass into smaller fragments surrounding the pile tip
resulting in reduced capacity. On the other hand, boring through a hard stratum with a chisel will
result in a very rough socket to which the in situ concrete gets strongly bonded resulting in
higher friction. Whenever socketing in hard strata is required, bored cast-in situ pile is more
appropriate. Some of the other factors favoring bored piles are less percentage of steel, less head
room requirements, less noise and vibrations, etc.
Above factors do not help the design engineers in choice of pile type as the soil strata may
comprises of several layers with varying properties. Initial field test on promising pile type
therefore helps to get the following information:
Choice of pile type (based on the actual performance at site).
Establish that the proposed equipments/method can be used for installation of the required
pile size to the required depth.
To confirm the capacity and to optimize the pile design under vertical compression, pull out
and lateral loads.
Difficulty faced, if any during execution so that suitable remedial measures in the
installation procedure can be included in the tender specifications.
Structural designer can prepare the pile layout with more confidence and revisions in pile
layout due to revision in capacity can be minimized.
From execution point of view, conducting such initial tests prior to award of piling contract is
difficult unless a separate tender is made exclusively for installing the test piles and for
conducting the initial load tests. This will obviously have higher cost due to mobilization of the
equipments for a limited number of piles. However, in view of the above benefits, the higher
cost of a separate tender for few initial test piles can always be justified in the case of a major
project. There are several instances where the initial tests are carried out only after the piling
work has been awarded and the test results demand changes in either pile size or pile capacity
resulting in revisions in drawings which implies several contractual issues and can delay the
work.
Pile type Selection-Main Factors
I. Ground condition & the maximum allowable load for a pile
2. What type of pile should be used?
3 At what spacing should the piles be driven?
4. How should the piles be driven?
5. How much variation from the vertical should be permitted in a pile?
6. What was the optimum sequence for driving piles?
7. Would the driving of piles have an influence on adjacent structures?

Pile type selection based on subsurface and hydraulic conditions is illustrated in Table 4.4 as
below. Table 4.5 summarizes typical pile characteristics and uses. Table 4.6 presents the
placement effects of pile shape characteristics. This selection process should consider the factors
listed in Table 4.4, Table 4.5 and Table 4.6.

35
 Table 4.4. Pile type selection based on subsurface and hydraulic conditions

Sr. No. Typical Problem Recommendations

Use rough concrete pile to increase adhesion and rate of pore
water dissipation. Drilled shaft is possible but side-support in
1 Deep soft clay
form of casing or slurry will be required making it costlier than
driven pile option.
Use heavy nondisplacement driven pile with a reinforced tip or
Boulders overlying manufactured point and include contingent predrilling item in
2
bearing stratum contract. Depending on the size of the boulders, large diameter
drilled shaft may be feasible.
Use tapered pile to develop maximum skin friction. For drilled
Loose cohesionless
3 shafts, side-support in form of casing or slurry will be required
soil
making it costlier than the driven pile option.
Use smooth steel pile to minimize drag adhesion, and avoid
Negative shaft battered piles. Minimize the magnitude of drag force when
4
resistance possible. In case of drilled shafts use casing to minimize drag
load.
Do not use mandrel driven thin-wall shells as generated
hydrostatic pressure may cause shell collapse; pile heave
5 Artesian Pressure
common to closed-end pipe. In case of drilled shaft, a slurry
drilling will be required.
Do not use tapered piles unless large part of taper extends well
below scour depth. Design permanent pile capacity to mobilize
6 Scour
soil resistance below scour depth. Large drilled shaft is likely a
better option compared to a group of piles.
7
Use precast concrete piles where hard driving expected in
coarse soils. DO NOT use H-piles or open end pipes as non-
Coarse Gravel
displacement piles will penetrate at low blow count and cause
Deposits
unnecessary overruns. Drilled shaft is likely a better option for
coarse gravel deposit.

Table 4.5. Typical piles and their range of loads and lengths

36
 Table 4.6. Pile type selection and pile shape effects

In addition to the considerations provided in the Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6, the problems posed by
the specific project location and topography must be considered in any pile selection process.
Following are some of the problems usually encountered:
1. Noise and vibration from driven pile installation may affect pile type selection, and require
special techniques such as predrilling and/or vibration monitoring of adjacent structures.
2. Remote areas may restrict driving equipment size and, therefore, pile size.
3. Local availability of certain materials and the capability of local contractors may have
decisive effects on pile selection.
4. Waterborne operations may dictate use of shorter pile sections due to pile handling
limitations.
5. Steep terrain may make the use of certain pile equipment costly or impossible.

