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B E T T E R
P R A C T I C E
I N A R T S
E D U C A T I O N

VOLUME II

BETTER
practice in
MUSIC
EDUCATION

Marie McCarthy, PhD

University of Maryland
Regina Carlow, MM
Montgomery County Public Schools
Kathleen Gabriele, MEd
Anne Arundel County Public Schools
Margo Hall, MS
Frederick County Public Schools
Judy Moore, MM
Prince Georges County Public Schools
Robert Woody, PhD
University of Maryland

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING James L. Tucker, Jr.

THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Series Editor
BETTER PRACTICE IN MUSIC EDUCATION
Better Practice in Arts Education, Volume II
Building Effective Teaching Through Educational Research
James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor
Copyright 2003 by the Maryland State Department of Education.
All rights reserved. Published in 2007.
Maryland State Department of Education
200 West Baltimore Street
Baltimore, MD 21201-2595
Telephone: (410) 767-0352 or (410) 767-0100
Fax: (410) 333-1146
TTY/TDD: 410-333-6442
Web site: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org
 B E T T E R
P R A C T I C E
I N A R T S
E D U C A T I O N

VOLUME II

BETTER
practice in
MUSIC
EDUCATION

MARYLAND STATE Marie McCarthy, PhD Regina Carlow, MM

DEPARTMENT University of Maryland Montgomery County Public Schools
OF EDUCATION
Kathleen Gabriele, MEd
Anne Arundel County Public Schools
Margo Hall, MS
Frederick County Public Schools
Judy Moore, MM
Prince Georges County Public Schools
Robert Woody, PhD
University of Maryland

James L. Tucker, Jr.

Series Editor

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING

THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Maryland State Board of Education

Edward L. Root, President

Dunbar Brooks, Vice President
Nancy S. Grasmick, Secretary/Treasurer
Lelia T. Allen
J. Henry Butta
Beverly A. Cooper
Calvin D. Disney
Charlene M. Dukes
Richard L. Goodall
Karabelle Pizzigati
Maria C. Torres-Queral
David F. Tufaro
Brian W. Frazee, Student Member

Maryland State Department of Education

Nancy S. Grasmick, State Superintendent of Schools
Ronald A. Peiffer, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Academic Policy
A. Skipp Sanders, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Administration
JoAnne L. Carter, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Instruction and Academic Acceleration
Colleen Seremet, Assistant State Superintendent
Division of Instruction
Dixie Stack, Director of Curriculum
Division of Instruction
James L. Tucker, Jr., Coordinator of Fine Arts
Division of Instruction

State of Maryland
Martin OMalley, Governor

The Maryland State Department of Education does not dis-

criminate on the basis of race, color, sex, age, national origin,
religion, disability, or sexual orientation in matters affecting
employment or in providing access to programs. For
inquiries related to departmental policies, contact the Equity
Assurance and Compliance Office.

ii BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

F O R E W O R D

The State of Maryland is gaining increased recognition nationally for its education
reform initiatives and its commitment to high standards of accountability in educa-
tion. It further recognizes the need for high quality arts education as an essential part
of our childrens education. In 1989, after a decade of requiring experiences in
dance, music, theatre, and the visual arts for all students in grades K-8, Maryland
became one of the first states to require that students earn a credit in the fine arts to
receive the Maryland High School Diploma. Marylands reform initiatives have tra-
ditionally focused on envisioning what students should know and be able to do, pro-
viding resources and enhancing instructional practice, and documenting student
learning. This particular project focuses on informing instructional practice.

In 1995, the Maryland State Board of Education adopted a goal that 100 percent of
Marylands students will participate in fine arts programs that enable them to meet
the content and achievement standards established by State standards for the arts. By
1997, K-12 standards for dance, music, theatre, and visual arts education, developed
by a 38 member task force, were approved by the State Board. The following year
Project BETTER was initiated to develop a resource tool that would inform instruc-
tional practice in each of the art forms.

The concept for Project BETTER Building Effective Teaching Through Educational
Research was created by the Division of Instruction of the Maryland State
Department of Education (MSDE) during the late 1980s as part of its mission to pro-
mote effective instruction. The development of the four volume publication for the
current project was guided by the same three major objectives: 1) to identify current
research on effective instruction, 2) to synthesize this research in the form of non-the-
oretical summaries, and 3) to deliver this information directly to practitioners.

The information in this publication is designed as a resource to assist teachers in

expanding and refining their repertoire of teaching strategies and to guide instruc-
tional planning and decision-making that supports student achievement of State
standards in the arts. It is not intended to prescribe a particular style of teaching or
one best method. This resource provides a guide to teachers as they consider their
curriculum objectives, the nature and needs of their students, their personal style of
teaching, and their available instructional resources. The application of this knowl-
edge will result in more effective teaching and more powerful learning.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION iii

INTRODUCTION

iv BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Introduction

The first edition of BETTER Practice in Music Education was written by Anita
Haushild-Cooper for the Maryland State Department of Education and published in
1991. The present edition was commissioned in 1998 with the goal of supporting the
Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes in Music. A team of music educators at the
University of Maryland, College ParkRegina Carlow, Kathleen Gabriele, Margo Hall,
Judy Moore, and Robert Woodyprepared the text, and Marie McCarthy coordinated
their efforts. This considerably restructured edition includes research studies that address
the Essential Learner Outcomes. In cases of repeated topics, the authors revised and
updated each entry to reflect research findings published since the first edition was com-
piled. For example, the topic of problem solving now falls in the context of developing
critical thinking skills; the expanded definition of minority students includes research on
ethnicity and ESOL students; and visual aids and manipulative materials are presented as
multisensory elements.

In the intervening period between the publication of the first edition and the present one,
we have witnessed significant developments in music education research. Of central impor-
tance is the publication of the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (1992),
followed by the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (2002), both of
which synthesize research findings pertaining to a comprehensive range of music education
topics. New research journals in music education provide additional forums for publishing
findings; for example, the Philosophy of Music Education Review, the Quarterly Journal of
Music Teaching and Learning, and Research Studies in Music Education. The MENC:
National Association for Music Education publication Update fulfills a unique function in
applying research findings to classroom practice.

In general, research methodology expanded to embrace various forms of qualitative

research, exploring best practices in music education in innovative ways and also
encouraging teachers to carry out practitioner research in their own classrooms. Even
in light of all the positive developments in music education research in the past decade,
the gap between research and practice presents an ongoing challenge. Sources such as

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION v

INTRODUCTION

BETTER Practice in Music Education seek to bridge that gap by identifying the impli-
cations of research findings for classroom instruction.

The vast research literature base we had to draw upon required us to make choices and
narrow the literature search. For example, we chose literature published after 1990. The
25 topics selected for the first edition were consolidated into two broad categories: learn-
ers and the learning environment, and teacher effectiveness. The first of these covers
research findings that offer insight into aspects of instruction such as classroom manage-
ment, use of media, learning styles, and gender issues. The second category focuses on
teacher attitude, knowledge, and competence, in addition to a broad range of instruc-
tional strategies, from modeling to critical thinking, motivational feedback to verbal
instruction.

Our third area is intended to support the learner outcomes described in the Maryland
Essential Learner Outcomes in Music. The Maryland Fine Arts Standards, which are
aligned with the National Standards for Arts Education and were created with the par-
ticipation of over 2,000 Maryland teachers, are a set of documents entitled Maryland
Essential Learner Outcomes for the Fine Arts (dance, music, theatre, and visual arts) for
elementary, middle, and high school. They describe what children should know and be
able to do in the arts by fifth grade, eighth grade, and 12th grade. We have chosen to
highlight research on best practice in the four outcome areas in the following ways: We
synthesized research in the area of singing and playing instruments to support Outcome
1 involving students perceiving, performing, and responding to music. Outcome 2 focus-
es on historical, cultural, and social contexts, which we address in terms of best practice
in presenting a broad variety of repertoire and performance practices of diverse music.
Outcome 3 involves creative expression and production. We stress offering an environ-
ment that fosters creativity and improvisation, as well as providing for structured com-
positional activities. We chose to address Outcome 4, concerning aesthetic criticism,
through several current philosophies of music education.

vi BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

We devised the following format for each topic: A central research finding on the topic
appears as a BETTER PRACTICE at the outset. A THEORY section follows, which pro-
vides a context for research on the topic and summarizes findings from studies examined. A
quotation considered useful to the practitioner is included for each topic. The final com-
ponent consists of references and, for selected topics, resources. The authors drew on stud-
ies in music education, education, psychology, and other disciplines related to the topics
under study. For each reference we provide a brief annotation. The majority of studies cited
here are quantitative in style, since that has been the predominant methodology in music
education research until recently.

As mentioned above, given the vast research base in music education, and the state of con-
stantly evolving research, this document must be considered in progress. During the
writing of the document, the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning
was in preparation and is now published and available to music educators. We encourage
our colleagues to read these entries in the context of their own teaching experience and
to allow BETTER PRACTICE findings to enrich their perspectives on music teaching
and learning, and to stimulate new questions about the music teaching and learning
process.

Marie McCarthy and Regina Carlow

University of Maryland, College Park
October 2003

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents

Foreword iii

Introduction v

Learners and the Learning Environment

I. Learning Environment 1

Physical Environment 2

Models for Organizing Instruction 4

Classroom Management 7

Multisensory Media and Materials 8

Technology 10

II. Learner Characteristics 13

Learning Styles 14

Gender Issues 15

Ethnicity 16

Students with Limited English Proficiency 18

At-Risk Students 21

Students with Disabilities 22

Gifted and Talented Students 24

Teacher Effectiveness

I. Teacher Attitude, Knowledge, and Competence 27

Teacher Attitude 29

The Reflective Teacher 30

Action Research 32

Professional Development 35

Assessment 36

viii BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 II. Teacher Strategies 39

Preassessment of Student Knowledge 40

Articulating Goals 42

Motivational Feedback 43

Critical Thinking: Musical Problem Solving 44

Question-Answer Technique 47

Modeling 48

Teacher Verbal Instruction 50

Repetition and Drill 51

Topics Related to the Essential Learner Outcomes

Outcome I: Perceiving, Performing, and RespondingAesthetic Education 53

Singing 54

Sight-Singing 56

Playing Instruments: Instrumental Music Classes 58

Playing Instruments: General Music Classes 60

Movement 62

Music Reading 64

Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context 67

Historical, Cultural, and Social Context 68

Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production 71

Environments Conducive to Learning 72

Improvisation 73

Composition 74

Outcome IV: Aesthetic Criticism 77

Aesthetic Criticism 78

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION ix

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Learners and the
Learning Environment

I . L E A R N I N G E N V I R O N M E N T
Physical Environment

Models for Organizing Instruction

Classroom Management

Multisensory Media and Materials

Technology

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 1

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Physical
Environment

T H E O R Y
The physical environment of a classroom affects all learners. Bright students will
most likely succeed regardless of the setting, but at-risk students often face the
danger of dropping out. The classroom environment might encourage at-risk
students to remain in school.
Classroom features affect students in varying ways. Boys and girls respond
differently to classroom decor. Girls prefer more dramatic and diverse classroom
features. Students and teachers can tolerate noise in the classroom only to a certain
point. The constant background of a faulty circulation system or motor, or the
excessive talking of students, for example, can cause stress for students and
teachers. The comfort level of some students with the classroom environment can
be seen in higher achievement.
Studies have shown that aggressive student behavior
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E is less likely to occur in classrooms that allow easy
traffic flow of students and have materials arranged
A positive classroom environment enhances the
conveniently. Disruptive behavior occurs less
efforts of both teachers and students. Heating, air frequently in a neat classroom. Teachers cannot
conditioning, noise level, ventilation, classroom always control the temperature, the humidity, the
light level, or other environmental factors, but they
arrangement, lighting, decor, and traffic pattern all
do control the classroom arrangement. Some
contribute importantly to the classroom environment. teachers periodically alter teacher-student and
student-student relationships by moving students to
different seats.
Dust, mold, new carpeting, or the flickering of fluorescent lights affects some
students. These conditions may contribute to attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), Tourettes syndrome, or autism. Research suggests that students
in classrooms illuminated by full-spectrum fluorescent lighting with ultraviolet
supplements have better attendance records and are healthier.

2 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Classroom environment may affect students
learning attitudes and behavior before it influences
their academic achievement.
(Cheng, 1994, 224)
R E F E R E N C E
Cheng, Y. C. (1994). Classroom environment and student affective performance:
An effective profile. Journal of Experimental Education, 62 (3), 221-240.
A study of the relationship between student performance and classroom envi-
ronment, social climate, and management style of teacher.
Cohen, S., & Trostle, S. L. (1990). Young childrens preferences for school-
related physical-environmental setting characteristics. Environment &
Behavior, 22 (6), 753-766.
Student preferences for size, shape, color, complexity, texture, and lighting in a
school setting, and differences between male and female preferences.
Davies, M. F. (1994). The physical situation. In A.P. Hare & H. Herber et al.
(Eds.). Small group research: A handbook (pp. 11-39). Norwood, NJ: Ablex
Publishing Corp.
An investigation of the classroom environment related to the effects of stress
from noise, temperature, spatial arrangement, and room design.
Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1983). Student achievement as a function of per-
son-environment fit: A regression surface analysis. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 53 (1), 89-99.
How some individuals react strongly to the learning environment.
Hathaway, W. E. (1995). Effects of school lighting on physical development
and school performance. The Journal of Education Research, 88 (4), 228-242.
Student dental records, attendance, growth, and academic achievement were
correlated to develop possible cause-and-effect relationships.
Hetu, R., Truchon-Gagnon, C., & Bilodeau, S. A. (1990). Problems of noise in
school settings: A review of literature and the results of an exploratory study.
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology & Audiology, 14 (3), 31-39.
A review of the literature on the effects of noise in school settings.
Rapp, D. J., & Kochanski, K. (1996). Unsuspected environmental causes of
health and learning problems. In E. J. Erwin et al. (Eds.), Putting children first:
Visions for a brighter future for young children and their families (pp. 109-
130). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Speculation on the problems of allergic reactions to school settings by students
with known medical problems.
Stewart, S. C., & Evans, W. H. (1997). Setting the stage for success: Assessing
the instructional environment. Preventing School Failure, 41 (2), 53-57.
Four major factors that define classroom environment are outlined and discussed.
Short vignettes illustrate classroom problems. Management solutions are suggested.
Weinstein, C. S., & Woolfolk, A. E. (1981). Classroom design and impression
formation: A new area for research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 6
(4), 383-386.
A study in classroom neatness and flexibility. Students in neat classrooms were
judged to be better behaved.
BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 3
LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Models for Organizing

Instruction

T H E O R Y
Although music education philosophers and cognition experts disagree on the types of musical knowing,
they concur that the process of acquiring musical knowledge is multifaceted, involving performance
and intellectual and neuromuscular learning. Different types of learning occur from a variety of
organizational models.
Models for organizing instruction include sequencing for effective instruction, lecture/demonstration,
questioning techniques, modeling and gesturing, feedback systems, and verbal imagery. A variety of instruc-
tional approaches can help the teacher address different learning styles and types of musical knowledge.
Research shows that the presentation of material is more effective if delivered in the following sequence:
teacher presentation of task, student interaction with task, and teacher feedback related to task. Inherent
in this approach is teacher clarification of task, student-teacher interaction, and supportive feedback.
Strategies for presenting the task include lecture/demonstration, modeling, use of verbal imagery, and
gestures, covering both verbal and nonverbal instruction.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C E To promote student interaction with the task (the second step in

sequencing instruction), the teacher may use question-and-answer
Effective music teachers make use of a techniques. Questions that set a direction encourage the student to
wide range of instructional models. discover, analyze, classify, personalize, hypothesize, reorder, synthesize,
and evaluate. These steps, leading the student to understand the act of
forming aesthetic judgments, are crucial to music education. Understanding, rather than rote
memorization, occurs when the classroom environment permits errors or incorrect answers to be used as
a learning opportunity. Allowing wait time before calling on a student to answer gives other class
members time to think through the questions before hearing other possible answers. Questions that are
irrelevant, unclear, or misleading are unproductive.
Students also interact with the task through modeling, gestures, verbal imagery, and cooperative learning.
Music educators make extensive use of modeling strategies when they teach performance skills. Modeling
enables students to discriminate between desired and undesired musical effects. It can be a prelude to
independent learning. Gestures can take the place of many words. The teacher can avoid excessive
verbalization by communicating through body movements and effective eye contact. Effective music
teachers make frequent use of verbal imagery to guide student aesthetic thinking during rehearsal or
performance. Students work together to complete assigned tasks. Cooperative learning has been credited
with improved student relationships and attitudes toward school, strengthened self-esteem, and higher
academic performance.
Feedback, the final step, is crucial in the sequential learning model for students to acquire skills and
knowledge. Immediate feedback saves time in the learning process, and learning time increases when
students are permitted to practice mistakes without teacher intervention. The process of unlearning the
mistake and relearning the correct response consumes time and leads to frustration. Immediate feedback
promotes both short-term and long-term learning.

