Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The simplest way to convey a fluid, in a contained system from Point A to Point B, is by means of a
conduit or pipe (Fig. 1).
Contents
[hide]
1 Piping design
2 Bernoulli equation
6 Multiphase flow
6.1.1 Bubble
o 6.3 Simplified friction pressure drop approximation for two phase flow
8 Nomenclature
9 References
11 External links
12 See also
Piping design
The minimum basic parameters that are required to design the piping system include, but are not
limited to, the following.
The distance between Point A and Point B (or length the fluid must travel) and equivalent
length (pressure losses) introduced by valves and fittings.
These basic parameters are needed to design a piping system. Assuming steady-state flow, there
are a number of equations, which are based upon the general energy equation, that can be
employed to design the piping system. The variables associated with the fluid (i.e., liquid, gas, or
multiphase) affect the flow. This leads to the derivation and development of equations that are
applicable to a particular fluid. Although piping systems and pipeline design can get complex, the
vast majority of the design problems encountered by the engineer can be solved by the standard flow
equations.
Bernoulli equation
The basic equation developed to represent steady-state fluid flow is the Bernoulli equation which
assumes that total mechanical energy is conserved for steady, incompressible, inviscid, isothermal
flow with no heat transfer or work done. These restrictive conditions can actually be representative of
many physical systems.
(Eq. 1)
where
P = pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
V = velocity, ft/sec,
and
(Eq. 2)
and
(Eq. 3)
where
HL = head loss, ft,
V = velocity, ft/sec,
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
(Eq. 4)
where
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
(Eq. 5)
where
= viscosity, cp,
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
(Eq. 6)
where
= viscosity, cp,
an
d
The Moody friction factor, f, expressed in the previous equations, is a function of the Reynolds
number and the roughness of the internal surface of the pipe and is given by Fig. 3. The Moody
friction factor is impacted by the characteristic of the flow in the pipe. For laminar flow, where Re is <
2,000, there is little mixing of the flowing fluid, and the flow velocity is parabolic; the Moody friction
factor is expressed as f = 64/Re. For turbulent flow, where Re > 4,000, there is complete mixing of
the flow, and the flow velocity has a uniform profile; f depends on Re and the relative roughness
(/D). The relative roughness is the ratio of absolute roughness, , a measure of surface
imperfections to the pipe internal diameter, D. Table 9.1 lists the absolute roughness for several
types of pipe materials.
Table 1
If the viscosity of the liquid is unknown, Fig. 4 can be used for the viscosity of crude oil, Fig. 5 for
effective viscosity of crude-oil/water mixtures, and Fig. 6 for the viscosity of natural gas. In using
some of these figures, the relationship between viscosity in centistokes and viscosity in centipoise
must be used
(Eq. 7)
where
= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,
and
SG = specific gravity.
Fig. 4Standard viscosity/temperature charts for liquid petroleum products (courtesy of ASTM).
Fig. 6Hydrocarbon-gas viscosity vs. temperature (courtesy Western Supply Co.).
General equation
Eq. 3 can be expressed in terms of pipe inside diameter (ID) as stated next.
(Eq. 8)
where
and
(Eq. 9)
where
Table 2
(Eq. 10)
General equation
The general equation for calculating gas flow is stated as
(Eq. 11)
where
L = length, ft,
and
Assumptions: no work performed, steady-state flow, and f = constant as a function of the length.
Simplified equation
For practical pipeline purposes, Eq. 11 can be simplified to
(Eq. 12)
where
T = flowing temperature, R,
and
L = length, ft.
Three simplified derivative equations can be used to calculate gas flow in pipelines:
All three are effective, but the accuracy and applicability of each equation falls within certain ranges
of flow and pipe diameter. The equations are stated next.
Weymouth equation
This equation is used for high-Reynolds-number flows where the Moody friction factor is merely a
function of relative roughness.
(Eq. 13)
where
L = length, ft,
Panhandle equation
This equation is used for moderate-Reynolds-number flows where the Moody friction factor is
independent of relative roughness and is a function of Reynolds number to a negative power.
(Eq. 14)
where
E = efficiency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average
operating conditions: 0.85),
Lm = length, miles,
an
d
Spitzglass equation
(Eq. 15)
where
Qg = gas-flow rate, MMscf/D,
and
Assumptions:
T = 520R,
P1 = 15 psia,
Z = 1.0,
and
P = < 10% of P 1 .
Weymouth equation
The Weymouth equation is recommended for smaller-diameter pipe (generally, 12 in. and less). It is
also recommended for shorter lengths of segments ( < 20 miles) within production batteries and for
branch gathering lines, medium- to high-pressure (+/100 psig to > 1,000 psig) applications, and a
high Reynolds number.
Panhandle equation
This equation is recommended for larger-diameter pipe (12-in. diameter and greater). It is also
recommended for long runs of pipe ( > 20 miles) such as cross-country transmission pipelines and
for moderate Reynolds numbers.
Spitzglass equation
The Spitzglass equation is recommended for low-pressure vent lines < 12 in. in diameter (P < 10%
of P1).
The petroleum engineer will find that the general gas equation and the Weymouth equation are very
useful. The Weymouth equation is ideal for designing branch laterals and trunk lines in field gas-
gathering systems.