37
SITUATIONS WHICH DEMAND DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Deep foundations are adopted in situations where shallow foundations are inappropriate for
support of structural elements. These situations may be related either to the presence of
unsuitable soil layers in the subsurface profile, adverse hydraulic conditions, or intolerable
movements of the structure. Deep foundations are designed to transfer load through unsuitable
subsurface layers to suitable bearing strata. Typical situations that require the use of deep
foundations are shown in Fig. 4.6 and briefly discussed below.

Fig.4.6. Situations in which deep foundations may be needed (Vesic, 1977; FHWA, 2006a)

38
1. Figure 4.6 (a) shows the most common case in which the upper soil strata are too
compressible or too weak to support heavy vertical loads. In this case, deep foundations
transfer loads to a deeper dense stratum and act as toe bearing foundations. In the absence of
a dense stratum within a reasonable depth, the loads must be gradually transferred, mainly
through soil resistance along shaft as shown in Fig, 4.6(b). An important point to remember
is that deep foundations transfer load through unsuitable layers to suitable layers. The
foundation designer must define at what depth suitable soil layers begin in the soil profile.
2. Deep foundations are frequently needed because of the relative inability of shallow footings
to resist inclined, lateral, or uplift loads and overturning moments. Deep foundations resist
uplift loads by shaft resistance as shown in Fig. 4.6(c). Lateral loads are resisted either by
vertical deep foundations in bending as shown in Fig. 4.6 (d), or by groups of vertical and
battered foundations, which combine the axial and lateral resistances of all deep foundations
in the group, Figure 4.5 (e). Lateral loads from overhead highway signs and noise walls may
also be resisted by groups of deep foundations as shown in Fig. 4.6 (f).
3. Deep foundations are often required when scour around footings could cause loss of bearing
capacity at shallow depths as shown in Fig. 4.6 (g). In this case the deep foundations must
extend below the depth of scour and develop the full capacity in the support zone below the
level of expected scour. FHWA (2001c) scour guidelines require the geotechnical analysis of
bridge foundations to be performed on the basis that all stream bed materials in the scour
prism have been removed and are not available for bearing or lateral support. Costly damage
and the need for future underpinning can be avoided by properly designing for scour
conditions.
4. Soils subject to liquefaction in a seismic event may also dictate that a deep foundation be
used as illustrated in Fig. 4.6 (h). Seismic events can induce significant lateral loads to deep
foundations. During a seismic event, liquefaction-susceptible soils offer less lateral
resistance as well as reduced shaft resistance to a deep foundation. Liquefaction effects on
deep foundation performance must be considered for deep foundations in seismic areas.
5. Deep foundations are often used as fender systems to protect bridge piers from vessel impact
as illustrated in Fig. 4.5 (i). Fender system sizes and group configurations vary depending
upon the magnitude of vessel impact forces to be resisted. In some cases, vessel impact loads
must be resisted by the bridge pier foundation elements. Single deep foundations may also
be used to support navigation aids.
6. In urban areas, deep foundations may occasionally be needed to support structures adjacent
to locations where future excavations are planned or could occur as shown in Fig. 4.6 (j).
Use of shallow foundations in these situations could require future underpinning in
conjunction with adjacent construction.
7. Deep foundations are used in areas of expansive or collapsible soils to resist undesirable
seasonal movements of the foundations. Deep foundations under such conditions are
designed to transfer foundation loads, including uplift or down drag, to a level unaffected by
seasonal moisture movements as shown in Fig. 4.6 (k).