4 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION


R E F E R E N C E S
Cawelti, G. (Ed.) (1995). Handbook of research on improving student
achievement. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.
Research-based guidelines for improving student achievement, with a section
on teaching in the arts.
Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching and
learning. Bulletin of the Council of Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.
Review of the literature on modeling and verbal instruction as used by music
teachers. The positive uses of modeling are summarized.
Kaplan, P. R., & Stauffer, S. L. (1994). Cooperative learning in music. Reston,
VA, Music Educators National Conference.
Cooperative learning for music teachers. Cooperative learning is defined and
explained. Teaching suggestions for all age levels are supplied. The book con-
tains an extensive bibliography supporting cooperative learning.
A teachers ability to model, and the degree of
use of demonstrations in the instrumental class,
has bearing upon pupil performance levels.
Teachers who apply stronger modeling skills are
more likely to produce students who perform
better than teachers who do not.
(Sang, 1987, 136)
Sachen, J. B. (1999). Instructing the instructor: Effective questioning tech-
niques. Fire Engineering, 152, (3), 130-134.
The use of verbal questioning as an effective teaching technique is discussed.
Types of questions, use of questions, misuse of questions, and appropriateness
of questions are outlined.
Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental music
teachers modeling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of the
Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 155-159.
Support for Sangs assertion that appropriate teacher modeling can produce
effective student performance.
Tait, M. J. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.),
Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709). New
York: Schirmer Books.
Research on verbal and nonverbal strategies and the selection and sequencing
of teaching strategies is discussed and compared.
BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 5
LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Why is student behavior becoming steadily worse? Schools

always reflect the nature of the society they serve. When
society is humane, gentle, and caring, so are students in the
schools. When society is hostile and uncaring, students behave
in accordance. At present, societies around the world are
showing a progressive decline in humane behavior.
(Charles, 1999, p. 4)

6 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Classroom
Management

T H E O R Y
Systems of behavior management have changed since the pioneering work on group learning in the 1950s.
In the 1970s, discipline was thought of as control. During the 1980s, teachers turned to such other systems
as Assertive Discipline, Positive Discipline, Cooperative Discipline, and Discipline with Dignity. In the
1990s, Inner Discipline and a new concept, Beyond Discipline, emerged as successful systems.
In reaction to the evolving role of the teacher and the changing attitude
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E of the student, discipline has moved from an authoritative stance to
Students who develop a sense of
community building in the classroom. Beyond Discipline, a concept
developed by Alfie Kohn, is based on trust and caring between teacher
community and caring, and who and student. Some of the hallmarks of Beyond Discipline include
participate in decision making, are less communication, conflict resolution, class meetings, empowering students
likely to have behavioral problems.
by letting them make decisions, and abstaining from bribes, threats, and
rewards. The following are suggestions gleaned from the experience of
teachers and from research studies:

State clearly defined classroom guidelines at the beginning of the year.

Review and apply the guidelines and expectations consistently.

Maintain a positive atmosphere.

Build time for student input and class meetings about conducting the class.

Structure the environment to increase student learning.

Engage student attention with a challenging curriculum and effective teacher behavior.

Individualize instruction when necessary.

Be prepared to change strategies if necessary.

Provide feedback about academic and behavioral progress in a
constructive, positive manner.

R E F E R E N C E S Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. S. (1998). Comprehensive classroom management:

Brigham, F. J., Renfro, A. K., & Brigham, M. M. (1997). Linking music curricu-
lum to teacher and student behavior. Update: Applications of Research in
Music Education, 15 (2), 24-28.
Ways in which classroom management, instruction, and teacher behavior can
combine for the benefit of the student.
Brophy, J. (1988). Educating teachers about managing classrooms and stu-
dents. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (1), 1-18.
Brophy is often quoted about classroom management.
Buck, G. H. (1992). Classroom management and the disruptive child. Music
Educators Journal, 79 (4), 26-42.
Why students misbehave, and a new view of discipline including intervention
strategies.
Charles, C. M. (1999). Building classroom discipline. Menlo Park, CA: Longman.
Classroom discipline that covers trends in discipline from 1950 to the present.
The final chapter describes classrooms in which good behavior is encouraged.
The book also provides a how-to for building a personal system of discipline.
Creating communities of support and solving problems. Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
Discipline, classroom organization, meeting academic needs, and strategies for
responding to unproductive student behavior.
Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Author questions the idea of traditional classroom management with the impli-
cation that students need to be managed by teachers. Kohn stresses the need
for teacher and students to work together to build a communal classroom.
Ross, G. G. (1988). Task organization and management in secondary music
classrooms. British Journal of Music Education, 5 (2), 165-172.
Research on classroom management in British music education.
Rozmajkl, M., & Bourne, P. (1996). On classroom management for the music
educator. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 5 (2), 21-29.
Insights into the attitudinal differences among preservice teachers, student
teachers, first-year teachers, and cooperating teachers.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 7

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Multisensory Media
and Materials

T H E O R Y
Effective teachers use multisensory modes of learningaural, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic. A
multisensory approach includes modeling, verbal instruction, media, movement, and tangible materials.
In this way, the learning process fully involves the student. Although verbal instruction and modeling are
vital to instruction, kinesthetic activities cannot be ignored. Instructional approaches such as Orff,
Kodly, Carabo-Cone, Dalcroze, and Suzuki commonly incorporate multiple modes of learning.
Textbooks, scores, literature, media, visual aids, and other tangible materials should be developmentally
appropriate. Teachers should examine them for sequential activities, for evaluation materials, and for the
philosophical background of a textbook series. Research findings indicate that music reading activities do
not interfere with the development of aural and performance skills.
The use of tangible materials in the classroom enhances
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E understanding of abstract concepts by simultaneously invoking
Teachers who employ a multisensory approach visual, kinesthetic, and tactile modes. Tangible materials can be
to music education with age-appropriate, utilized for all school levels and by performing groups, but they
must be age appropriate. For example, drawing circles for notes
sequential materials provide a fully engaging
may be difficult for young students. Discs, such as paper
learning experience. circles, bingo chips, and coins, provide a solid medium for
learning. The use of tangible materials also makes evaluation of
student progress easier because the percentage of error is linked more directly to conceptual
understanding and less to physical and verbal immaturity.
Tangible materials include balls, ropes, rhythm/melody cards, electronic equipment, straws, sticks,
percussion instruments, or anything that can be safely and easily handled by students while delineating
concepts in concrete ways. Another point in favor of tangible materials is their motivating power.

R E F E R E N C E S Rudaitis, C. (1997). Literature selection made easy. Teaching Music, 4 (4),

33-35.
Dickey, M. R. (1991). A comparison of verbal instruction and nonverbal Guidelines for selecting repertoire for skill development and for performance,
teacher-student modeling in instrumental ensembles. Journal of Research in including suggested resources.
Music Education, 39 (2), 132-142.
Modeling strategies and devices such as melodic echoes and rhythmic move- Samples, B. (1992). Using learning modalities to celebrate intelligence.
ment encourage both ear-to-hand and kinesthetic response skills for middle Educational Leadership, 50 (2), 62.
school band students. A multimodality approach to education. Samples examines and describes learning
modalities, and asserts that education needs to address the student holistically.
Flowers, P. J. (1998). Music vocabulary of first-grade children: Words listed
for instruction and their actual use. Journal of Research in Music Education, Spaeth, J. (1994). Finding quality literature for young children. Teaching
46 (1), 5-15. Music, 2 (1), 40-41.
Comparison of vocabulary words in textbooks with general oral vocabulary. Ideas and resources for finding quality music literature for young children.
Findings indicate that children need to develop an appropriate music vocabu- Resource list includes music and activity books and recordings.
lary, drawing and expanding on what they already know.
Kendall, M. J. (1988). Two instructional approaches to the development of
aural and instrumental performance skills. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 36 (4), 205-219.
Music reading activities did not interfere with the development of aural and
instrumental performance skills for beginning instrumentalists.

8 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Appreciation for the different ways of knowing can provide a
wholeness now missing in schools, where reason alone is honored.
(Samples, 1992, p. 62)

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 9

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Technology

T H E O R Y
Computer technology is especially promising for music education because it presents and receives
information aurally, visually, and kinesthetically (e.g., MIDI controller instruments). Results have varied,
but research shows that, generally, technology-assisted instruction can be effective. Teachers can capitalize
on the natural enthusiasm many students have for technology.
Technology can be used effectively in many ways. Computer-assisted instruction with individuals and
small groups of students has improved tonal memory and aural discrimination skills. Music notation and
MIDI sequencing programs have been effective in music composition training and other creative
activities. Teachers can also use music notation software to produce professional-quality print materials
for music class, as well as music-minus-one MIDI technology to create personalized musical
accompaniments for performance training.
With hypermedia technologies, including the Internet,
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
students can explore information beyond the imposed
Music educators who integrate computer structures of formal learning environments. Teachers must
technology appropriately into their teaching guide students in developing strategies to use this freedom
effectively. They must help prevent students from moving off
gain an effective tool for increasing student
task or from developing a game mentality encouraged by some
motivation and learning. instructional software programs. The Internet can improve
music instruction by giving teachers the ability to add to their
own knowledge base of music, teaching, and any number of education issues. Teachers can also obtain
advice from colleagues via e-mail and online discussion groups.
The manner in which a teacher integrates technology into the classroom greatly influences the
effectiveness of the technology. Common problems include failing to consider previous student
experiences (i.e., employing skill-inappropriate drills, musically weak exercises, or activities that are
unrelated to course objectives) and failing to supplement the technology with adequate human
interaction. A general rule is to employ only those technologies that readily contribute to accomplishing
the educational task at hand.

10 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Musical and educational technologies are new teaching tools
to be used by teachers in ways to improve instruction.
However, these new tools certainly do not automatically
guarantee success. Technology will be of value only when it is
used appropriately, in conjunction with sound teaching
methods that are rooted in a good philosophical base.
(Berz & Bowman, 1994, p. 62)

R E F E R E N C E
Bauer, W. I. (1999). Music educators and the Internet. Contributions to Music
Education, 26 (2), 51-63.
An investigation of how music educators use the Internet to determine how it
might become more useful.
Berz. W. L., & Bowman, J. (1994). Applications of research in music technol-
ogy. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Part of the MENC From Research to the Music Classroom series. Summarizes
research in instructional technology and music education. Topics include com-
puter-assisted instruction, electronic instruments, and hypermedia. Practical
teaching methods and suggestions are also provided.
Birman, B. F., Kirshstein, R. J., Levin, D. A., Matheson, N., & Stephens, M.
(1997). The effectiveness of using technology in K-12 education: A prelimi-
nary framework and review. Washington, DC: American Institutes for
Research.
Descriptions and findings of recent research studies that investigate the role of
technology in education reform efforts. The authors discuss the current availabil-
ity of technology in schools and the potential impact of technology on learning.
Coley, R., Cradler, J., & Engel, P. (1997). Computers and classrooms: The sta-
tus of technology in U.S. schools. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Based on a review of educational research in technology. The authors report
that there are major differences among American schools in terms of access to
instructional technology, and that providing technology training and support to
teachers is a critical factor in implementing technology successfully.
Higgins, W. (1992). Technology. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on
music teaching and learning (pp. 480-497). New York: Schirmer.
Review of research in the area of technology in music instruction. Discusses
more specific types of technology applications. Higgins suggests that additional
research is needed to determine the effectiveness of incorporating technology
into certain areas of music education.
Kulik, J. A. (1994). Meta-analytic studies of findings on computer-based
instruction. In E. L. Baker & H. F. ONeil, Jr. (Eds.), Technology assessment in
education and training (pp. 9-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Findings of over 500 individual research studies spanning more than a decade.
Kulik concludes that students tend to prefer classes that utilize computer-based
instruction and that they learn more in such classes.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 11

12 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Learners and the
Learning Environment

I I . L E A R N E R
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
Learning Styles

Gender Issues

Ethnicity

Students with Limited English Proficiency

At-Risk Students

Students with Disabilities

Gifted and Talented Students

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 13

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Learning
Styles

T H E O R Y
Children differ in the way they receive, process, and recall information. Some prefer bright light to soft
light, to study alone or with others, to work in a highly structured environment, or to be in a more flexible
situation in which discovery is encouraged. The personality of the child plays an important role in
education. The differences can be identified through study, casual observation, and learning style
inventories. Teachers can make accommodations as they become aware of the nature of the differences,
perhaps by changing student seat assignments or by changing eye contact, facial expression, and voice level.
Many terms and theories about learning styles have emerged recently.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
Studies have illuminated various ways of learning, thinking, and
Teachers who are committed to student knowing. Acknowledging differences and complexities challenges teachers
success demonstrate adaptable and to make instructional accommodations that will help a broad range of
learners to succeed.
effective classroom behavior.
Research findings indicate that students have more success using a
combination of teaching techniques. Once teachers are aware of their own learning styles, they can begin
to recognize the learning styles of their students. Attention to learning styles must accommodate at-risk
students, inclusion students, minority students, and gifted and talented students. It is of utmost
importance to incorporate as many techniques and approaches as necessary to reach every student in the
most effective way.

Every person has a learning style

it is as individual as a finger print.
(Gremli, 1996, 24)

R E F E R E N C E S
Dunn, R. (1999). How do we teach them? Teaching PreK-8, 29 (7), 50-52.
Various learning styles and the need for determining learning style preferences.
The author developed inventories for that purpose.
Gremli, J. (1996). Tuned into learning styles. Music Educators Journal, 83 (3),
24-27.
Analytical reasoning (inductive) and global reasoning (deductive) learning
styles, with practical applications to accommodate differences in the choral
rehearsal setting.
Hanson, J. R., Silver, H., & Strong, R. (1991). Square pegs: Learning styles of
at-risk students. Music Educators Journal, 78 (3), 30-35.
Successful students as thinkers rather than feelers. Stresses that teachers
need to discover their own learning styles and develop an approach that reach-
es every learner.
Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns of
selected music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3),
182-203.
Factors for effective music teaching include the ability to rapidly adjust
sequencing, pacing, instructional delivery, and use of simple, concise, sequen-
tial patterns of instruction.
Moore, B. R. (1990). The relationship between curriculum and learner: Music
composition and learning style. Journal of Research in Music Education, 38
(1), 24-38.
Few studies show the actual effect of specific learning styles on specific tasks.
This study indicates that learning styles affect instruction in composition; the
study, however, does not isolate the individual effects of each learning style.

14 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Gender
Issues

T H E O R Y
Teachers can divide the classroom power structure more equally among girls and boys if they prevent
calling out and other forms of disrespect. Research has shown that girls are often quieter and less
aggressive than boys, and less confident in tasks that require risk-taking. Boys receive more attention
when they exhibit independent behavior rather than follow the rules. The teacher must spend time with
them negotiating the rules and answering their questions. For girls to be successful in activities that
require independent thinking, like composition, they need encouragement, female role models, and
opportunities to exhibit independence.
Teachers who use a variety of instructional methods can
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E encourage both boys and girls to be successful in music activities.
Teachers who divide their attention equally Music teachers are incorporating technology in their composition
among students, use more than one instruction. Boys are more comfortable with technology; in fact,
technology might be a roadblock for girls. Other options, like the
instructional method, and permit no disrespect use of keyboards, need to be available to girls.
help students succeed in the music class.
Teachers who divide their attention more equally among boys
and girls in mixed chorus help both succeed. Boys demand
much of the attention through their behavior. They also need more help with vocal problems. Teachers
who are sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of girls will provide challenging opportunities for them,
like high-quality, auditioned girls ensembles.
Music teachers can use many means to address the challenges raised in studies about gender in the music
class. Findings indicate that teachers should assume that boys and girls can be equally expressive in the arts
and should encourage all children to participate in music activities at a young age. It is helpful for teachers
to introduce the contributions of both male and female musicians and composers, to have students perform
music by women composers, and to avoid repertoire that perpetuates gender stereotypes.