*********************************
Assignment-7. What are applications of deep Foundations?
*******************************************************

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

39
 M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016
UNIT-I
Hand-out Note--5: LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM, PILING
EQUIPMENTS AND METHODS

LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

The load transfer mechanism from a pile to the surrounding ground is complicated and is not yet
fully understood, although application of piled foundations is in practice over many decades.
Broadly, piles transfer axial loads either substantially by friction along its shaft and/or by the
end-bearing (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1. Load Transfer Mechanism for a Deep Pile

The load transfer mechanism from a pile to the soil is complicated. To understand it, consider a
pile of length L, loaded to failure by gradually increasing the load on the top as shown in Fig.
5.1a. A load-settlement can be plotted by measuring the settlement of the pile top at every stage
of loading. The transfer mechanism of load takes place as explained below:
1. When a load Q1 acts on the pile top, the axial load at the ground level is also Q1, but at
level L1 (point A1 on pile shaft), the axial load is zero. The total load Q1 is distributed as
friction load within the length of pile L1. The lower section of the pile (e. g. below A1) is
not affected by this load (curve Q1A1 of Fig. 5.1b).
2. As the load is increased to Q2, the axial load at the base of tip of pile is just zero. The total
load Q2 is distributed as friction load along the whole length of pile (L) (curve Q2B of
Fig. 5.1b).
3. If the load is further increase from Q2 to Qm (Qm > Q2), it is seen that a part of this load is
transferred to the soil at the base of tip of pile as point load and the rest is transferred to

40
 the soil surrounding the pile. With the increase of the load Q on the pile top, both the
friction and point loads go on increasing. The friction load attains an ultimate value Qf at a
particular load level ( for example @ Qm) at the pile top, and any further increment of load
added to Qm will not increase the value of Qf.
4. On further increasing the load on the pile top, the point load still goes on increasing and
attains a value QP at which the soil fails by punching shear.
5. The load placed at the pile top which mobilizes full friction load Qf and full point bearing
load QP is the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile, QU. Thus,
QU = Q f + QP (5.1)
Also, when the load Q at the ground surface is gradually increased, maximum frictional
resistance along the pile shaft will be fully mobilized when the relative displacement(S)
between the soil and the pile is about 5-10 mm (<0.01D) irrespective of pile size and length L.
Maximum shaft resistance will be achieved for very small pile shaft movement compared to
maximum pile tip resistance against very high pile tip movement (0.1D) as illustrated in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2. Resistance versus Pile Movement

The frictional resistance per unit area, Rs at any depth z may be determined as:

QZ
RS = (5.2)
p * Z

Where: RS = Shaft or frictional resistance per unit area

p = perimeter of the pile cross section
Z = any depth from ground surface (=L1, L2.Ln=L and so on)
At ultimate load, the failure surface in the soil at the pile tip (bearing capacity failure caused by
(Qm) is as shown in Fig. 5.3a. However, a deep foundation fails mostly in a punching mode, as
illustrated in Fig. 5.3b.

41
 (a). Bearing capacity failure (b). Punching shear failure

Fig. 5.3. Failure surface at the pile tip under ultimate load

From Fig. 5.3a, it is seen that a triangular zone I is developed at the pile tip, which is pushed
downward without producing any other visible slip surface. In dense sands and stiff clayey soils,
a radial shear zone, II, may partially develop. Hence the load displacement curves of piles will
resemble those shown in Fig. 5.3b.
The ultimate bearing capacity (Qu) of a pile may be assessed using soil mechanics principles.
The capacity is assumed to be the sum of skin friction and end-bearing resistance, i.e

Qu = Qb + Qs -WP (5.3)

Where: Qu = total pile resistance,

Qb = the end bearing resistance

Qs = side friction resistance and
WP = Weight of pile (= pile* Ap); Ap = Area of pile
The load-settlement behavior of frictional and end-bearing piles is shown in Fig. 5.4

Fig. 5.4. Load settlement behavior for frictional and end-bearing piles

*************************************************************************

42
Assignment: What is load transfer mechanism for shallow and deep Foundations?
ANS: In case of shallow foundations, load is resisted by bearing capacity of soil at shallow
depth, whereas in case of deep Foundations, load is being resisted or being balanced by a
combination of skin friction as well as end bearing.
In case of vertical uplift load, for shallow foundation, it is balanced by the dead weight
of foundation and the soil above it. However, in case of deep foundation, it is by a
combination of dead weight and a skin friction.
In case of lateral or horizontal load, for shallow foundation, it is balanced by force of
cohesion or adhesion (e.g. interface between footing and soil) and in case of deep
foundation, this load is resisted by this lateral earth pressure.
In case of moment, for shallow foundations, it is balanced by redistribution of bearing
pressure and for deep foundations, moment is balanced by converting it to axial
compression and uplift (upward or downward, e.g. either tensile or compression
depending upon direction of moment)

Load transfer mechanism of a nodular pile element

The static drill rooted nodular pile is a composite pile foundation that consists of precast nodular
pile and the surrounding cemented soil. Therefore, it is different from the traditional piles, which
causes its load transfer mechanism to be different. The vertical load is mainly born by the
precast nodular pile, then the precast pile transmits part of the load to the cemented soil, and the
cemented soil transmits the load to the surrounding soil. The cemented soil makes a big
difference during the loading process, and from the sample of actual engineering, the
compressive strength of the cemented paste is 10 MPa to 20 MPa As the strength of the
cemented soil is largely dependent on the soil, the compressive strength of the cemented soil is 4
MPa to 7 MPa in the current actual engineering. The sketch of the nodular pile and the load
transfer path of a pile element are shown in Fig. 2. In this figure, the precast nodular pile is
surrounded by cemented soil, and the tip type of the nodular pile is opened. Q1 is the axial force
on the precast nodular pile, Q1 and Q1 are the axial forces on the external cemented soil and
internal cemented soil, respectively. qs1 is the side friction between the nodular pile and internal
cemented soil, qs2 is the side friction between the nodular pile and external cemented soil, and
qs3 is the side friction between the external cemented soil and surrounding soil. The relationship
between these parameters can be summarized as follows:
(5.3a)

(5.3b)

(5.3c)
Where: u1 and u2 are the internal and external perimeter of the nodular pile, u3 is the perimeter of
the cemented soil, and L is the length of the pile element.

DRIVEN PILE DESIGN-CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The driven pile design and construction process has aspects that are unique in all of structural
design. Because the driving characteristics are related to pile capacity for most soils, they can be
used to improve the accuracy of the pile capacity estimate. In general, the various methods of
determining pile capacity from dynamic data such as driving resistance with wave equation
analysis and dynamic measurements are considerably more accurate than the static analysis
methods based on subsurface exploration information. It must be clearly understood that the

43
static analysis based on the subsurface exploration information usually has the function of
providing an estimate of the pile length prior to going to the field. The final driving criterion is
usually a blow count that is established after going to the field and the individual pile
penetrations may vary depending on the soil variability. Furthermore, pile driveability is a very
important aspect of the process and must be considered during the design phase. The driven pile
design-construction process is outlined in the flow chart of Fig. 5.5.

Fig. 5.5. Driven Pile Design and Construction Process (Continued next page)

44
Fig. 5.5. Driven Pile Design and Construction Process

45
EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

The equipments and accessories would depend upon the type of driven cast in-situ piles chosen
for a job after giving due considerations to the subsoil strata, ground-water conditions, types of
founding material and the required penetration therein, wherever applicable.
Among the commonly used plants, tools and accessories, there exists a large variety; suitability
of which depends on the subsoil condition, manner of operation, etc. Brief definitions of some
commonly used equipments are given below:
1. Dolly A cushion of hardwood or some suitable material placed on the top of the casing to
receive the blows of the hammer.
2. Drop Hammer (or Monkey) Hammer, ram or monkey raised by a winch and allowed to fall
under gravity.
3. Single or Double Acting Hammer A hammer operated by steam compressed air or internal
combustion, the energy of its blows being derived mainly from the source of motive power
and not from gravity alone.
4. Hydraulic Hammer A hammer operated by a hydraulic fluid can be used with advantage
for increasing the energy of blow.
5. Kentledge Dead weight used for applying a test load on a pile.
6. Pile Rig A movable steel structure for driving piles in the correct position and alignment
by means of a hammer operating in the guides of the frame.

Assignment-9. What are the Effects of the Construction Method on Pile Performance?