School has a hand in the perpetuation of the gender politics of

music not only through gendered musical practices but also in the
discourse surrounding music, and, most fundamentally, in the very
meaning and experience of music itself. (Green, 1997, p. 229)

R E F E R E N C E S
American Association of University Women (AAUW). (1991). Shortchanging
Girls, Shortchanging America. A nationwide poll to assess self-esteem, educa-
tional experiences, interest in math and science, and career aspirations of girls
and boys ages 9-15. Washington, DC: Author. ED34657.
Green, L. (1997). Music, Gender, Education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Gender issues in music and education that should be considered by music
educators.
Hanley, B. (1998). Gender in Secondary Music Education in British Columbia.
British Journal of Music Education, 15 (1), 51-69.
A replication of Greens study (1993). Hanley found that the impact of gender
beliefs was most evident in composition. She also discusses other gender
issues in music education.
OToole, P. (1998). A missing chapter from choral methods books: How choirs
neglect girls. Choral Journal, 39 (5), 9-32.
Issues concerning the general education of girls, and girls in choral programs.
The framework for this article came from the AAUW research cited above.
Rothenberg, D. (1995). Supporting Girls in Early Adolescence. ERIC Digest,
#ED386331. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Childhood Education.
Connection between the self-concept of girls in the middle grades and their
academic achievement. Rothenberg gives suggestions for the classroom teacher
to help establish a classroom atmosphere that promotes learning for both boys
and girls.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 15

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Ethnicity

T H E O R Y
The issue of ethnicity can be divided into two subcategories. First, teachers who respect ethnicity
acknowledge that their students represent diverse cultural backgrounds. Yet, many curricula still approach
music education from a Western music perspective, which may inhibit musical learning for some
students. Sensitive music teachers seek opportunities to celebrate and honor cultural differences. A
curriculum rich in multicultural education benefits all students as they experience music of different
cultures and come to appreciate cultures different from their own.
Second, a multicultural curriculum includes a broad repertoire of non-Western music. This involves more
than simply singing a few non-Western songs or creating one unit on a particular culture. Less familiar,
non-Western music can help students learn because it illustrates and demonstrates musical concepts
already outlined in the curriculum. The greatest challenge for teachers is to find as many authentic
materials as possible to allow them to present the culture authentically.
Music teachers can work together with classroom teachers to
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
develop a culture study including geography, history, dress,
Teachers who approach music education from a food, customs, songs, dances, games, instruments, and
multicultural perspective expose students to language. Music teachers can also develop multicultural lessons
about celebrations of holidays, animals, harvest, love, heroes,
musical diversity, honor the diverse cultures of
and nature, utilizing folk, work, dance, and devotional songs
the students, and increase knowledge of other and lullabies.
cultures, all of which may raise academic
success and lower discipline incidents.

16 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 History tells us that musicians and composers are continually pushing out the envelope
of the sonic barrier, using increasingly expanded definitions of what music is.
Amidst all the excellent reasons to begin multicultural music education, from
responding to changing demographics to promoting world peace and understanding,
there is an often overlooked musical reason: Through the continual exposure of
children to their planetary musical heritage, we daily widen the scope of how music
can speak. (Goodkin, 1994, p. 43)

R E F E R E N C E S Shehan, P. (1985). Transfer of preference from taught to untaught pieces of

Campbell, P. S., & Schupman, E. (1992). Cultural consciousness in teaching
general music. Music Educators Journal, 78 (9), 30-37.
Special focus issue of Music Educators Journal. Includes six articles on multi-
cultural musical education, with resources and examples.
Fung, C. V. (1994). Undergraduate non-music majors world music preferences
and multicultural attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (1), 45-57.
Findings suggest that teachers just beginning to incorporate multicultural music
should start with instrumental music. Also, musical study of China, Indonesia,
Japan, Africa, and India may serve as a good introduction to non-Western music.
Gonzo, C. (1993). Multicultural issues in music education. Music Educators
Journal, 79 (6), 49-52.
Theories and four viewpoints of multicultural education. Gonzo concludes with
realistic concerns for the way music educators should proceed.
Goodkin, D. (1994). Diverse approaches to multicultural music. Music
Educators Journal, 81 (1), 39-43.
Methods for highlighting both the diversity and the similarities of world music.
Goodkin offers practical suggestions for culture study, celebrations, song
themes, instrument types, musical concepts, and goals. A list of recording
resources is also provided.
Klinger, R. (1996). From glockenspiel to mbira: An ethnography of multicultur-
al practice in music education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 129, 29-36.
A true story of a teacher attempting to include the music of Africa in her fifth-
grade music classroom.
non-Western music genres. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3),
149-158.
Students were taught traditional African, Asian Indian, Japanese, and Hispanic
songs. They demonstrated increased preference for the selections they learned,
but preferences did not transfer to untaught, unfamiliar pieces.
Stellaccio, C. K. (1995). Theory to practice: An ethnographic analysis of multi-
cultural curriculum and pedagogy in elementary general music. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.
How one teacher demonstrates a dynamic music curriculum based on a delib-
erate application of multicultural principles and pedagogy.
Tucker, J. D. (1992). Circling the globe: Multicultural resources. Music
Educators Journal, 78 (9), 37-40.
Suggestions for a hands-on library of world music materials appropriate for ele-
mentary through middle school classrooms. Tucker lists suppliers, culture-spe-
cific books, and audio recordings.
Volk, T. (1992). World music in the instrumental program. Music Educators
Journal, 78 (9), 44-45.
Programming options for instrumental programs. Volk presents ideas for warm-
ups, rehearsal strategies, traditions, and library sources.
Yudkin, J. (1993). Choosing pluralism or particularism. Music Educators
Journal, 79 (8), 46-49.
The philosophical traditions of cultural pluralism and cultural particularism and
how teachers can determine which approach to use for different types of music.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 17

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Students with Limited

English Proficiency

T H E O R Y
Research indicates that teachers face the increasing challenge of educating students with minimal English
skills. Teachers who alter their instructional styles without lowering standards to meet the needs of LEP
students help these students to achieve as they become competent, literate adults.
Effective teachers expose LEP students to meaningful literacy activities, especially modeling good
language use and encouraging classroom interaction. Studies show that interactive vocabulary instruction
leads to gains in vocabulary knowledge, which consequently increases content area learning and mastery.
Teachers who use linguistic adjustments make the content area
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E more accessible. LEP students can benefit when they have more
Teachers who modify instructional delivery wait time before answering the teachers questions. They become
to accommodate students with limited more verbal when asked referential questions such as, How would
you . . .? How do you . . .? What do you think about . . . ?
English proficiency (LEP) recognize that they
should foster linguistic diversity as an asset Many linguistic adjustments call for the use of peer translators or
student mentors. Techniques such as breaking difficult ideas into
in the classroom. They make the content manageable units (conceptual and linguistic), pausing during speech
area more accessible to LEP students. to allow students to catch up, stressing the main word of a sentence,
and using visuals, graphics, rubrics and icons facilitate learning.
Studies also suggest that cooperative learning and collaborative projects increase meaningful interactions
between teachers and students and among students.
Students who speak two languages should be encouraged to maintain their skills in both so they can
enjoy the benefits of bilingualism. Teachers should validate students cultures, using familiar
communication patterns; thus providing a richer and more effective approach. The following strategies
benefit LEP students in the music classroom:

Stress contextual and theme-based vocabulary through word walls, stories, games, and songs, using
onomatopoeia.

Utilize student mentors, buddies, cultural brokers, and informants.

Present a variety of styles and cultures in listening and performing repertoires.

Practice language through singing, conversations, and chants.

Highlight the content area with visuals, graphics, and rubrics.

Give students methods of asking for clarification, such as icons and hand signs.

Build preparation time and rehearsal of teacher instructions into lesson plans.

Praise students when they make reasoned guesses.

18 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 The languages and dialects that students speak can and should be
made an explicit part of the curriculum if we are to give them the
message that language diversity is valued in our schools. Rather
than viewing linguistic diversity as a deficit, we need to see it as an
asset on which further learning can be built.
(Nieto, 1992, p. 299)

R E F E R E N C E S
Langdon, H. (1996). English language learning by immigrant Spanish speak-
ers: A United States perspective. Topics in Language Disorders, 16 (4), 38-53.
McLaughlin, B. (1995). Fostering second language learning development in
young children: principles and practices. Washington, DC: National Center for
Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. DE-FL-96-02).
Eight principles drawn from theory and research on second-language acquisition
and culturally sensitive instruction to guide educators working with linguistically
diverse students and to help them recognize that bilingualism develops in stages.
Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of education.
New York: Longman.
The importance of linguistic diversity as a classroom resource and a challenge
to educators to acknowledge differences that children bring to school.
Temmant, A., Berhnard, E., & Munoz-Rodriquez, M. (1996). Collaborating with
content-area teachers: What we need to share. TESOL Journal, 5 (4), 16-20.
Ten principles that LEP educators need to address in collaboration with content-
area teachers, especially on the secondary level. The authors note that these
principles represent real-world concerns that emerged during several interdisci-
plinary classroom-based research projects.
Zuniga Hill, C., & Yopp, R. (1996). Practices of exemplary elementary school
teachers of second language learners. Teacher Education Quarterly, 23 (1),
83-97.
Effective teaching practices, conditions, and contexts that exemplary teachers of
LEP students use to enhance learning. Common practices include enabling atti-
tudes and languages, activating students prior knowledge, using current language
arts instructional strategies, and engaging in teacher-reflective practices.
R E S O U R C E S
Graham, C. (1979). Jazz chants for children. New York: Oxford.
The use of rhythmic expression of American slang English. Designed to teach
the natural rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns of conversational American
English. This text can serve as a springboard for collaboration among classroom
teachers, music teachers, and teachers of LEP students.
Paez, D., & McCarty, L. (1997). How to use cultural brokers in educational set-
tings. TESOL Journal, 6 (3), 44-45.
Findings for using cultural brokers and informants in the classroom. Topics
cover why teachers might want a cultural broker, ways to find the right broker,
and several examples of effective use of cultural brokers in the classroom.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 19

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Behavior and conditions that define a child as at-risk are part of a

self-perpetuating cycle of failure across generations, a cycle of failure
that often manifests itself through school dropouts. Participation in
the arts in school can help at-risk youth break this cycle.
(Taylor, Barry, & Walls, 1997, p. vii)

20 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

At-Risk
Students

T H E O R Y
Students are considered at risk when they exhibit certain characteristics, such as a dysfunctional social
and family background, an attitude of apathy and low personal expectations, and a history of learning
disabilities and school behavioral problems. A school music program can make a difference for some at-
risk students. Often, the motivation provided by music classes is the sole reason a student stays in school.
Music classes, like other school classes, present challenges to students who need to develop learning and
skills, but the study of music can provide especially rewarding experiences. Music classes often involve
hands-on activities, satisfaction in creative achievement, opportunities for personal expression, and an
environment of high standards and expectations. Teachers who emphasize these qualities of music
involvement will serve their at-risk students best.
Additionally, because most music classes rely on teamwork or
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E group activities, students can experience much-needed feelings of
Teachers who take advantage of the belonging. This sense of community can even approach a family
naturally rewarding qualities of music make concept for some teens. Such a connection with other students
represents a well-established strength of school music activities and
their classes a powerful means of motivating is an important objective of at-risk intervention programs.
at-risk students to stay in school.
At-risk students who participate in a music program can find it to
be a positive element in what otherwise would be another
disheartening school day. Music offers students something to look forward to in school. In some cases,
at-risk students excel in music classes and the resulting self-confidence spills over into other classes.

R E F E R E N C E S Detailed characteristics of at-risk students related to social and family back-

Benard, B. (1997). Turning it around for all youth: From risk to resilience
(Report No. EDO-UD-97-7). New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 412 309).
How educators and schools can foster resiliency in youth. A number of strate-
gies based on education research are suggested.
Florida Department of Education. (1990). The role of the fine and performing
arts in high school dropout prevention. Tallahassee, FL: Center for Music
Research, Florida State University.
A review of relevant literature on the dropout and at-risk problems, and a report
of interviews with music teachers and students.
McMillan, J. H., Reed, D. R., & Bishop, A. (1992). A qualitative study of
resilient at-risk students: Review of literature. Richmond, VA: Metropolitan
Educational Research Consortium.
ground, personal problems, and school difficulties. Among the recommended
programs for at-risk students is involvement in music and drama activities.
Music and the at-risk student [special issue]. (1991). Music Educators
Journal, 78 (3).
Teachers share strategies for getting at-risk students to engage in music activities.
Taylor, J. A., Barry, N. H., & Walls, K. C. (1997). Music and students at risk:
Creative solutions for a national dilemma. Reston, VA: Music Educators
National Conference.
Research on how the arts help at-risk students. The authors share accounts of
successful intervention approaches by music teachers and offer research-
based conclusions.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 21

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Students With
Disabilities

T H E O R Y
Music teachers who are prepared to go beyond the one-size-fits-all approach in regard to students with
disabilities consider the individual student learning strengths and deficits. Usually, this information
appears in the students Individual Education Program (IEP), which details the students current level of
educational performance, annual goals, short-term instructional objectives, specific services to be
provided, and the extent of participation in the mainstream program. From the IEP, teachers can plan the
changes needed for one or more exceptional learners in a single class. Music teachers can play a role in
the decision-making process for each child by joining the IEP process and guiding the proper placement
of exceptional children.
After individual strengths and weaknesses have been determined and the
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E student has been placed in the regular music class, effective music teachers
Teachers should plan for individual make accommodations that respect different learning styles. They present
material to accommodate auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners; stress
student needs so they can apply the
sequencing tasks from concrete physical activities to more abstract verbal
necessary intervention strategies for and language-oriented responses, and employ simple graphic
children who have difficulty with representations of music concepts before moving to symbolic expressions.
Teachers who design lesson plans sensitive to individual needs encourage all
music learning.
students to participate in the music class. Effective teachers engage students
through a vast range of classroom strategies, including:

presenting resources with developmentally appropriate goals for all students

allocating specific tasks to challenge students according to their respective abilities

layering an activity with differing targets

offering several points of entry into the same activity

addressing and planning for different learning styles.
Effective music educators depend on the same fundamental teaching skills that all good educators use.
Successful teachers plan and monitor the physical setting, special equipment, materials, and teaching
procedures of the disabled student, all of which are directed by the Individual Education Program.

22 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Within a framework of effective instruction, the
question of how to teach music to exceptional children
should be reinterpreted during the years to come as,
How can good music instruction be more responsive to
individual differences?
(Graham, 1991, p. 233)

R E F E R E N C E S Graham. R. (1991). The music of exceptional children. In R. Colwell (Ed.),

Atterbury, B. A. (1993). Preparing teachers for mainstreaming. The Quarterly
Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 4 (1), 20-26.
A finding for including study of Public Law 94-142 in the undergraduate music
education curriculum. A brief history of the law and its key points explains some
of the more vague interpretations of the wording. Discussion of pre-intervention
strategies as well as adaptations that can be put to use in the music classroom.
Bernstorf, E. D. & Welsbacher, B. T. (1996). Helping students in the inclusive
classroom. Music Educators Journal, 82 (5), 21-26.
Descriptions of characteristic behaviors common to persons diagnosed with one
or more neurological dysfunctions, to assist the music teacher in an inclusive
setting. Ten neurological dysfunctions are defined followed by examples of
behaviors. Research-based accommodations are given for each example.
Gfeller, K. (1992). Research regarding students with disabilities. In R. Colwell
(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 615-633).
New York: Schirmer.
Review of research related to students with disabilities in the music classroom.
Specific characteristics and research findings are discussed.
Basic Concepts in Music Education II. Niwot, CO: University Press of
Colorado.
Nine groupings of exceptional children, and a philosophy of music education for
the exceptional child. Graham emphasizes assessment and intervention, and
reviews research findings in the area of music education and exceptional stu-
dents.
Heine, C., & Heine, C. (1996). In-service training: A major key to successful
integration of special needs children in music education classes. In B. L. Wilson
(Ed.), Models of music therapy interventions in school settings. Silver Spring,
MD: National Association for Music Therapy.
Models of in-service training suited to specific needs of the music educator.
Schaberg, G. (1988). TIPS: Teaching music to special learners. Reston, VA:
Music Educators National Conference.
A quick reference guide designed to offer teaching ideas and strategies for use
with the disabled student in the music classroom. The booklet offers a progress
evaluation form that could be helpful in recording accurate data.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 23

LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Gifted and Talented

Students

T H E O R Y
There are three basic ways to alter curriculum to meet students needs: offering enrichment activities,
providing an accelerated pace, and making available a variety of learning options. Teachers may also need
to modify regular class grouping practices.
Music enrichment activities may incorporate research skills. Topics might encompass the history of
instruments, lives of composers, and historical styles. Students could compose music, participate in
chamber music groups, take field trips to attend concerts, use recording studios, interact with instrument
makers, engage in mentorships with musicians, and undertake
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E multimedia projects.
Teachers who modify curricula and grouping Providing acceleration for gifted and talented students can
procedures and provide alternative activities make available extra class time to prepare for more challenging
can help meet the special needs of high-ability
performing opportunities, like music festivals or other projects
of the students choice.
students who learn rapidly and need time and
Differentiation offers learning options that can meet varioius
resources to pursue areas of special interest.
levels of interest and ability. It can embrace different ways of
exploring content, developing understanding of ideas, and
demonstrating what has been learned. Music students can master another instrument, create a
multimedia presentation, or develop a halftime show. Supplementary materials, computer programs,
interest centers, tiered activities, independent contracts, and group investigation are other ways to
differentiate.
Grouping students heterogeneously can be counterproductive for high-ability students in certain
instructional contexts. Often, high-ability students do more teaching than learning. Sometimes, gifted
students should be grouped together during drill and practice sessions and given a more complex task.
Heterogeneous groups may work well for critical thinking tasks and open-ended activities.