*******************************

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

46
 M. Tech 3RD Sem. Geotechnical Engg-Autumn Session 2016

UNIT-I
Hand-out Note--6: EFFECT OF PILE INSTALLATION ON SOIL

GENERAL
Piles find application in foundations to transfer loads from a structure to competent subsurface
strata having adequate load-bearing capacity. The load transfer mechanism from a pile to the
surrounding ground is complicated and is not yet fully understood, although application of piled
foundations is in practice over many decades.
Broadly, piles transfer axial loads either substantially by friction along its shaft and/or by the
end-bearing. Piles are used where either of the above load transfer mechanism is possible
depending upon the subsoil stratification at a particular site. Construction of pile foundations
require a careful choice of piling system depending upon the subsoil conditions, the load
characteristics of a structure and the limitations of total settlement, differential settlement and
any other special requirement of a project. The installation of piles demands careful control on
position, alignment and depth, and involve specialized skill and experience.

INSTALLATION OF PILES
Most piles are driven into the ground by means of hammers or vibratory drivers. In special
circumstances, piles can also be inserted by jetting or partial augering. The types of hammer
used for pile driving include the (a) drop hammer, (b) single acting air or steam hammer, (c)
double-acting and differential air or steam hammer, and (d) diesel hammer. In the driving
operation, a cap is attached to the top of the pile. A cushion may be used between the pile and
the cap. This cushion has the effect of reducing the impact force and spreading it over a longer
time; however, its use is optional. A hammer cushion is placed on the pile cap. The hammer
drops on the cushion.
Figure 6.1 illustrated various hammers. A drop hammer (Fig. 6.1a) is raised by a winch and
allowed to drop from a certain height H. it is the oldest type of hammer used for pile driving.
The main disadvantage of the drop hammer is the slow rate of hammer blows. The principle of
the single-acting air or steam hammer is shown in Fig. 6.1b. In this case, the striking part, or
ram, is raised by air or steam pressure and then drops by gravity. Figure 6.1c shows the
operation of the double-acting and differential air or steam hammer. For these hammers, air or
steam is used both to raise the ram and to push it downward. This increases the impact velocity
of the ram. The diesel hammer (Fig. 6.1d) essentially consists of a ram, an anvil block, and a
fuel-injection system. During the operation, the ram is first raised and fuel is injected near the
anvil. Then the ram is released. When the ram drops, it compresses the air fuel mixture, which
ignites it. This action, in effect, pushes the pile downward and raises the ram. Diesel hammers
work well under hard driving conditions. In soft sols, the downward movement of the pile is
rather large, and the upward movement of the ram is small. This differential may not be
sufficient to ignite the air-fuel system, so the ram may have to be lifted manually.
The principles of operation of a vibratory pile driver are shown in Fig. 6.1e. This driver consists
essentially of two counter rotating weights. The horizontal components of the centrifugal force
generated as a result of rotating masses cancel each other. As a result, a sinusoidal dynamic
vertical force is produced on the pile and helps drive the pile downward.

47
Fig. 6.1. Pile-driving equipment: (a) drop hammer; (b) single-acting air or seam hammer; (c)
double-acting and differential air or steam hammer; (d) diesel hammer; (e) vibratory
pile driver (Ref: B. M. Dass)

48
Soil/pile set-up
Soil/pile set-up is time-dependent increase in pile capacity, and can contribute significantly to
long-term pile capacity. If it were possible to incorporate the effects of set-up during design, it
may be possible to reduce pile lengths, reduce pile sections (use smaller-diameter or thinner-wall
pipe piles, or smaller-section H-piles), or reduce the size of driving equipment (use smaller
hammers and/or cranes). Any one, or a combination, of these reductions should result in cost
savings.
Set-up is predominately associated with an increase in shaft resistance. The complete
mechanisms contributing to set-up are not well understood, but the majority of set-up is likely
related primarily to dissipation of excess porewater pressures within, and subsequent remolding
and reconsolidation of soil, which is displaced and disturbed during pile driving. After excess
porewater pressures have dissipated, aging may account for additional set-up. A number of
empirical relationships have been proposed to estimate or predict set-up, and have demonstrated
reasonable success in a number of studies. Empirical relationships are limited in widespread
application by the relationships having been based on combined (shaft and toe) resistance
determinations, inter-dependence of back-calculated or assumed variables, and the complexity of
the mechanisms contributing to set-up.
Komurka et al. (2003) divided the soil/pile set-up mechanisms into the following three phases:
Phase I: logarithmically nonlinear rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation
During the initial phase (nonlinear), the rate of porewater pressure dissipation is not constant
with respect to the log of time for some periods. The duration of nonlinear dissipation is a
function of soil and pile. For example: the less permeable of soil, or the greater volume of soil
displaced by pile, will cause the longer duration of nonlinear dissipation. Similar situation
happened on the less permeable pile.
Phase II: logarithmically linear rate of excess porewater pressure dissipation
In phase II, the rate of dissipation becomes constant with respect to log time. The displaced soil
will experience an increase in effective vertical and horizontal stresses leading to consolidation
and increase in shear strength. In clean sands, dissipation of excess pore water pressure may take
place immediately or continue for several hours. On the other hand, longer time is required for
full dissipation in the case of cohesive soil. Logarithmically linear dissipation in clay may
continue for several weeks, months or even years.
Phase III: Independent of effective stress
The third phase of set-up is known as independent stage of effective stress or ageing. The
dissipation of excess porewater pressure becomes very low and infinite time maybe required for
the completion of set-up mechanisms. In this phase, set-up rate is independent of effective stress
and related to the phenomenon of ageing.
Axelsson(1998) and Schmertmann (1991) mentioned that aging effect increases the shear
modulus, stiffness, dilatancy of soil but reduces its compressibility. These three phases of set-up
might overlap and more than 1 phase may simultaneously contribute to the development of set-
up. However, ageing may not always occur (Schmertmann 1991). A number of empirical
equations have been proposed to quantify the magnitude of soil/pile set-up. Skov and Denver
(1988) have proposed a dimensionless set-up factor, A, to explain the effect of soil/pile setup.

Q =Q A log t + 1 (6.1)
t initial t
initial

49
Where: Qt = pile capacity at time t
Qinitial = pile capacity at initial reference time tinitial
tinitial = time at which the rate of excess porewater pressure dissipation becomes uniform
t = time elapsed after initial driving.
Factor A represents the relative increase in pile capacity per log cycle of elapsed time.

Mechanisms of set-up are shown in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2. Mechanisms of soil/pile set-up (Komurka et. al., 2003)

EFFECT OF PILE INSTALLATION ON SOIL CONDITION

The bearing capacity of a pile foundation is governed by the initial soil properties and the soil
state (stress state and density) around the pile after installation. During installation displacement
piles alter this soil state. However, this change in governing soil properties and the influenced
area around the pile where this state is altered are still not well known. In engineering practice
these effects are accounted for in empirical design methods. However, most of these methods
only estimate the bearing capacity and do not model the underlying physical mechanisms.
Before a prefabricated displacement pile is functional, the pile is first installed into the ground.
Almost all of the prefabricated piles are driven into the ground with an impact hammer. The
kinetic energy from each blow of the ram displaces the pile deeper into the soil. A jacked pile is
pushed into the soil with hydraulic jacks, again the pile displaces the soil. In contrast with driven
piles a reaction force needs to be mobilized to prevent uplift of the equipment. A significant
difference in vibrations radiated from the equipment and pile during the pile installation process

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exists between the driven and jacked piles during pile installation. The jacked pile installation
does not emit much additional vibrations, i.e., the process mainly comprises of pile and soil
displacements. Whereas, the description of the pile driving process is complicated by the stress
waves in the pile and soil that results from the driving process. Piles installed with these
installations methods are displacement piles; no soil material is removed during pile installation.
The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile foundation is mainly governed by the soil properties.
Not only the strength and stiffness response of the soil, also the pile-soil interface properties
need consideration. The stiffness and strength properties are continuum descriptions of the soil
behavior. In a non-cohesive soil the continuum soil properties originate from the grain properties
as well as the assembly and contact forces between the grains in the assembly of grains. Sand,
therefore, exhibits stress related soil properties, i.e., an higher stress state, or larger contact
forces, yields higher strength and or stiffness. Strength and stiffness depend on the density and
stress of the soil; sometimes referred to as soil state.
Exactly this soil state is altered by the pile installation process. The change in magnitude of the
governing soil properties or soil state and the influence area around the pile where this state is
altered are still not well known. How do these effects influence the bearing capacity? Ideally, the
evolution of the stress and density in the soil is monitored during the pile installation stage.
Unfortunately, existing research studies only one aspect, i.e. stress change or density
change.