24 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Before teachers can develop appropriate instructional strategies to meet the needs
of high ability students, they must recognize the value of such efforts. For many
educators, services to gifted and talented students may seem to be elitist. However,
public education is founded on the belief that all students (including high ability
students) have the right to instruction appropriate to their needs. Gifted and
talented students, like all students, should learn something new every day.
(McGrail, 1998, 36)

R E F E R E N C E S
Feldhusen, J. F., et al. (1992). Grouping gifted students: Issues and concerns.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 36 (2), 63-67.
Review of the literature on grouping. Grouping gifted students heterogeneously
and providing cooperative learning leads to lowered achievement and motiva-
tion, and poorer attitudes toward school on the part of gifted students.
Kulik, J. A. (1993). An analysis of the research on ability grouping. NRC/GT
Newsletter, 8-9.
Summaries of five kinds of ability grouping programs.
McGrail, L. (1998). Modifying regular classroom curriculum for high ability stu-
dents. Gifted Child Today, March/April, pp. 36-39.
Strategies for modifying curriculum. The author includes lesson modification,
assignment modification, and scheduling modification.
R E S O U R C E S
Berger, S. L. (1991). Differentiating curriculum for gifted students. ERIC
Digest, #EDO-EC-91-15, E510. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted
Education, Reston, VA.
Tomlinson, C. A. (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in
the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest, ED389141, E536.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Reston, VA.
Winebrenner, S., & Berger, S. (1994). Providing curriculum alternatives to
motivate gifted students. ERIC Digest, E524. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities
and Gifted Education, Reston, VA.
Winebrenner, S. (1992). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom.
Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.

Reis, S. M., & Renzulli, J. S. Using curriculum compacting to challenge the
above average. Educational Leadership, 50 (2), 51-57.
Program development advice is included in this article on differentiation.
(1990). Music Educators Journal, 76 (7).
Special focus issue on gifted and talented students.
Scott, D. (1998). Tiered evaluation in large ensemble settings. Music
Educators Journal, 85 (3), 17- 21, 47.
A system that allows students to work at different levels, enabling teachers to
assess progress objectively and present students with appropriate challenges.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 25

26 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Teacher
Effectiveness

I . T E A C H E R A T T I T U D E ,
K N O W L E D G E , A N D C O M P E T E N C E
Teacher Attitude

The Reflective Teacher

Action Research

Professional Development

Assessment

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 27

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Even if one is clear as to the direction and strength of the

attitude, there is still the problem of what exactly constitutes an
attitude. Attitudes are psychological and perceptual. An attitude
is a construct, an abstract concept used to explain and classify
the reasons underlying what people say or what they do.
(Cutietta, 1990, p. 295)

28 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Teacher
Attitude

T H E O R Y
According to a 1990 survey of 10 independent studies, teachers are effective when
they are enthusiastic, stimulating, encouraging, warm, task-oriented, and
businesslike. Later studies noted that teachers perceived as caring influence
motivational outcomes. Research suggests links between teacher behavior and
student achievement.
Teachers help overcome barriers between themselves and students when they
establish trusting relationships by sharing personal stories, showing interest in
students lives, handling confrontations, and planning multicultural lessons that
show respect for individual differences.
Attitude measurement studies have dealt with effecting change in
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
teacher attitude in cross-cultural settings, mainstreamed music
Teachers who demonstrate fairness when classrooms, and self-contained classes of severely physically
they interact with students develop handicapped students. Research suggests a positive relationship
between teacher attitude and attending in-service training
expectations for student behavior that derive
sessions that focus on special-needs students.
from individual differences. They model a
Teachers who take courses in special education have more
caring attitude and provide constructive
favorable attitudes toward teaching students with disabilities and
feedback, creating an atmosphere that are perceived as competent in implementing daily class objectives.
enriches and encourages learning. Effective music teachers create opportunities for students to
experience a variety of music cultures and thus incorporate many
learning styles in their lessons.

R E F E R E N C E S Review of recent research that clarifies procedures contributing to effective

Block M., Rizzo, T. L. (1995). Attitudes and attributes of physical educators
associated with teaching individuals with severe and profound disabilities.
Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20 (1), 87-88.
Relationships between attitudes and selected attributes of 150 public school
physical educators toward teaching students with severe and profound disabili-
ties in regular and in mainstreamed classes.
Cutietta, R. A. (1990). The measurement of attitudes and preferences in music
education. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and
learning (pp. 295-309). New York: Schirmer.
Reliability and validity in attitude measurement. Techniques of attitude meas-
urement are presented.
Fung, V. (1994). Undergraduate nonmusic majors world music preference
and multicultural attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (1),
45-57.
A study of 50 undergraduate nonmusic majors to determine the relationship
between world music preferences and multicultural attitudes. Findings support
the view that social/cultural attitudes play a role in world music preference.
Tait, M. (1990). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook
of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:
Schirmer.
teaching, including such verbal strategies as teacher talk time, strategy selec-
tion and sequencing, and nonverbal strategies.
Teicher, J. (1997). Effect of multicultural music experience of preservice ele-
mentary teachers attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45 (3),
415-427.
The effects of multicultural music lesson planning and implementation on the
attitudes of 60 preservice elementary teachers toward teaching from a multicul-
tural perspective.
Valli, L. (1997). Learning to teach in cross-cultural settings: The significance
of personal relations. In F. Rios (Ed.), Teacher thinking in cultural contexts (pp.
282-307). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Ways in which student teachers apprehensions and misconceptions about their
initial teaching experiences begin to change. Usually, change involved teacher
attempts to establish personal trusting relations.
Wentzel, K. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived
pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (3), 411-419.
An examination of adolescent perceptions of pedagogical caring in relation to
motivation.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 29

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

The Reflective
Teacher

T H E O R Y
Studies suggest that teachers who use autobiographical reflection to examine their philosophy of teaching
are able to integrate beliefs about what and how students should learn and how they should be evaluated.
Transformative Learning Theory posits that everyone has opinions that spring from experience, values,
thoughts, and insights. As transformative learners, educators examine their practices in new ways,
question and revise their opinions, and base their actions on new perspectives.
Teachers who participate in focused reflection report a greater
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E sense of efficacy in their work. Three commonly used reflective
Teachers who look to questioning as a practices are teacher journals, videotaping, and teacher portfolios.
learning tool, and are subsequently Teacher journals can serve to document questions that arise while
working with the learner. Portfolios and videotapes permit the
committed to ongoing inquiry in their content
teacher to trace development over time and to learn from peer
area, enable their students to become better discussion and each others experiences.
thinkers and problem solvers. Research indicates that the ability to reflect enables the novice
teacher to eventually become expert. Teacher educators who practice
reflective teaching instruct methods classes, observe students as they practice teach, and then revise methods
courses to be more effective. Studies suggest that reflective teachers and teacher educators give equal
importance to the act of teaching and to subsequent thinking about teaching. They guide and expand,
question and support, and challenge their students to produce self-reliant, reflective future teachers.
Teachers of reflective thinking strive to improve the process of inquiry of their students. Teachers who
believe that knowledge is constructed by students and not given by teachers help reframe the concept of
lesson planning to its reflective counterpartlesson analysis. Peer assistance and think-aloud protocol
sessions have contributed to developing ideas about effective teaching practices that reflect revised thinking.
In these sessions, both teacher and students are paired with mentors or with partners to share changes in
thinking related to classroom practice. Strategies for the reflective teacher include the following:

participating in regular journal writing, using both focused questions and autobiographical entry

videotaping and analyzing teaching and rehearsal segments

creating a teaching portfolio of concert programs, model lesson plans, and original arrangements
and compositions

constructing, revising, and analyzing a working philosophy of music education

participating in peer observation at workshops and through videotapes

keeping a notebook or separate place in a journal for new ideas or inspirations

mentoring a preservice or first-year teacher

developing a relationship with a methods course instructor at a local university

nurturing partnerships between schools and local universities.

30 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

The study found that videotaped and criterion-referenced evaluations were more meaningful than a
written examination. Self- and peer evaluation during class was viewed as helpful for individuals to
improve their skills. The videotape helped students visualize their performances better and assess their
skills more accurately.
This form of evaluation had the following positive impact on teaching style:
1. The instructor got to know individual students through the midterm conferences.
2. The role of the instructor changed from the only reference for feedback on performance to one of
several sources.
3. Use of this methodology provided more accurate and adequate feedback to students and a more
defensible final evaluation.
4. Students became skilled at critiquing their own choreography and performance.
A multifaceted approach to designing and assessing a ballet class has positive implications for teaching and
learning. The results of this study can benefit those considering ways of assessing a variety of dance forms.

Successful teachers thoughtfully define problems, spontaneously

generate solutions, and satisfactorily evaluate them. The mark of
success in such a teaching laboratory is not the most perfect
musical product but the most thoughtful musical experience for all
participants. (Gromko, 1995, p. 12)

R E F E R E N C E S
Apfelstadt, H. (1996). Teacher education: A process of becoming. Journal of
Music Teacher Education, 6 (1), 4-5.
Atterbury, B. (1994). Developing reflective music educators. Journal of Music
Teacher Education, 4 (1), 6-12.
The importance of teacher reflection after instruction has been recognized.
Atterbury begins with a brief overview of the origins of reflective and critical
thinking. She notes various methods of reflecting and offers ways for teachers
at all levels to provide opportunities for critical and clear self-reflection.
Bailey, K., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (1998). Undeniable insights: The collaborative
use of three professional development practices. TESOL Quarterly, 32 (3), 546-56.
Three reflective practices and their use as distancing mechanisms to trace
development and learning over time. Journal writing, videotaping, and portfolios
are discussed, along with partner mentors as an important form of analysis.
Barry, N. H. (1996). Promoting reflective practice in an elementary music
methods course. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 5 (2), 6-13.
Reflective practice and ways effective teachers facilitate reflection. This article
is based on a study of the impressions of 45 undergraduate elementary educa-
tion and early childhood education majors, using reflective teaching practices.
Ernst, K. (1998). Take a memo. Teaching Pre-K, 29 (3), 28-29.
The use of faculty memos for analysis of classroom experiences. The premise of
the study was that faculty memos could be a vehicle for communicating about
learning, resulting in more partnerships between teachers and a transforma-
tional classroom environment.
Fenwick, T. J., & Parsons, J. (1998). Autobiographical reflection: Using experi-
ence to create more authentic evaluation. Adult Learning, 9 (3), 21-23.
Autobiographical reflection and its relationship to authentic evaluation. The
authors ask what educators can learn about themselves, and in turn, how
learners and teachers can work more effectively together to determine what
students learn and how they are evaluated.
Gromko, J. E. (1995). Educating the reflective educator. Journal of Music
Teacher Education, 4 (2), 8-13.
Student learning transformation from passive recipients to active participants.
Gromko compares traditional didactic teaching with reflective thinking and sup-
ports teachers who move from the locus of control position that is less rigid and
egocentric.
Sokol, A., & Cranton, P. (1998). Transforming not training. Adult Learning, 9
(3), 14-16.
Transformative learning theory in relation to learners and educators. The
authors argue that education is not linear; it develops through inquiry and revi-
sion of viewpoints.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 31

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Action
Research

T H E O R Y
Many teachers, as they face daily classroom problems, look into the success of
certain approaches and how they spur student learning. Effective teachers
continually seek ways to examine and improve their instructional practices,
frequently by participating in action research.
How does action research differ from traditional research? In action research,
teachers value insights into their own teaching practices. Action research proceeds
differently from other research designs. It pursues a continuous cycle of reflecting,
acting, and thinking as follows:

identifying a problem that warrants action, and thinking about what would be
different if the problem were solved

stating the problem in terms that imply a goal and
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
procedure, and thinking about what evidence is needed for a
Teachers seeking to improve their teaching solution
skills and the educational climate of the

collecting the evidence, journaling, and reflecting with the
classroom can initiate action research projects. use of questionnaires, interviews, observations, tests, surveys,
Successful teachers create a classroom climate note taking, student work, and audio- and videotaping
that makes it possible to deal with problems,
examining, interpreting, organizing, and categorizing
find some solutions and survive evidence to discover emerging patterns and themes
(Foshay, 1998, p. 110).
asking new questions that arise from the data, taking
action, and repeating the cycle.
Action research projects are not limited to an individual teacher in a single
classroom setting. Often, projects are more beneficial when teams undertake them.
For example, collaborative action research might involve several teachers, possibly
across several classrooms, or a schoolwide action research project might involve an
entire faculty and staff. Teachers might also consider sharing their stories and
insights with colleagues by writing and publishing their research.
Teachers who desire to improve their teaching practices find action research well
worth the time and effort. Action research can build teacher self-esteem and
provide support, help, accountability, stimulation, and motivation.

32 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 For those of us who wish to challenge our teaching
methodologies and the ways we evaluate student learning,
conducting action research in our classrooms can lead to
improving our professional skills as well as sharing our positive
results as sources of information and inspiration for others.
(Rutkowski, 1996, p. 62)

R E F E R E N C E S Definition of action research and a step-by-step process.

Calhoun, E. (1993). Action research: Three approaches. Educational
Leadership, 51 (2), 62-66.
Three types of action researchindividual, collaborative, and schoolwide.
Corey, S. M. (1953). Action research to improve school practices. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Often quoted in action research articles.
Foshay, A.W. (1998). Action research in the Nineties. The Educational Forum,
62, 108-112.
History and philosophy of action research. Author gives a practical step-by-step
application for teachers to employ the action research process in the classroom.
Glanz, J. (1999). A primer on action research for the school administrator.
Clearing House, 72 (5), 301-305.
James, L. (1998). Action research. Teaching Music, 5 (5), 42-43, 88.
Conducting music activities with third-grade children. James gives detailed
plans and activities.
Rutkowski, J. (1996). Conducting research in the music classroom. Music
Educators Journal, 82 (5), 42-44, 62.
The need for music teachers at all levels to become involved in action research
and to publish the results.
Stringer, E. T. (1996). Action research: A handbook for practitioners.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
History, philosophy, and methodologies of action research. Stringer provides
research tools to aid teachers in action research.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 33

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Is an effective professional development activity one that is rated

positively by participants in terms of satisfaction with the
experience (often called the happiness quotient)? Most would
agree that the standard must be much higher. Many educators are
now advocating a direct link between the professional development
experience and an observable impact in the classroom before the
term effective can be applied.
(Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1998, p. 2)

34 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Professional
Development
T H E O R Y
Music teachers spend much time preparing and delivering instruction. Because these activities can fully
occupy teachers, they generally have little time available to reflect on teaching, interact with colleagues,
and plan strategies to implement new approaches. While lack of time makes organized professional
development all the more important, it is also a barrier to maximizing the benefits of professional
development. Perhaps the first thing that school administrators and teachers must realize about
professional development is that attending a professional development event does not necessarily produce
the desired results.
The ultimate proof of a professional development program lies in its influence on student performance.
It is not enough for teachers to conceptualize information about teaching; they must implement it
successfully in their classroom practices, as determined by student
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E achievement. Accordingly, the most effective professional development
Music teachers who participate in hands- activities involve the teacher-participants in their own learning and
provide them with supervised hands-on experiences in which they
on, sustained professional development
can receive feedback. Teachers must not only hear about a new
can more effectively examine and educational approach, but they must also learn how to execute it. If
improve their own teaching. they do not actually try it out during their training, they are unlikely
to do so on their own.
Other important traits also characteristize effective professional development. The best activities take
place in school settings and tie in with other schoolwide programs or improvement efforts. Often,
effective professional development allows teachers to select topics and to plan training activities. Perhaps
most important, professional development programs should not consist of one-shot sessions; programs
should be sustained and accompanied by continual support and resources.
When music teachers are allowed to choose their professional development activities, the following
questions can guide their selection process: Does this activity reflect my musical and educational
objectives for students? Does it involve applied and interactive teacher participation? Will my district or
school provide ongoing support and other resources required by the approach that this activity promotes?

R E F E R E N C E
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1998). High-quality professional
development: An essential component of successful schools. Portland, OR:
Author.
Part of the By Request quarterly series that addresses current educational con-
cerns and issues. It draws from a large body of research to suggest guidelines
for making decisions about selecting, designing, and implementing effective
professional development.
Tanner, B., Canady, R. L., & Rettig, R. L. (1995). Scheduling time to maximize
staff development opportunities. Journal of Staff Development, 16 (4), 14-19.
Scheduling options for more effective use of teacher time. The authors consider
the effects of block scheduling on professional development for teachers.
United States Department of Education. (1998). Promising practices: New
ways to improve teacher quality. Washington, DC: Author.
Effective policies and practices in the teaching profession. The importance of provid-
ing professional support to teachers during their early years, and ways to improve
professional development practices, teacher accountability, and incentives.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 35

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Assessment

T H E O R Y
With the implementation of Goals 2000, teachers are now designing curriculum for their own
classrooms. The National Arts Education Standards of 1994, outlining what students should know and
be able to do by the end of fourth, eighth, and 12th grades, offer guidelines for the states. Each state is in
turn responsible for developing outcomes of education, and school districts develop methods of
instruction and assessment.
A recently developed curriculum philosophy, design-down curriculum, allows the teacher to focus
down on the student and deliver up to student needs. The approach has two componentssetting an
instructional goal and designing assessment. The design-down approach begins by identifying a goal of
instruction, knowledge, or skill that the student will demonstrate as a result of instruction. The teacher
then must define scoring criteria for evaluating the student response.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Finally, the teacher must design assessment tasks to be scored by the
The goal of assessment is to improve established criteria that are an outcome of instruction. It is critical for
the teacher to allow sufficient opportunity for skill mastery. Design-
learning. Assessment strategies have
down curriculum adapts to the diverse population of students because
broadened beyond the traditional paper- it is student centered, the approach is flexible, and assessment can be
and-pencil test. As a result of the aligned with instruction.
standards movement, teachers are at Assessment can be traditional, nontraditional, or authentic.
the center of assessment development Traditional assessments include paper-and-pencil tests, standardized
tests, essays, and reports. Nontraditional assessments encompass
in the schools. demonstrations, performances, projects, interviews, story or text
retelling, writing samples, and portfolios. Authentic assessments reflect the nature of the tested skills and
involve multiple forms of measurements. An authentic assessment may include traditional and
nontraditional assessments, rubrics, and constructed responses.
The goal of assessment is to improve learning. Appropriate, authentic assessment can improve learning
in four ways:

by enabling students to learn from their own experiences through the feedback that assessments
provide

by recognizing the multidimensional nature of learning through traditional and nontraditional
measures of assessment

by establishing a collaboration between student and teacher

by helping students understand the purpose and need for assessment as an outgrowth of instruction.
Expanded assessment possibilities are developing at a time when diversity in student population, in
student abilities, and in student backgrounds challenges teachers to provide adequate learning for all.
With the focus on student achievement as measurable, authentic assessments can help the student and
teacher improve teaching and learning.

36 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Assessment of student achievement
plays a vital role in instruction.
The main goal of assessment is to
improve learning.
(Gronlund, 1998, Abstract)

R E F E R E N C E Cope, C. O. (1996). Steps toward effective assessment. Music Educators

Bibliography of Assessment Alternatives: Mathematics. January 1998 Edition.
Innovative Assessment. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on
Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 417 983),
Abstract.
Discussion of alternative assessments is the subject of this article. Alternative
assessment is defined as any assessment in which the student constructs a
response rather than choosing from a list.
Callison, D. (1998). Authentic assessment. School Library Media Activities
Monthly, 14 (5), 42-43, 50.
Types of authentic assessmentinterviews, story or text retelling, writing sam-
ples, projects, experiments, constructed response items, teacher observation,
and portfolios. Assessments are scored with the use of rubrics.
Journal, 83 (1), 39-42.
Current thinking on designing assessments for the music classroom.
Gronlund, N. E. (1998). Assessment of Student Achievement, 6th ed. East
Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 417 221), Abstract.
The importance of assessment as a goal in the improvement of instruction.
Lehman, P. (1999). What kind of learning environment will best facilitate
teaching the skills and knowledge called for in the national standards? Paper
presented at Vision 20/20: The Housewright Symposium on Music Education,
Tallahassee, Florida, September 23-26, 1999.
Assessment in music education for the future. Lehman urges music teachers to
develop authentic assessments.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 37

38 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Teacher
Effectiveness

I I . T E A C H E R S T R A T E G I E S
Preassessment of Student Knowledge

Articulating Goals

Motivational Feedback

Critical Thinking: Musical Problem Solving

Question-Answer Technique

Modeling

Teacher Verbal Instruction

Repetition and Drill

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 39

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Preassessment of
Student Knowledge

T H E O R Y
Teachers who consider student social and emotional development, as well as musical development, often
begin a lesson by presenting a nonmusical preassessment activity, such as telling a story or inviting the
student to take an imaginary journey. Preassessment activities engage the student and help the teacher who
attempts to gauge the levels of student learning readiness. Research indicates that observing preschool-age
students during play affords an important preassessment tool. Through this observation, the teacher will
learn not only the students level in terms of music but also what the child values about music.
Music aptitude testing is considered to be a valid predictor of
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E musical potential. Such evaluations can serve a number of
Teachers who recognize different levels of functions, including predicting what the student can achieve
readiness and aptitude, accommodate many at the time of testing and in the future and indicating
whether the demonstrated ability results from formal training
styles of learning, and offer both cooperative or from innate aptitude. According to Edwin Gordons Music
group and individual activities when they grant Learning Theory, the best way to account for musical
students an individualized entry point to music difference among children is to adapt musical guidance and
instruction to individual musical strengths and weaknesses. A
learning that enhances the learning valid music aptitude test yields the best profile of each childs
environment. musical potential.
Music Learning Theory also stresses Whole/Part/Whole
sequence as a template to organize music content. Using this approach, the synthesis, or Whole stage,
introduces or establishes the topic and what students know about it. This technique is useful in ensemble
classes in which students play or listen to the entire piece of music to be learned. The instructor then
makes comments and takes questions about the nature of the piece before proceeding to the rehearsal of
its sections.
Studies recognize musical intelligence as one of several loosely related multiple intelligences to be
considered in preassessment activities. Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligences (MI) Theory stresses that
the ability to perceive, conceptualize, manipulate through some performance medium, and respond to
aural pitch and rhythm patterns is present in all music learners at different levels of musical intelligence.
Research spotlights four stages of lessons that utilize MI Theory. The first involves awakening the
intelligence through exercises and activities that make use of sensory bases, intuition, or metacognition.
Preassessment exercises for the music classroom involve Webbing or word wall games, stories, fantasy
trips, singing games, edible props, K W L charts (What I Know, What I Want to Know and What Ive
Learned) in individual or cooperative groups, coffee-can theatre games, role playing, personal journal
keeping, riddles, puzzles and brain teasers, music aptitude testing, and the Whole/Part/Whole (synthesis)
approach to instruction.

40 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 The music children have within them, as well as their thoughts
about music, are starting points for understanding their values,
their knowledge, and their needs.
(Campbell, 1998, p. 5)

R E F E R E N C E S
Boyle, J. D. (1990). Evaluation of music ability, in R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook
of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 247-265). New York:
Schirmer.
An overview of the various constructs that are often combined under the head-
ing of musical ability. Boyle explores Gordons theory of musical aptitude in
depth. Howard Gardners MI theory is also examined.
Campbell, P. S. (1998). Songs in their heads: Music and its meaning in chil-
drens lives. New York: Oxford.
The musical lives of young children, using case studies and vignettes that high-
light a diverse population of young music learners.
Christison, M. A. (1996). Teaching and learning languages through multiple
intelligences. TESOL Journal, 6 (1), 10-14.
Strategies and exercises that stress the importance of preassessment, using
Gardners theory of MI across content areas. While written for teachers of limited-
English-speaking students, the article can be useful for music teachers in light of
its high number of preassessment activities stressing musical intelligence.
Gardner, H. (1983). Musical intelligence. Frames of mind: The theory of multi-
ple intelligences (pp. 99-112). New York: Basic Books.
The myriad of choices that composers face as they go through the process of
addressing and using the musical tones that they hear internally. Gardner looks
at the concept of talent and discusses the constant interplay between genetic
and non-genetic factors.
Gordon, E. E. (1999). All about audiation and music aptitudes. Music
Educators Journal, 86 (2), 41-44.
Gordons research, testing instruments and findings for Music Learning theory.
He defines audiation and stresses that children should not sing before they
have learned to listen, likening music learning to language learning.
Kelner, L. B. (1993). The creative classroom: A guide for using creative
drama in the classroom, preK-6. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
More than 50 creative drama activities that can be easily incorporated into pre-
assessment activities at all grade levels. Many of the lessons have preset activities.
Turner, M. E. (1999). Child-centered learning and music programs. Music
Educators Journal, 86 (1), 30-51.
The importance of early childhood music learning. Turner notes that the roots of
child-centered learning extend back to Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Montessori.
He notes that the concept is vital to childrens musical growth and stresses that
early learning experiences are best guided by natural curiosity.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 41

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Articulating
Goals

T H E O R Y
There are two types of goals: behavioral and expressive. A behavioral goal defines specific objectives.
Behavioral goals increase understanding of music concepts. Listening to a performance for a particular
quality, such as crescendo or decrescendo, presents an example of a behavioral goal. Expressive goals relate
to experience from which each individual may draw different conclusions. Outcomes of expressive goals,
dealing with individual reactions, are not measurable. Expressive goals lead to higher levels of thinking.
Learning to listen to music for its aesthetic qualities offers an example of an expressive goal.
Music teachers use both verbal and nonverbal goal articulation
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E strategies. Verbal imagery is a highly effective method for helping
Effective teachers clearly articulate their students understand a desired outcome. By contrast, many effective
teachers use nonverbal methods of goal articulation. Modeling
instructional goals to their students.
teacher demonstration followed by student imitationis a form of
nonverbal goal articulation. Modeling helps students discriminate
between desired and undesired musical effects like precise attacks as opposed to sloppy articulation.
Modeling can be the prelude to independent learning.
Effective teachers relate learning outcomes to the students experience and devise strategies for monitoring
and improving learning. They use language that suits the age and learning levels of the class. Strategies for
improving learning might include keeping a notebook, reviewing the lesson at home, and developing
organizational ideas. In the choir class, the teacher could help students identify recurring musical ideas to
link learning from one section of a composition to another.
Effective teachers set goals for themselves in teaching. They review the daily lesson outside of class,
evaluating both successful and unsuccessful strategies. They may find it necessary to modify the teaching
plan. Teachers can develop insights into practice through keeping a reflective journal.

Teachers promote learning by communicating to

their students just what is expected and why.
(Porter & Brophy, 1988, p. 78)

R E F E R E N C E S Porter, A. C., & Brophy, J. (1988). Synthesis of research on good teaching:

Baxter, S., & Stauffer, S. (1988). Music teaching: A review of common prac-
tice. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding of
the teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 49-62). Potsdam, NY:
Potsdam College of the State University of New York.
Methods for delivering and managing instruction, modeling, problem solving,
and evaluating student progress make up the focus of this article.
Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching and
learning. Bulletin of the Council of Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.
Review of the literature on modeling and verbal instruction as used by music
teachers. The positive uses of modeling are summarized.
Insights from the work of the Institute for Research on Teaching. Educational
Leadership, 45 (May), 74-85.
The results of research on teaching conducted in the 1960s and 1970s are out-
lined with a summary of effective teaching practices.
Runfola, M., & Ruthkowski, J. (1992). General music curriculum. In R. Colwell
(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709).
New York: Schirmer Books.
A review of the literature on general music teaching highlights both positive and
negative findings of general music teaching.

42 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Motivational
Feedback

T H E O R Y
When teachers give students specific positive information about performance and specific ways for them
to improve, they promote growth. This type of verbal feedback helps students know what they are doing
well and what changes would benefit them. Some researchers have found that music teachers often tend
to be more disapproving than approving. They are inclined to be more specific with disapproval and
more general with approval. Music teachers help students improve their skills if they give specific
feedback when approving their performances, as well as specific feedback when suggesting improvement
or correction. Specific approval encourages student attention and positive attitudes.
Recent studies have found additional evidence for the value of approval feedback. Secondary choral
students gave their perceptions of effective versus ineffective feedback, assigning the highest value to
approval feedback that focused on student improvement and the least value to feedback that compared
their accomplishments with those of other students. A study
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E involving nine elementary music specialists who were judged
Teachers use many motivational strategies, excellent revealed that they used a higher rate of approval feedback
such as encouragement, high expectations, than disapproval feedback. They also used specific feedback more
often than general feedback.
peer modeling, group experiences, and
Research studies that support specific approval feedback focus on
specific feedback. Specific feedback has
elementary general music classrooms, private instrumental lessons,
been found to be especially important in and secondary band and chorus groups. All types of music
music learning contexts. instruction benefit from positive and specific feedback.

They (excellent music teachers) reinforced students most frequently

by approving their academic performanceverbal, nonverbal, and
musicalwith specific feedback (Hendel, 1995, p. 196).

R E F E R E N C E S Sequence of instruction and the use of specific feedback when suggesting

Carpenter, R. A. (1988). A descriptive analysis of relationships between verbal
behaviors of teacher-conductors and ratings of selected junior and senior high
school band rehearsals. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 7, 37-40.
Music educators tend to be more specific when giving disapproval and more
general when giving approval.
Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns of
selected music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3),
182-203.
The teaching characteristics of nine excellent elementary general music teachers.
Price, H. E. (1989). An effective way to teach and rehearse: Research sup-
ports using sequential patterns. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 8, 42-46.
improvement.
Siebenaler, D. J. (1997). Analysis of teacher-student interactions in the piano
lessons of adults and children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45
(1), 6-20.
The identification and description of characteristics of effective teaching in the
piano studio.
Schmidt, C. P. (1995). Attributions of success, grade level, and gender as fac-
tors in choral students perceptions of teacher feedback. Journal of Research
in Music Education, 43 (4), 313-329.
Teacher use of approval and disapproval and its relationship with student learn-
ing outcomes in a secondary choral setting.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 43

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Critical Thinking:
Musical Problem Solving

T H E O R Y
Students are better able to think critically in music when they have a broad base of
musical knowledge and experience. They can analyze and invent musical works.
Teachers can encourage students to build a knowledge base. The skill of critical
thinking can transfer to other subject areas, and the skills and strategies of critical
thinking can become automatic.
Several barriers limit use of critical thinking skills. Musical biases develop within
people, hampering their open-minded exploration of music. Groups of people tend
to expect a certain amount of conformity and sometimes exert pressure on
individuals to conform. Critical thinking in music requires the courage to take
risks, think for oneself, and choose ones own musical course of action.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C E How can teachers encourage critical thinking in music?

Teachers can create an environment in which students feel
Music teachers can offer students opportunities
comfortable exploring new musical material and making
to develop critical thinking ability through judgments about their compositions, where they can value and
musical problem solving. Musical problem solving model critical thinking. The ultimate goal is to encourage
students to think for themselves about musical preferences and
involves musical independence and initiative.
ideas. Students can record their performances and work on
solutions to musical problems. Music teachers can provide
specific and positive feedback, giving advice when asked. Students can discuss their
views of compositions or style and explain their beliefs. Teachers can introduce
music that is challenging, requiring students to rethink their ideas. They can pose
questions to lead students to discover aspects of compositions. They can ask
questions that will help students discover relationships among compositions. They
can have students write journals and share their thoughts with others in small
groups. Critical thinking through musical problem solving can access higher-order
thinking skills.

44 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Ultimately, the best advice for music teachers is that they teach for
critical thinking. This means that they must help students explore the
world of musical beliefs and practices by continually exposing them to
new musical experiences and ideas that present some reasonable degree
of challenge to what they already believe. Moreover, teachers must
provide students with ample opportunity to explain, discuss, and
logically justify their musical beliefs. The more critical thinking is
successfully initiated and carried through to its logical conclusion, the
more likely it is to become a habitual and enduring part of the
personality and belief system of the individual.
(Woodford, 1996, pp. 31-32)

R E F E R E N C E S In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp.