Changes in Soil during Pile Driving

The pile driving process can potentially generate large stresses and deformations in the nearby
soil. The pre-construction soil properties are thus not necessarily representative of the post
construction properties. This is an important source of uncertainty in pile foundation analysis
and design. Pile installation in clay is different from pile driving in sand.

Pile Driving effects in Cohesive Soils

In cohesive soil, the soil at pile toe is pushed laterally to location at or beyond the pile radius
which will lead to shear failure of the soil. The soil in the immediate vicinity of the pile is
significantly remolded by the driving process. This generates excess pore water pressure and
subsequently causes re-consolidation as the excess pore water pressure dissipates. Pile
penetration into clay induced an excess pore water pressure that can be much larger than the
initial effective overburden stress. After the completion of pile driving and the dissipation of
excess pore water pressure, the soil reconsolidates resulting in the increase of effective stress.
Pile driving effects in cohesive soils are summarized below:

1. Shear deformations
Soil within a few pile diameters can undergo large shear deformations. For many cohesive clay
soils which tend to be highly sensitive to remolding, this leads to significant loss of strength in
the short term.
2. Compression and Excess Porewater Pressure
Driving of high displacement piles strongly compresses adjoining soils, and leads to a buildup of
excess porewater pressure. This temporary buildup of excess porewater pressure (pwp), coupled
with the sensitivity of the clay, causes the soil to lose a good fraction of its shear strength in the
short term. This excess pwp dissipates over a time scale of a few weeks to a few months. As this
occurs, the adjoining soil consolidates and increases its strength. The final strength can exceed
the initial undisturbed shear strength of the soil. This behavior reflects the thixotropic nature of
many clay soils. Thus, while piles may drive quite easily into saturated clay soils, after awhile

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the soil sets up or freezes in conjunction with the dissipation of the excess porewater
pressure. Buildup and distribution of excess porewater pressure near a high displacement pile is
shown in Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3. Buildup and distribution of excess porewater pressure near a high displacement pile

3. Loss of Side Contact between Pile and Soil

Piles wobble during the driving process. With stiff clays, this can lead to the formation of gaps
between the pile and the soil. Soft, saturated clays that become disturbed will flow into these
gaps; Stiffer, non-saturated clays generally will not flow into these gaps; These gaps have been
observed to depths of 816 pile diameters; The possibility of these gaps means that skin friction
is not reliable in this zone for stiff clays. Lateral gap between pile and stiff cohesive soils due to
pile wobble during driving is shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4. Lateral gap between pile and stiff cohesive soils due to pile wobble during driving

Pile Driving effects in Cohesionless Soils

In cohesionless soil, the excess pore water pressure dissipated quickly. Excess pore water
pressures induced by pile driving seldom exceed 20% of the effective overburden stress.
Soil/pile set-up taking place in pile in cohesionless soil is thought to be due to the following
reasons:
a. Chemical effects which may cause the sand particles to bond to the pile surface,
b. Soil ageing effects resulting in increase in shear strength and stiffness with time,

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 c. Gain in radial effective stress due to creep effects or relaxation on the established
circumferential arching around the pile shaft during installation.
Since excess pore-water pressure dissipates very rapidly in saturated cohesionless soils, the soil
regains its strength very rapidly. If the cohesionless soil is dry, then there will be no pore
pressure effects during the pile driving process, and thus no temporary loss or reduction of
strength.
1. Pile driving in high relative density soils
During driving of high-displacement piles, adjacent soils will experience high compressive
stresses, causing a buildup of large lateral effective stresses. This effect is most pronounced
when driving high displacement piles into soils with high relative density (Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5 (a). High displacement pile driven Fig. 6.5 (b). Resulting lateral effective
into dense cohesionless soil stresses are large

Such soils experience shearing as the pile is driven in, and they tend to dilate (expand)
generating very high lateral contact stresses between the pile and the soil. With time, these
stresses may relax at least partially due to the viscoelastic nature of soils. In the short term, it can
thus be very difficult to drive high displacement piles into dense cohesionless soils. Once they
are driven in though, the skin friction capacity of such piles tends to be quite high, due to the
high lateral effective stresses between the soil and the pile.
Lateral contact stresses h' between pile and soil (Fig. 6.5) are high due to additive effects of:
1. Displacement of the pile volume; and
2. Dilatation (expansion) of the dense soil as it is sheared.