Balkin, A. (1985). The creative music classroom: Laboratory for creativity in
life. Music Educators Journal, 71 (5), 43-46.
Suggestions for initiating critical thinking in the music class.
Graham, D. (1998). Teaching for creativity in music performance. Music
Educators Journal, 84 (5), 24-28.
How the director of a performing group can involve performers in the process of
interpretation by focusing on creative choices.
Kaschub, M. (1997). Exercising the musical imagination. Music Educators
Journal, 84 (3), 26-32.
Ways in which students can develop musical thinking skills by being guided in
listening lessons and by participating in composition exercises that help them
imagine sound.
Kenny, W. (1998). Thinking critically in the practice room. Music Educators
Journal, 85 (1), 21-23.
Music educators can increase productive learning by encouraging their students
to think critically before, during, and after each practice session.
Richardson, C., & Whitaker, N. (1992). Critical thinking and music education.
546-557). New York: Schirmer.
A review of the literature of research on critical thinking in music education.
Watkins, R. (1996). Nonperformance time use in high school choral
rehearsals: A follow-up study. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 14 (2), 4-8.
The relationship between the amount of time choral directors spent in nonper-
formance activities, the amount of time spent in developing higher-order think-
ing skills, and years of teaching experience.
Webster, P. (1990). Creative thinking in music: Introduction. Music Educators
Journal, 76 (9), 21.
Webster P. (1990). Creativity as creative thinking. Music Educators Journal,
76 (9), 22-28.
A special focus issue on creative thinking.
Woodford, P. (1996). Developing critical thinkers in music. Music Educators
Journal, 83 (1), 27-32.
Fostering critical thinking skills in students empowers them to control their own
musical growth.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 45

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Of the several techniques that music educators commonly

usemodeling, demonstrating, lecturing, and drawing
analogiesthe technique most likely to engage students
full attention and lead to the deepest thinking and
sensitivity is high-level questioning in the cognitive and
affective domains.
(Kassner, 1998, p. 33)

46 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Question-Answer
Technique

T H E O R Y
Question-answer technique requires the involvement of the student. Students engaged through the
question-answer technique feel particularly attentive in assimilating material, and they feel especially
motivated when they encounter questions in a game format.
The simplest form of question-answer technique, used during and
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E after an explanation, requires the student to repeat or interpret what
Teachers who employ the question-answer was said. This verifies how an explanation has been heard and
technique promote learning because processed mentally, indicating the attentiveness of the listener and
the extent to which he or she can remember verbal details and
students strive to think and find answers maintain sequence. Questions used in conjunction with
independently. explanations repeat the data to help students assimilate the
knowledge in a new varietal approach.
The more complex form of question-answer technique requires the teacher to act as guide. Careful
questioning leads students to answers that demand thought and consideration of prior knowledge in new
ways. They must search for the answer, rather than repeat one previously given. This form of question-
answer technique promotes individual thinking, develops problem-solving skill, and teaches students how
to analyze and judge various situations. Cause and effect are easily explored.
Teachers should use wait time of at least three seconds between question and response. Wait time of five
seconds after the response will give students the opportunity to develop answers more fully. Questions
should be asked before a student is called upon to answer. Teachers can involve all students better if they
call on students who do not raise their hands. Some teachers employ a system using cards with student
names on them. They call on the student whose card is on top, then shuffle the card into the pack. The
teacher who can develop the art of skillful questioning can help nurture personal satisfaction in students,
which builds self-esteem.

R E F E R E N C E S Edwards, R. (1988). Transfer and performance instruction. In C. Fowler (Ed.),

Baxter, S., & Stauffer, S. (1998). Music teaching: A review of common prac-
tice. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding of
the teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 49-62). New York:
Potsdam College of the State University of New York.
Methods of instructional delivery and instructional management, particularly in
terms of proper planning procedures, implementation of plans, modeling, diagnosis
of student performance, and problem solving for both the teacher and the student.
Carson, R. (1956). A sense of wonder. New York: Harper & Row.
Joy in discovering all that is new and different in the world through self-moti-
vating learning is the focus of this wonderfully enlightening account of how chil-
dren teach themselves.
Cziko, G. (1988). Implicit and explicit learning: implications for the applications
to music teaching. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an under-
standing of the teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 89-118).
New York: Potsdam College of the State University of New York.
Attitude affects how much is learned in any one way. A students attitude is
greatly affected by the teachers attitude and approach.
The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding of the teaching and learning
of music performance (pp. 199-142). New York: Potsdam College of the State
University of New York.
The necessity to make students musical thinkers, not musical robots.
Howard, V. A. (1988). Music as educating imagination. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The
Crane symposium: Toward an understanding of the teaching and learning of
music performance (pp. 25-36). New York: Potsdam College of the State
University of New York.
The basics of creativity and critical thinking and the need to teach definitive skills.
Kassner, K. (1998). Would better questions enhance music learning? Music
Educators Journal, 84 (4), 29-36.
Teachers who ask effective and carefully crafted questions may help students
improve their learning performance.
Kassner, K. (1998). Improving your intelligent questioning. Music Educators
Journal, 84 (5), 33-36.
This analysis of questioning and responding techniques serves as a follow-up to
the article in the previous issue by the same author.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 47

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Modeling

T H E O R Y
Modeling and demonstration constitute a widely used teaching tool in instrumental, vocal, and general
music. It is an especially useful teaching strategy in music performance training. A teacher might perform
a musical excerpt to demonstrate a particular musical concept (e.g., legato articulation) or expressive
performance convention (e.g., tapering the phrase). The teacher may then ask students to imitate the
style or expression of the modeled performance. It is assumed, and generally supported by research, that
young music students must have an aural image of a musical concept before they really understand it,
and that their imitative performance of quality aural models precedes the development of their own
performance techniques.
In addition to music performance instruction, modeling is an important component of effective general
music education, and it is seen in the rote techniques of the Orff-Schulwerk and the Kodly approaches.
B E T T E R P R A T I C E The success of such approaches, as well as the enjoyment they
bring to young students, may derive from modeling. Research
Teachers of all grade levels and music subject suggests that effective teachers spend more time demonstrating
areas can use aural modeling and demonstration and modeling than less effective teachers. Also, many music
to effectively teach musical concepts and
students report a preference for instruction that consists of
more musical content and modeling than verbal explanation.
performance techniques.
While some music teachers may contend that aural modeling is
more effective than verbal instruction in teaching music,
research suggests that the two approaches should be used to complement each other. Modeling is
especially effective for teaching musical discriminations to students. For example, young students would
not learn to discriminate between musical timbres based solely on a teachers verbal descriptions such as
dark, brilliant, or thin. One purpose of music education is to teach terminology that describes musical
sound, and only verbal instruction can achieve this. Verbal communication can supply students with
necessary listening cues before hearing a model, and can provide a means for teachers to ensure that
students accurately perceive the focal aspects of models.

R E F E R E N C E S Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 155-159.

Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching and
learning. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.
In reviewing past research studies, the author describes the prominence of
modeling-based music instruction and examines elements of its effectiveness.
Among his conclusions is the assertion that modeling is a more effective strate-
gy than verbal description for teaching musical performance.
Rosenthal, R. K. (1984). The relative effects of guided model, model only,
guide only, and practice only treatments on the accuracy of advanced instru-
mentalists musical performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 32
(4), 265-273.
College music education students prepared a musical excerpt in one of four
practicing conditions. Those students whose practicing included the use of a
recorded aural model of the piece received superior music performance scores.
Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental music
teachers modeling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of the
The relationship between teacher modeling ability and student performance
ability. A positive correlation is reported.
Single, N. A. (1991). A summary of research-based principles of effective
teaching. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 9 (2), 3-10.
Guidelines for successfully carrying out specific activities, such as questioning,
guided practice, and teacher demonstration. The author suggests that modeling
be accompanied by explanation of principles involved.
Tait, M. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook
of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:
Schirmer.
A review of research on various approaches and methods for teaching music.
The reviewer concludes that modeling is a popular and effective strategy in
music education.

48 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Children are natural imitators regardless of the quality of the model;
therefore, in a sophisticated art form such as music, modeling can
greatly affect the quality of the learning. (Tait, 1992, p. 528)

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 49

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

Teacher Verbal
Instruction

T H E O R Y
It is estimated that at least one-third of student time in music classes is occupied by the teachers verbal
communication. In some classrooms, that amount of time can be well over half. Research generally
indicates that teacher verbal usage does not correlate with increased student learning. In fact, more
experienced teachers tend to talk less than inexperienced teachers.
In addition to eliminating unnecessary verbalization, experienced music teachers strive to make verbal
instruction more illustrative, clear, and interactive. When teachers use descriptive musical language that is
technical, conceptual, or metaphoric, they must be careful to use only
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E terminology that students understand. For example, students would be
Verbal instruction is most effective in unable to respond to their teachers instruction to make a performance
more legato or more flowing if they could not define the terms.
promoting learning when it is concise, Questioning students can help them interpret verbal information. Useful
engaging, illustrative, and directed strategies include rhetorical questioning, informal surveying (Raise your
toward student musical behavior. hand if you think . . . ), and guided questioning (i.e., presenting
information to the class through correct answers to focused questions by
the teacher). Feedback to student performers is especially critical to music ensemble directors. Research
has shown positive feedback, or approval based on appropriate music behavior, to be more effective in
promoting student learning.
Teacher verbal instruction in music classes is most effective when it falls in the teaching cycle consisting
of teacher presentation of a task, student response or performance of the task, and specific feedback from
the teacher. When teachers continually complete these sequential patterns of instruction, their verbal
instruction tends to be more efficient because it is directed toward students musical learning, as indicated
by their performance.

Verbal strategies [tend] to be too generalized and teacher initiated

for depth of interaction and communication. The challenge is to use
words that enliven and enrich the musical experience. (Tait, 1992, p. 528)

R E F E R E N C E S Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 103-109.

Goolsby, T. W. (1996). Time use in instrumental music rehearsals: A compari-
son of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 44 (4), 286-303.
Instrumental music rehearsals were videotaped and analyzed according to sev-
eral factors of interest. The experienced ensemble directors in the study led
more diversified rehearsing and talked less in rehearsals.
Goolsby, T. W. (1997). Verbal instruction in instrumental rehearsals: A compar-
ison of three career-level and preservice teachers. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 45 (1), 21-40.
The researcher videotaped and analyzed the rehearsals of band directors of dif-
ferent competency levels (expert, novice, and student teacher). Expert directors
tended to use more specific questioning and complete more sequential pat-
terns of instruction.
Madsen, C. K., & Duke, R. A. (1987). The effect of teacher training on the abili-
ty to recognize the need for giving approval for appropriate student behavior.
Undergraduate music education majors were trained to recognize and reward
appropriate student behavior during music instruction. The authors conclude
that positive teacher feedback to appropriate student behavior is most effective.
Price, H. E. (1992). Sequential patterns of music instruction and learning to
use them. Journal of Research in Music Education, 40 (1), 14-29.
The importance for music teachers of completing sequential patterns of instruc-
tion, which include academic task presentation to students, student response,
and teacher feedback.
Tait, M. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook
of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:
Schirmer.
A review of research on various approaches and methods of teaching music.
Tait discusses nonverbal strategies (e.g., aural and physical modeling) and dif-
ferentiates among several types of verbal instruction.

50 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Repetition
and Drill

T H E O R Y
Singing, playing musical instruments, creating dance movements, and reading notation require various
types of automaticity. It is essential to attain the speed needed to perform and read music with meaning
and accuracy. Careful drill offers the means of achieving this automaticity. Tasks must be reduced to
small components, learned correctly, and repeated until they can be performed quickly and with little
thought. These small parts can combine into larger parts for practice until they become automatic. It is
important for music teachers to remember that the ability to read notation is a separate task from the
physical manipulation of musical instruments and from singing. Sight-reading is a skill that requires
much drill to become automatic.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
Optimum learning takes place when new skills are repeated at least three
Musical skill development requires
times. Repetition should occur 10 minutes after a skill is learned. The skill
students to master automaticity should be repeated again with an intense session of drill within 24 hours. The
the ability to perform a task skill should then be reviewed and repeated within a week. The building of
multiple skills in music is most efficient when students practice their skills
through repetition and drill without
daily, carefully repeating the skills that are not yet automatic.
thinking consciously about it.

The mastery of any skillwhether a routine daily task or a

highly refined talentdepends on the ability to perform it
unconsciously with speed and accuracy while consciously
carrying on other brain functions. (Bloom, 1986, p. 70)

R E F E R E N C E S Gilpatrick, E. (1996). A movement approach to teaching beginning recorder.

Bloom, B. (1986). The hands and feet of genius: Automaticity. Educational
Leadership, 43 (5), 68-77.
The automatic nature of many tasks involved in learning and functioning in var-
ious disciplines.
Buzan, T. (1991). Use both sides of your brain. New York: Penguin.
A guide to harnessing brainpower for creative thinking and problem solving.
Includes memory and automaticity techniques based on research.
General Music Today, 9 (3), 11-14.
Techniques for developing automaticity in recorder playing for beginners.
Peters, G. D., & Miller, R. (1982). Music Teaching and Learning. New York:
Longman.
The chapter on The Psychomotor Component addresses automaticity in musi-
cal skills.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 51

52 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Topics Related
to the
Essential Learner
Outcomes

O U T C O M E I :
P E R C E I V I N G , P E R F O R M I N G , A N D
R E S P O N D I N G A E S T H E T I C E D U C A T I O N
Singing

Sight-Singing

Playing Instruments: Instrumental Music Classes

Playing Instruments: General Music Classes

Movement

Music Reading

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 53

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Singing

T H E O R Y
Singing is one of the most basic performing skills. Children can be taught to sing
accurately. Teachers who encourage singing skill help students participate in and
perpetuate their rich musical heritage. Students also develop understanding of
history and culture.
Before students can learn to sing in rounds or in harmony, they need to be able to
sing in tune, discriminate between pitches, internalize melodies, and keep the beat.
Singing offers the most effective means for teachers to evaluate whether students
are processing tonal information accurately.
Teaching students to sing accurately presents several challenges. Inaccurate singing
results most likely from poor pitch discrimination, inadequate pitch
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E production, poor pitch monitoring, or lack of motivation.
Teachers who engage students in singing Intonation problems can be solved with training in unified vowel
formation, tension control, proper posture, and breath
activities grant them a lifelong skill of management.
musical expression.
Children tend to match pitch best from child to child. The next
best model is female and piano to child, followed by male and piano
to child. The use of male falsetto to help students match pitch continues to be
studied. Success depends on the particular situation. Younger students sing more
accurately in unison with their peers, rather than individually. Girls tend to sing
more accurately than boys.
Participation in singing activities tends to decrease with age, especially for boys.
All children entering adolescence experience a vocal change. At this point, vocal
ranges are the most crucial consideration. Effective teachers select songs with
appropriate vocal ranges and make musical accommodations as necessary.
Most teachers of young students present rote teaching of songs. Studies have
shown that immersion is more effective than phrase-by-phrase rote teaching.
Teachers who introduce the piece in its entirety before students begin singing foster
success because they provide global understanding of the song. Orff and Kodly
approaches are recommended to improve reading skills, even through high school.

54 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 We should be concerned that we have raised a
generation of young people who are unfamiliar with the
rich song heritage that America has to offer. Our people
have been musically silent for too long now, and that
silence is becoming deafening.
(Elliott, 1990, p. 27)

R E F E R E N C E S to sing more accurately than boys.

Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (1994). Dance, music,
theatre, visual arts: What every young American should know and be able to
do in the arts. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
National standards of competency for dance, music, theater, and visual arts.
Elliott, C. A. (1990). Singing in America. Music Educators Journal, 76 (5), 24-27.
History of singing in America and assertion that all schoolchildren need oppor-
tunities to participate in group singing activities.
Giles, M. M. (1991). Choral reading built on the basics. Music Educators
Journal, 77 (6), 26-29.
Orff and Kodly techniques in middle and high school chorus classrooms.
Classroom exercises and a chart of solfge hand signs are included.
Goetze, M., Cooper, N., & Brown, C. (1990). Recent research on singing in the
general music classroom. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 104, 16-37.
Description and categorization of research on singing in the general music
classroom from 1965 to 1990. The most encouraging finding in the literature is
that children can be taught to sing with improved accuracy.
Green, G. A. (1994). Unison versus individual singing and elementary stu-
dents vocal pitch accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (2),
105-114.
Findings that children in grades 1, 2, 3, and 5 sing more accurately in unison
than individually. Results also indicated that in each of the grades, girls tended
Junda, M. E. (1997). Part singing revisited. Music Educators Journal, 97 (6), 35.
Drones, responsorial singing, and ostinatos in the primary grades lead naturally
to polyphonic singing in the upper-elementary grades. Junda recommends that
teachers seek age-appropriate materials and teach sequentially to develop part
singing as stated in the national standards.
Klinger, R., Campbell, P. S., & Goolsby, T. (1998). Approaches to childrens
song acquisition: Immersion and phrase-by-phrase. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 46 (1), 24-34.
Two procedures for teaching songs to childrenimmersion, where the teacher
presents the song in its entirety always from beginning to end, and phrase by
phrase, where the teacher fragments the melody and then gradually connects
song phrases. Results showed that children taught through the immersion
method performed with fewer errors than those taught through the phrase-by-
phrase process.
Mizener, C. P. (1993). Attitudes of children toward singing and choir participa-
tion and assessed singing skill. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41
(3), 233-245.
Participation in singing at home in addition to school leads to positive attitudes
toward singing and choir participation.
Powell, S. (1991). Choral intonation: More than meets the ear. Music
Educators Journal, 77 (9), 40-43.
The factors involved in improving choral intonation. Powell gives several strate-
gies and practical examples addressing specific intonation problems.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 55

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Sight-Singing

T H E O R Y
It is important that students learn to hear music before reading it. The approaches
of Orff, Dalcroze, and Kodly focus on experiencing musical concepts that lead to
music reading and sight-singing. Although these methods predominate at the
elementary level, it has been shown that they are valuable for middle school and
high school students as well.
Sight-singing is usually considered an appropriate skill for middle and high school
choruses. Elementary students, however, need to begin honing ear training, sight-
singing, and notational skills. First-grade students have the most difficulty in
reading notation, possibly because they are still learning the left-to-right
orientation of reading. From the second grade on, students are capable of learning
to read and sight-sing appropriate melodies.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
At the middle school level, research has shown that students are more
Teachers who engage students in daily successful when taught and tested with melodies isolated from the
sight-singing activities encourage musical harmonic context. Adding vocal harmony to sight-singing examples
increases difficulty. Higher pitches are the easiest to hear and match
literacy, musical independence, and
in the early stages of ear training. Later, lower pitches can be added.
self-esteem. The most difficult pitch to hear in a chord is the middle note in
three-part harmony.
For high school choirs, individual testing has been shown to be an effective means
of improving individual sight-singing performance in a group. One example for
implementation is to send a student to a private room with a tape recorder. On
tape, the student should state his or her name, establish key and tempo, and sight-
sing the assigned example. The teacher then evaluates the tape.