1. Pile driving in loose cohesionless soils

When piles are driven into loose cohesionless soils, the soil adjacent to the pile tends to densify
as it is sheared. As a consequence, it can be relatively easy to drive high displacement piles into
loose cohesionless soil deposits. Furthermore, the skin friction capacity of such piles will be less

53
than that in dense soils due to the smaller lateral effective contact stresses between the pile and
soil (Fig. 6.6).

Fig. 6.6 (a). High displacement pile driven Fig. 6.6 (b). Resulting lateral effective
into loose cohesionless soil stresses are smaller

Lateral contact stresses h' between pile and soil are lower due to counteracting effects of:
1. Displacement of the pile volume; and
2. Densification of the dense soil as it is sheared.

EFFECTS OF PILE DRIVING IN CLA YS

The effects of pile driving in clays have been classified into four major categories by de Mello
(1969):
1. Remolding or partial structural alteration of the soil surrounding the pile.
2. Alteration of the stress state in the soil in' the vicinity of the pile.
3. Dissipation of the excess pore pressures developed around the pile.
4. Long-term phenomena of strength-regain in the soil.
Some data is available on all the above effects, although the state of knowledge, particularly in
relation to Long-term phenomena of strength-regain in the soil is generally limited.
Effect of pile installation in clays is briefly explained below.

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Assignment-10. Discuss briefly: i. Criteria for pile socketing
ii. Responsibility of engineer and contractor
iii. Chieseling Criteria
iv. Difficulties in Pile Installation
NOTE: Students are encouraged to attempt assignments for every lecture themselves and
submit soft copy at the earliest. Further, each student is advised to prepare PPT
for each assignment. Each student has to present his/her assignment in the class
(whenever classes resume).
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References
Komurka, V.E., Wagner, A.B., and Edil, T.B. (2003) Estimating Soil/Pile Set-Up.
WisconsinDepartment of Transportation, USA WHRP Report No. 03-05.
Axelsson, Gary (1998) Long-Term Set-Up of Driven Piles in Non-Cohesive Soils. Licentiate
Thesis 2027, Division of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.
Schmertmann, John H. (1991) The Mechanical Aging of Soils. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE 117(9), 1288-1330.
Skov, R., & Denver, H. (1988) Time-dependence of Bearing Capacity of Piles. Proc., 3rd Int.
Conf. on the Application of Stress-Wave Theory to Piles, B. G. Fellenius, ed., BiTech
Publishers, Vancouver, BC., 879888.
Ng, K., Roling, M., AbdelSalam, S., Suleiman, M., and Sritharan, S. (2013). Pile Setup in
Cohesive Soil. I: Experimental Investigation. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Volume 139, Issue 2 (February 2013)
Ng, K., Suleiman, M., and Sritharan, S. (2013). Pile Setup in Cohesive Soil. II: Analytical
Quantifications and Design Recommendations. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Volume 139, Issue 2 (February 2013)
Narasimha Rao G, Gandhi SR (1995). Parametric study on pile drivability-selection of hammer
and other components. Civ Eng J, The Institution of Engineers (India) 76(1):1924
nptel.ac.in/
NPTEL provides E-learning through online Web and Video courses various streams.

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COURSE INSTRUCTOR
(Prof. B. A. Mir)

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 ASSIGNMENTS FOR UNIT-I

Q. No. 1a. Discuss briefly: Foundation Construction Types/Methods

Q. No. 1b. What are typical characteristics of a deep foundation?
Q. No. 2. What are Challenging problems in Foundation design?
Q. No. 3. Discuss briefly-various design issues
Q. No. 4. Enlist various Design requirements for foundation design
Q. No. 5. Explain clearly: Difference between loading intensity and allowable soil pressure
Q. No. 6. Enlist various advantages and disadvantages of different types of Foundations
Q. No. 7. What are applications of deep Foundations?
Q. No. 8. What is load transfer mechanism for shallow and deep Foundations?
Q. No. 9. What are the Effects of the Construction Method on Pile Performance?
Q. No. 10. Discuss briefly: i. Criteria for pile socketing
ii. Responsibility of engineer and contractor
iii. Chieseling Criteria
iv. Difficulties in Pile Installation
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