56 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Just as learning to speak preceded learning to
read, so aural skills need to precede visual learning
in sight-singing instruction.
(Phillips, 1996, p. 32)
R E F E R E N C E S
Demorest, S. M. (1998). Sight-singing in the secondary choral ensemble: A
review of the research. Bulletin for the Council of Research in Music
Education, 137, 1-15.
Research on sight-singing at the secondary level, 1940-1996. Studies are
divided into two categoriesdescriptive and predictive studiesfocusing on
instructional time, methods, materials, and achievement.
Demorest, S. M. (1998). Improving sight-singing performance in the choral
ensemble: The effect of individual testing. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 46 (2), 182-192.
The efficiency of individual testing for sight-singing skills. Findings indicated
that students who were continually tested individually showed more improve-
ment than the students receiving sight-singing instruction alone.
Lucas, K.V. (1994). Contextual condition and sight-singing achievement of
middle school choral students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42
(3), 203-216.
Middle school choral students, with sight-singing examples of melody alone.
Students had increased difficulty sight-singing in vocal harmony.
Moore, R. S. (1994). Effects of age, sex and melodic/harmonic patterns on
vocal pitch-matching skills of talented 8- to 11-year-olds. Journal of Research
in Music Education, 42 (1), 5-13.
Given harmonic patterns, students were able to match the upper pitch easily, the
lowest pitch with a little difficulty, and the middle pitch with greatest difficulty.
Persellin, D. C. (1992). Responses to rhythm patterns when presented to chil-
dren through auditory, visual, and kinesthetic modalities. Journal of Research
in Music Education, 40 (4), 306-315.
Rhythm patterns for first-, third-, and fifth-grade students through various
combinations of modalities. Third- and fifth-grade students taught through a
combination of modalities demonstrated success. For first-grade students, the
visual method was not as successful as aural and kinesthetic methods.
Phillips, K. H. (1996). Teaching singers to sight-read. Teaching Music, 3 (6),
32-33.
Strategies for incorporating sight-singing in the rehearsal. It also provides a
sample activity for teaching rhythm.
Rutkowski, J. (1996). The effectiveness of individual/small group singing activ-
ities on kindergartners use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 44 (4), 353-368.
Songs, activities, and games presented to individuals or small groups of kinder-
gartners throughout an entire year have a positive effect on the development of
the singing voice.
Yarbrough, C., Green, G., Benson, W., & Bowers, J. (1991). Inaccurate singers:
An exploratory study of variables affecting pitch-matching. Bulletin for the
Council of Research in Music Education, 107, 23-34.
No significant difference between echo responses using solfge, hand signs,
and a neutral syllable; more correct responses to a female model; and more
correct responses for eighth graders than kindergartners, but not eighth graders
and students at other grade levels.
BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 57
TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Playing Instruments:
Instrumental Music Classes

T H E O R Y
Instruction in instrumental music is most effective when it applies sound
educational principles. Foremost, instrumental music teachers must afford
students ample opportunity to respond to musical instruction (i.e., play their
instruments), and feedback must follow performance. A band directors
instruction to the trumpet section to articulate more staccato should immediately
lead to performance, which should bring feedback about the quality of the staccato
articulation. By emphasizing student performance and immediate feedback, more
experienced music teachers give only a few items of instruction at one time and
spend less time talking during rehearsal. Teachers enhance learning in large
ensemble classes when they listen to individuals or small groups of students and
give specific performance feedback accordingly.
Variety also figures critically in quality instruction.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Experienced instrumental music teachers seek a varied selection
Instrumental music education is most effective by choosing music material of different styles or by including a
fun piece that is more immediately accessible and enjoyable.
when teachers direct a variety of in-class music
Experienced teachers also tend to spend more class time on
learning exercises and instruct students to performance activities other than preparing concert music;
practice outside of class. such exercises include warm-ups, scale practice, rhythm and
intonation exercises, and sight-reading. Teachers who direct
nonperformance activities further promote comprehensive musicianship. Listening
to recordings of instrumental music is a valuable approach. Music learning can be
supplemented with singing, composition, and learning the societal role of music
and its relation to other art forms. Research suggests that variety in music
ensemble classes can add to student learning and motivation with no appreciable
loss in performance quality.
Effective instrumental music teachers spend class time training and encouraging
students to engage in individual practice at home. Music researchers offer
convincing evidence that formal individual practice is the most important
contributor to music performance achievement. Practice is most effective for
students when they have specific goals and when they carefully monitor their own
progress during practice sessions. These factors distinguish productive drill in
practice from mindless repetition. Such practice strategies do not come naturally
to young musicians, but music educators can bolster them in several ways.
Teachers can identify practice goals for students by giving specific homework
assignments. They can also involve parents in supervising home practice; parents
need not be musicians themselves to provide valuable structure and direction to
their childrens practice. Because practice is not an inherently gratifying activity,
instrumental music classes should provide incentives, perhaps playing tests, graded
practice logs, or other achievement rewards.

58 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Experienced teachers tend to get on task quickly, spend
more time in warm-up, balance the rehearsal time between
two musical selections followed by a third fun piece or
sight-reading, [and] use more nonverbal modeling.
(Goolsby, 1996, p. 300)

R E F E R E N C E S Price, H. E. (1983). The effect of conductor academic task presentation, con-

Austin, J. R. (1998). Comprehensive musicianship research: Implications for
addressing the national standards in music ensemble classes. Update:
Applications of Research in Music Education, 17 (1), 25-32.
Research that supports the inclusion of comprehensive musicianship education
in music ensemble classes. The research generally suggests that with this
approach, student learning improves with no appreciable loss to overall ensem-
ble performance quality.
Blocher, L., Greenwood, R., & Shellahamer, B. (1997). Teaching behaviors of
middle and high school band directors in the rehearsal setting. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 45 (3), 457-469.
Rehearsal time spent in conceptual music teaching. The researchers suggest
that band directors should go beyond equipping students with the specific skills
needed for the next performance and assist them in understanding more gener-
alized musical concepts.
Goolsby, T. W. (1996). Time use in instrumental music rehearsals: A compari-
son of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 44 (4), 286-303.
Videotaped rehearsals analyzed according to several factors of interest. The
experienced ensemble directors in the study led more diversified rehearsing and
talked less in rehearsals.
ductor reinforcement, and ensemble practice on performers musical achieve-
ment, attentiveness, and attitude. Journal of Research in Music Education, 31
(4), 245-257.
Appropriate approving or disapproving feedback as they affect ensemble per-
formance. The attitude of the college students in the ensemble was also high-
est with the presence of this complete teaching unit (teacher instruction
student responseteacher feedback).
Sloboda, J. A., Davidson, J. W., Howe, M. J. A., & Moore, D. G. (1996). The role
of practice in the development of performing musicians. British Journal of
Psychology, 87 (2), 287-309.
Interviews of instrumental music students, ages 8 to 18, and daily practice
diaries. The researchers also examined students records of achievement on
music performance tests. Results indicated a strong relationship between
cumulated practice time and music performance achievement.
Weerts, R. (1992). Research on the teaching of instrumental music. In R.
Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 577-
583). New York: Schirmer.
Review of research literature on eight topics, including consideration of dropouts
from instrumental music instruction, strategies for improving sight-singing, and
instrumental music class sizes (private vs. group instruction).

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 59

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Playing Instruments:
General Music Classes

T H E O R Y
Effective general music education involves students in varied music activities. In addition to singing,
movement, listening, and composition, students should play instruments in general music classes.
Traditional instrumental exercises include playing nonpitched percussion instruments, recorders, and
melody bells. Diatonic tonebar instruments, popularized by the Orff-Schulwerk approach, afford
valuable performance experiences.
Musical instrument performances lend themselves to teaching certain musical concepts. For example,
rhythmic concepts of beat, ostinato, and subdivision can be effectively illustrated and experienced with
hand drums, wood blocks, and other nonpitched percussion
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E instruments. Similarly, concepts related to pitch, melody, and
General music learning activities should include harmony can be taught through student performance on
recorders and tonebar instruments. Keyboard percussion
playing musical instruments, which contributes
instruments (e.g., melody bells and xylophones) are particularly
to conceptual learning, skill development, and illustrative because of the physical layout of available tones.
attitude development. The visual element assists in teaching highness and lowness of
pitch, and melodic steps and leaps.
In addition to purely musical outcomes, playing instruments can contribute to perceptual motor and
psychomotor development. Perceptual motor development (gross muscle movement) is perhaps most
important for very young or physically challenged students. These skills develop through simple
percussion strokes and other movements common in general music classes. Psychomotor development
(cognitively involved skilled movement) occurs with virtually all instrumental music experiences.
Research also suggests that playing musical instruments has a positive influence on the attitudes of
general music students. Among the variety of music learning activities typically included in classes,
students often report instrumental performance as one of their favorites. In addition to improving
attitudes toward music and music classes, playing musical instruments helps students develop self-
confidence in musical ability. Attitudes improve when general music classesespecially at the secondary
levelcover alternate instrumental components such as instruction in guitar or electronic keyboard and
popular music styles.

60 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Structured movement experiences help increase
understanding of musical concepts. For example, the
most effective way for a student to learn beat is by
feeling the beat through locomotor or non-locomotor
movement [e.g., playing instruments].
(Cutietta, Hamann, & Walker, 1995, p. 45)

R E F E R E N C E S Questionnaire responded to by more than 600 minority students and taped

Cutietta, R., Hamann, D. L., & Walker, L. M. (1995). Spin-offs: The extra-musi-
cal advantages of a musical education. Elkhart, IN: United Musical Instruments.
Reviews of research literature from 1970 to 1992, indicating the positive extra-
musical benefits of school music participation. Included are discussions of the
relationship of music to language achievement, social skills, and psychomotor
development.
Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns of selected
music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3), 182-203.
Nine exceptional elementary music teachers examined quantitatively and quali-
tatively. Results showed that the classes of these teachers involved a consid-
erable variety of student activities, including playing instruments.
Johnson, Y. P. (1994). Preferred general music classroom activities among low-
income, urban-minority middle school students (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio
State University, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55, A1500.
interviews. Results indicated that students preferred creative activities and
playing instruments in general music classes.
Wang, C. C., & Sogin, D. W. (1997). Self-reported versus observed classroom
activities in elementary general music. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 45 (3), 444-456.
Videotaping and analysis of lessons of elementary general music teachers to
determine time spent on various student activities; teachers were also surveyed
about their instructional practices. Results present playing instruments as one
of the principal activities in the classroom.
Wig, J., & Boyle, J. (1982). The effect of keyboard learning experiences on mid-
dle school general music students music achievement and attitudes. Journal
of Research in Music Education, 30 (3), 163-172.
Comparison of the effects of a keyboard learning approach and traditional gen-
eral music lessons on several outcomes of interest, including music achieve-
ment and attitude toward music.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 61

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

There are many ways to demand students attention, but

and I cannot stress this too muchthe teacher who uses the
least amount of talking and the greatest amount of physical
movement and music making (by both the teacher and
students) greatly increases the students level of attention.
(Caldwell, 1993, p. 27)

62 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Movement

T H E O R Y
Teachers who use physical activities in the classroom help students experience abstract concepts in
meaningful, concrete ways. Through movement, students can learn to perform, create, and respond to
music as they internalize concepts and skills. Movement requires full participation, capturing the
attention and efforts of the student. Movement is a tool for expression that helps students with weak
verbal skills. It also nurtures emotions and attitudes that have no language counterpart.
Students can respond to music with various movement activitiesimprovised movement, singing games
and traditional dances, moving appropriately to beat, tempo and other rhythmic characteristics,
demonstrating repetition and contrast, conducting in various meters, and interpreting different styles of
music. Research findings indicate that movement exercises increase understanding of rhythm and
expression for all ages and performing groups.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Younger children are more successful with large motor

coordination. Fine motor skills may be developed with finger
Teachers who present movement activities plays to prepare for playing instruments. Younger students can
encourage students to holistically engage in grasp abstract concepts like high and low with their bodies, or a
the learning experience. complex jazz rhythm performed with body percussion, or tempo
that they feel while walking to the beat as they sing.
Middle school, high school, and adult students can also benefit from movement techniques. Large-scale
movements help relax muscles for tone production, can delineate the line of musical phrases, and
graphically illustrate musical structure and sound quality. Movement in a choral setting can help energize
the sound and increase breath control. Small movements develop muscular independence and
coordination for instrumental study.

R E F E R E N C E S Metz, E. (1989). Movement as a musical response among preschool children.

Caldwell, T. (1993). A Dalcroze perspective on skills for learning. Music
Educators Journal, 79 (7), 27-28, 66.
Principles of Dalcroze eurhythmics and the challenges and learning problems
facing contemporary music educators.
McCoy, C. W. (1989). The effects of movement as a rehearsal technique on
performance and attitude of high school choral ensemble members.
Contributions to Music Education, 16, 7-18.
Movement as a rehearsal technique for high school choirs has a positive impact
on tempo, balance/blend, and attitude.
Mead, V. H. (1996). More than mere movement. Music Educators Journal, 82
(4), 38-41.
Historical introduction to the work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. Mead presents a
short biography and a description of Dalcrozes development of eurhythmics.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 37 (1), 48-60.
Observation of a movement activity in a preschool music class. She provides
an insightful description of the conditions, interactions, and outcomes arising
from the observation.
Phillips, K. (1985). The effects of group breath-control training on the singing
ability of elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3),
179-191.
Physical-conditioning exercises as part of the breath management training for
students in grades 2, 3, and 4. Results showed improvement in breathing tech-
nique, vocal range, vocal intensity, and pitch accuracy.
Phillips, E., & Aitchison, R. E. (1997). Effects of psychomotor instruction on
elementary general music students singing performance. Journal of Research
in Music Education, 45 (2), 185-196.
Psychomotor instruction group demonstrates improved breath support, breath
control, range, and pitch accuracy.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 63

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Music
Reading

T H E O R Y
The many parallels between music reading and language reading include auditory, visually
discriminatory, mentally associative, and eye-motor coordination skills. The acts of reading music and
words both involve scanning the page from left to right followed by a return sweep of the eyes. The
process continues from the top to the bottom of the page. The goal of language reading is literacy, but
literacy in music reading is not so clearly defined.
Eye movements play a part in music reading. Less skilled readers spend more time looking at notes of
longer duration. More skilled readers take in groups of notes (patterns) and are more likely to look ahead
in the musical score. This habit, called chunking, explains how trained readers can process information
more quickly.
Using multiple methods of presentation increases music
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E reading skill. Computer-assisted instruction, coupled with
As students become more skilled in music teacher explanation and auditory presentations, and then
reading, they take in groups of notes combined with visual presentations, helps students learn more
quickly and with greater retention of patterns. Mnemonic
(patterns) and are more likely to look ahead devices create another way to link together known and
in the musical score. unknown material. Composing, performing, and listening lead
to improved music reading.
Rhythm is more difficult to grasp in the visual form than melody. Rhythmic factors are more likely to
limit the rate and accuracy of reading than melodic factors. Study results show that training can improve
the kinesthetic response to rhythm.
Some students have difficulty learning to read music. Alternative forms of notation may help students
who struggle with learning to read music the traditional way. In many of todays classrooms, guitar
players use tablature, a notation scheme especially suited to the six-stringed instrument. A variety of
musical representations in computer sequencing and notation software packages do not require
knowledge of traditional music notation.
Some general findings from research suggest the following guidelines for developing music reading skills:
Use more than one mode of presentation; couple the visual rhythmic pattern with the sound; devise
simplified systems to represent rhythms to help students internalize patterns; dedicate time to the task;
and design instruction for a specific classroom, taking student interest into account. The rhythmic
learning systems of Dalcroze, Kodly, and Gordon provide valuable approaches for organizing
instruction.

64 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 Experienced music readers read ahead of the point of
performance in units or chunks. This previewing allows
the eye to fixate on structurally important features, such
as chords and skip over less important details.
(Hodges, 1992, p. 466)

R E F E R E N C E S Hahn, L. (1987). Music reading and language reading: Correlations in

Bartholomew, D. (1981). Reading for meaning: Parallels in music and lan-
guage. Contributions to Music Education, 9, 71-76.
Philosophical study of the term musical literacy, the meaning of reading
music, and the intrinsic benefits of reading music.
Boyle, J. D. (1970). The effect of prescribed rhythmical movements on the
ability to read music at sight. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18 (4),
307-318.
An experiment to improve rhythm sight-singing. Students in the experimental
group received specific instruction and practice in rhythmic playing and reading.
Results indicate that the experimental group scored significantly better than the
control group.
Deal, J. J. (1985). Computer-assisted instruction in pitch and rhythm error
detection. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3), 159-166.
Computer-Assisted Program in Error Detection (CA-PED) as an effective method
for developing that skill in college music education majors through a compari-
son with an effective error detection program, the Program in Error Detection
(PED). Results indicated significant gains in error detection in both groups.
Gaare, M. (1997). Alternatives to traditional notation. Music Educators
Journal, 83 (5), 17-23.
Historical review of notation. Several alternative systems of notation are outlined.
Goolsby, T. W. (1988). The parameters of eye movement in vocal music read-
ing. [CD-ROM]. Abstract from: ProQuest File: Dissertation Abstracts Item
8721641.
Six parameters of the eye movements of graduate music students measured
with SRI Eyetracker. The less skilled music readers spent more time looking at
notes of long duration than more skilled music readers who moved quickly from
long notes to the next pattern of music.
processes and instruction. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 93, 41-48.
Two beginning public school elementary string classes. A significant difference
in favor of the experimental group on the music reading and sight-singing tasks
supports the researchers hypothesis that reading instruction that focuses on
whole-to-part strategies can facilitate music reading skill.
Hodges, D. A. 1992). The acquisition of music reading skills. In R. Colwell
(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 466-471).
New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Basic research on music reading, applied research on music reading, and com-
mentary on music reading research.
Persellin, D. C. (1992). Response to rhythm patterns when presented to chil-
dren through auditory, visual, and kinesthetic modalities. Journal of Research
in Music Education, 40 (4), 306-315.
The effect of three rhythm presentation modalities on the recall of rhythm pat-
terns of first-, third-, and fifth-grade children. Children were tested using visu-
al, auditory, and kinesthetic input. Findings suggest that using multiple learning
modalities in teaching style can result in more effective music learning.
Shehan, P. K. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on rhythm learn-
ing and retention. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35 (2), 117-126.
The effects of aural and visual approaches to rhythm reading and short-term
retention. Second- and sixth-grade students were presented with rhythm pat-
terns in four modes. Results indicated that the simultaneous use of auditory and
visual channels facilitated learning and retention of rhythms at both grade levels.

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 65

66 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Topics Related
to the
Essential Learner
Outcomes

O U T C O M E I I :
H I S T O R I C A L , C U L T U R A L , A N D
S O C I A L C O N T E X T

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 67

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Historical, Cultural, and

Social Context

T H E O R Y
Presenting repertoire arising from numerous cultural groups can teach students
who the music-makers are, where they live, how they dress, and what they think
about the music they perform. Studies suggest that selecting repertoire with
consideration for direct analogies to the lives of students can lead students to make
value judgments about the music and can help them understand the role that
music plays in their lives.
Effective teachers select repertoire and teaching materials that
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E allow students to perceive how the music relates to their life
Teachers who stress cultural-contextual experiences, drawing repertoire from the various cultural
information that offers comprehensive, groups within the school community. Cultural brokers or
informants can introduce and reinforce knowledge about the
integrated, and interdisciplinary experience help
music and culture. They use audio and video recreations of
students understand that the meaning of music music and performances of native artists to enhance
and the other arts is culturally relative. understanding and to illustrate the deep connections between
music and its social and cultural contexts.
Drawing comparisons between art forms across cultures is an important aspect of
music teaching. Research indicates that analysis of music traditions for their shared
elements with other traditions should proceed cautiously and recognize that music
consists of features that appear in cross-cultural contexts. For example, students
can be made aware that aspects of aural learning, imitation, and improvisation play
a role in a number of world music cultures.
Teachers who stress historical perspective in the development of a particular
concept, event, or instrument help students blend previous knowledge with
informed cultural inquiry. Pointing out that Gregorian chant bears a relationship
to Middle Eastern cantillation can be a starting point for musical learning. In
another example, Fowler (1993) notes that Marian Andersons 1939 Easter Sunday
concert at the Lincoln Memorial is an example of how music reflects its time and
circumstance.

68 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

 One of the great attributes of all music and all the arts is
that they characterize their age, distinguishing our
relationship to time by showing us as we were yesterday
and as we are today.
(Fowler, 1993, p.17)
R E F E R E N C E S
Blacking, J. (1995). Music, culture and experience. In R. Brown (Ed.), Music
culture and experience: Selected papers of John Blacking (pp. 223-242).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
The importance of understanding music as a human capability and its potential
as an intellectual and affective force in human communication, society, and
culture. Blacking proposes that educators could use music to enhance general
education and to help build peaceful, prosperous societies.
Fowler, C. (1994). Redefining the mission of music education: Teaching the
value of music. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Winds of change: A colloquium on
music education with Charles Fowler and David J. Elliott (pp. 4-20). New York:
American Council for the Arts.
Three realities that Fowler perceives as obstacles that compromise American
music education. Elliott proposes a value-centered music education that
enhances the prospects of music in society and education.
Huang, H. (1997). Music appreciation class: Broadening perspectives. Music
Educators Journal, 84 (2), 29-33.
Ways to integrate non-Western elements into standard music appreciation sur-
vey courses. Huang notes that exploring cross-relationships between Western
and non-Western music forms is an effort to become sensitive to the richness
and complexity of history.
Shehan Campbell, P. (1991). Lessons from the world: A cross-cultural guide
to music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Schirmer.
Music teaching and learning reflecting a cross-cultural awareness through
study, observation, and research. Emphasis of the text extends to the aural and
creative components of music teaching and learning as part of a shared human
phenomenon.
Shehan Campbell, P. (1992). The world of music through American eyes: A case
for multiethnic consciousness in teaching the worlds music traditions. In H. Lees
(Ed.), Proceedings of the 20th world conference of the International Society for
Music Education (pp. 32-42). International Society for Music Education.
American society, its schools and musical traditions favored by newer
Americans of various ethnic and cultural traditions. Campbell raises some
challenges educators face in considering these traditions and poses possible
solutions that musicians and educators may adopt in teaching the worlds
musical traditions.
Shehan Campbell, P. (1995). Music, education and society in a multicultural
society. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Cross currents: Setting an agenda for music
education in community culture. (pp. 4-33). College Park, MD: University of
Maryland.
The backlash of the multiculturalism movement. Campbell notes that the
maintenance of the disciplinary core of music is central to the mission of music
educators. She suggests that political correctness interferes with our efforts as
musicians and teachers.
Stellaccio, C. K. (1996). Multicultural music education and the problem of
context. Maryland Music Educator, 43 (2), 26-27.
Ways of building context in the multicultural music education curriculum. She
notes that context building requires matching the content of the curriculum to
the life experiences of the students.
BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 69
70 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Topics Related
to the
Essential Learner
Outcomes

O U T C O M E I I I :
C R E A T I V E E X P R E S S I O N
A N D P R O D U C T I O N
Environments Conducive to Learning

Improvisation

Composition

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 71

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Environments Conducive
to Learning

T H E O R Y
Teachers know that critical thinking is important for students to develop and refine
their skills, and that encouragement provides a positive experience. Certain
assessment practices block creativity. The goal of assessment should be
improvement, rather than criticism. Students need to be part of the assessment
process. Students can learn to devise multiple solutions, choose and refine ideas,
and develop reflective skills. Checklists and rating scales can be useful. Oral or
written peer and teacher responses also play a role. Portfolios, in the form of
recordings, can show progress. Performance of the creative product may be the
most valuable approach to assessment.
In an environment that is conducive to creativity, teachers
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E avoid excessive surveillance, extrinsic reward systems,
Teachers who provide positive and supportive competition in which only one student can win, too much
environments help students feel sufficiently
teacher control, restriction of choice in activities, pressure of
teacher expectations, and time limits
secure to create and share their musical ideas.

A positive, reinforcing, and accepting climate is a basic ingredient

necessary for nurturing creative behavior.
(Webster & Hickey, 1995, p. 7)

R E F E R E N C E S
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.
New York: Harper Collins.
Thirty years of research contribute to the authors flow theory.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery
and invention. New York: Harper Perennial.
Flow theory explains the creative process and shows how creativity enriches
people.
Goleman, D., Kaufman, P., & Ray, M. (Eds.). (1992). The creative spirit. New
York: Penguin.
Ways teachers can encourage and discourage creativity.
Rohwer, D. (1997). The challenge of teaching and assessing creative activities.
Update, 15 (2), 8-12.
Webster, P., & Hickey, M. (1995). Challenging children to think creatively.
General Music Today, 8 (3), 4-10.
A detailed model of the creative process.

72 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Improvisation

T H E O R Y
Students can approach improvisational activities by relaxing, listening, and thinking. They explore the
instrument silently, visuallytouching and looking at it. They can begin to explore the sounds of the
instrument. Children put the sounds together into patterns as they continue to explore. The patterns
can be tonal as well as rhythmic. Students develop a vocabulary of patterns by imitating the teacher and
each other, and by experimenting. They begin to organize the patterns.
In the next step of development, students apply the melodic or
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E rhythmic organizational structure. They might play or sing
Teachers who cover improvisation in their their patterns with a steady beat or in a certain meter. Their
melodic patterns can be in a major or minor tonality. As
instruction help students sharpen skills students master the ability to perform these patterns
according to their developmental level of automatically, they do not have to think much about the
musical knowledge and ability. fingering or about manipulating the instrument. They perform
the patterns smoothly, and patterns flow from one to the next
with melodic and rhythmic variation.
Playing automatically allows the students to concentrate on larger structures. Students can apply the
patterns to various forms such as ABA, rondo, and theme and variations. At this level of development,
students enjoy sharing their improvisations with others. Teachers can encourage students to think of
style. Teacher modeling and the use of recordings can introduce students to various improvisational
styles. Advanced students may invent their own styles.

Improvisation is not simply an intuitive musical behavior, nor is it only an

activity reserved for the most proficient musicians. It is both, and
improvisation can and should be a meaningful part of every students music
education, from preschool through adulthood. (Kratus, 1991, p. 40)

R E F E R E N C E S Flohr, J. (1985). Young childrens improvisations: Emerging creative thought.

Campbell, P. S. (1991). Unveiling the mysteries of musical spontaneity. Music
Educators Journal, 78 (4), 21-24.
Discussion of the importance of teaching improvisation. An introduction to the
focus of this issue of the MEJ on improvisation.
Farber, A. (1991). Speaking the musical language. Music Educators Journal,
78 (4), 30-34.
Dalcroze specialist offers ideas on teaching performing musicians to be impro-
visers.
Flohr, J. (1979). Musical improvisation behavior of young children.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Behaviors of young children while engaged in improvisation.
Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 10, 79-85.
Musical characteristics of the improvisations of young children.
Goldstaub, P. (1996). Opening the door to classroom improvisation. Music
Educators Journal, 82 (5), 45-51.
Student experiments with sound, rhythm, language, visual stimuli, and form can
lay the groundwork for creative improvisation.
Kratus, J. (1991). Growing with improvisation. Music Educators Journal, 78
(4), 35-40.
The phenomenon of improvisation and suggestions for a learning sequence.
Kratus, J. (1990). Structuring the music curriculum for creative learning.
Music Educators Journal, 76 (9), 33-37.
A systematic approach for organizing students creative learning in music.

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TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Composition

T H E O R Y
In music composition activities, effective teachers guide students in using the
musical knowledge they bring to the classroom. Teachers can design composition
assignments with minimal restrictions, focusing on musical, rather than extra
musical, aspects of the task. Students can develop ideas for their compositions
from basic musical elements such as style, texture, and expressiveness. It is best to
provide broad parameters. The teacher may specify a form such as AB or ABAB, a
metric design like a drum part that moves in fives, a textural structure like a round
or a melody with accompaniment, or a series of chords to which the student sings
or plays a melody. Conversely, giving students a rhythm or melodic pattern from
which to work may hamper their natural creativity.
Another impediment to creativity is notation. When faced with the requirement
to notate, children simplify their musical ideas, making it easier to notate them.
Children who practice and refine their compositions will remember them without
writing them down. They can record their compositions to store them.
Teachers should respond to student compositions in a manner that
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E validates the students work. Depending on the strengths or
Composition requires planning beyond weaknesses of the compositions, teachers can modify the curriculum
improvisation and spontaneity. It involves and spur the musical independence of their students.

developing the ability to replicate a

performance. Teachers need to plan and
carry out compositional exercises that
nurture student originality.

R E F E R E N C E S One students performing, creating, and listening experiences in a fifth-grade

Henry, W. (1996). Creative processes in childrens musical compositions: A
review of the literature. Update: Application of Research in Music Education,
15 (1), 10-15.
A guide for teachers to help them understand the creative process in order to
set instructional and behavioral objectives.
Wiggins, J. (1999). Teacher control and creativity. Music Educators Journal,
85 (5), 30-35, 44.
Compositional experiences to foster creative processes and augment teachers
assessment efforts.
Wiggins, J. (1995). Building structural understanding: Sams story. The
Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 6 (3), 57-75.
general music classroom over a period of five months.
Wiggins, J. (1994). Childrens strategies for solving compositional problems
with peers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (3), 232-252.
Strategies that seemed to follow a pattern of moving from whole to part and
back to whole, used by children who were successful in completing class
assignments. There were very few instances of random exploration.
Wiggins, J. (1992). The nature of childrens musical learning in the context of a
music classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
Identification of important trends influential in the cognitive processing of two
children during performing, creating, and listening experiences.

74 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION

Students need opportunities to make music on their
ownwithout unnecessary teacher controls. If we offer
our students such opportunities, we will see them soar
in ways none may have thought possible.
(Wiggins, 1999, p. 35)

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 75

76 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION
Topics Related
to the
Essential Learner
Outcomes

O U T C O M E I V :
A E S T H E T I C C R I T I C I S M
Aesthetic Criticism

BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION 77

TOPICS RELATED TO THE ESSENTIAL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Aesthetic
Criticism

T H E O R Y
Aestheticians ask questions such as: What is a work of art? How does one relate to a work of art? Are there
universal aesthetic criteria? Maxine Greene asks, What is it about the Ode to Joy that makes me feel as if
I am coming in touch with some transcendent reality (Greene, 1991, p. 29)? Meaning is not in the work
of art but in the viewers perception of it. Aesthetic criticism involves three considerations: the created
object (work of art), its inner structure, and the meaning derived from engagement with the work.
Some philosophers of music education believe that it is responsible
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E for teaching young people to make aesthetic judgments. The
Aesthetic criticism involves judging, Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes offer a framework for the
classroom teacher to guide aesthetic learning with the stated outcome:
evaluating, and responding to a work of
The student will demonstrate the ability to make aesthetic
art or music. As a subjective reaction, judgments. The outcome lists two expectations of aesthetic
aesthetic education can be said to educate education: The student will evaluate selected musical compositions
using established criteria, and the student will formulate, apply, and
and refine ones human responses.
communicate criteria for evaluating his or her performances and those
of others.
Students who develop skills for evaluating music compositions are able to make and defend judgments
about works of music. They understand the elements of music sufficiently to speak about harmony,
timbre, texture, form, rhythm, and melody knowledgeably. Drawing from an appropriate example as a
model, students acquire the ability to compare and contrast other compositions. Criteria for evaluation
emerge in the process. Students formulate and revise standards to judge their own performances and
those of others. Teachers can assist them in forming models for critiquing by providing recordings of
exemplary solo and group performances.

We want to enable all sorts of young people to realize that they have the right to
achieve works of art as meaningful against their own lived lives. Because the world
that the arts illumine is a shared world . . . because the realities to which they give
rise emerge through acts of communication, the encounters being sought are never
wholly autonomous or private. (Greene, 1991, p. 38)

R E F E R E N C E S treatment of music education philosophy goes beyond European classical music

Gonzo, C. (1992). Toward a rational critical process. In R. Colwell (Ed.),
Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709). New
York: Schirmer Books.
The nature of criticism and its applications.
Greene, M. (1991). Arts are more than entertainment. Harvard Educational
Review, 61 (1), 27-39.
The necessity for aesthetic education in the schools.
Jorgensen, E. R. (1997). In search of music education. Urbana, IL: University
of Illinois Press.
What is music education? and What ought it to be? Jorgensens inclusive
to include the feminist and cross-cultural perspectives. Jorgensen includes
suggestions for what should be included in this worldview.
Maryland State Department of Education. (1997). Music: Essential learner
outcomes. Baltimore, MD: Author.
Reimer, B. (1989). A philosophy of music education (2d ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
A better practice for the development of a philosophy of music education.
Sibbald, M. J. Aesthetic criticism in the music classroom. Music Educators
Journal, 80 (2), 30-33.

78 BETTER MUSIC EDUCATION