Multiphase flow
Flow regimes
Fluid from the wellbore to the first piece of production equipment (separator) is generally two-phase
liquid/gas flow.
The characteristics of horizontal, multiphase flow regimes are shown in Fig. 8. They can be
described as follows:
Bubble: Occurs at very low gas/liquid ratios where the gas forms bubbles that rise to the top
of the pipe.
Plug: Occurs at higher gas/liquid ratios where the gas bubbles form moderate-sized plugs.
Stratified: As the gas/liquid ratios increase, plugs become longer until the gas and liquid
flow in separate layers.
Wavy: As the gas/liquid ratios increase further, the energy of the flowing gas stream causes
waves in the flowing liquid.
Slug: As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase
until the crests contact the top of the pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Spray: At extremely high gas/liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowing-gas
stream.
Fig. 9[1] shows the various flow regimes that could be expected in horizontal flow as a function of the
superficial velocities of gas and liquid flow. Superficial velocity is the velocity that would exist if the
other phase was not present.
[1]
Fig. 9Horizontal multiphase-flow map (after Griffith).
The multiphase flow in vertical and inclined pipe behaves somewhat differently from multiphase flow
in horizontal pipe. The characteristics of the vertical flow regimes are shown in Fig. 10 and are
described next.
Bubble
Where the gas/liquid ratios are small, the gas is present in the liquid in small, variable-diameter,
randomly distributed bubbles. The liquid moves at a fairly uniform velocity while the bubbles move up
through the liquid at differing velocities, which are dictated by the size of the bubbles. Except for the
total composite-fluid density, the bubbles have little effect on the pressure gradient.
Slug flow
As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests
contact the top of the pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Transition flow
The fluid changes from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase. The liquid slugs
virtually disappear and are entrained in the gas phase. The effects of the liquid are still significant,
but the effects of the gas phase are predominant.
Table 3
L = length, ft,
and
(Eq. 17)
where
and
(Eq. 18)
where
T = operating temperature, R,
SG = specific gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft3,
and
In downhill lines, flow becomes stratified as liquid flows faster than gas.
The depth of the liquid layer adjusts to the static pressure head and is equal to the friction
pressure drop.
In low gas/liquid flow, the flow in uphill segments can be liquid "full" at low flow rates. Thus,
at low flow rates, the total pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drops for all of the uphill
runs.
With increased gas flow, the total pressure drop may decrease as liquid is removed from
uphill segments.
The pressure drop at low flow rates associated with an uphill elevation change may be approximated
with Eq. 19.
(Eq. 19)
where
The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill
segment.
Resistance coefficients
The head loss in valves and fittings can be calculated with resistance coefficients as
(Eq. 20)
where
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
The resistance coefficients Kr for individual valves and fittings are found in tabular form in a number
of industry publications. Most manufacturers publish tabular data for all sizes and configurations of
their products. One of the best sources of data is the Crane Flow of Fluids, technical paper No.
410. [3] The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (NGPSA) Engineering Data Book[4] and Ingersoll-
Rands Cameron Hydraulic Data Book[5] are also good sources of references for the information.
Some examples of resistance coefficients are listed in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4
Table 5
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Flow coefficients
The flow coefficient for liquids, CV, is determined experimentally for each valve or fitting as the flow of
water, in gal/min at 60F for a pressure drop of 1 psi through the fitting. The relationship between flow
and resistance coefficients can be expressed as
(Eq. 21)
In any fitting or valve with a known CV, the pressure drop can be calculated for different conditions of
flow and liquid properties with Eq. 22.
(Eq. 22)
where
and
Again, the CV is published for most valves and fittings and can be found in Crane Flow of Fluids,
Engineering Data Book,[4] Cameron Hydraulic Data Book,[5] as well as the manufacturers technical
[3]
data.
Equivalent lengths
The head loss associated with valves and fittings can also be calculated by considering equivalent
"lengths" of pipe segments for each valve and fitting. In other words, the calculated head loss caused
by fluid passing through a gate valve is expressed as an additional length of pipe that is added to the
actual length of pipe in calculating pressure drop.
All of the equivalent lengths caused by the valves and fittings within a pipe segment would be added
together to compute the pressure drop for the pipe segment. The equivalent length, Le, can be
determined from the resistance coefficient, Kr, and the flow coefficient, CV, using the formulas given
next.
(Eq. 23)
(Eq. 24)
and
(Eq. 25)
where
and
Table 6 shows equivalent lengths of pipe for a variety of valves and fittings for a number of standard
pipe sizes.
Table 6
Nomenclature
Z = elevation head, ft,
P = pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
V = velocity, ft/sec,
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
= absolute viscosity, cp
T = operating temperature, R,
References
1. Jump up to:1.0 1.1 Griffith, P. 1984. Multiphase Flow in Pipes. J Pet Technol 36 (3): 361-367. SPE-
12895-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895-PA.
2. Jump up to:2.0 2.1 Taitel, Y., Bornea, D., and Dukler, A.E. 1980. Modelling flow pattern transitions for
steady upward gas-liquid flow in vertical tubes. AIChE J. 26 (3): 345-
354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304.
3. Jump up to:3.0 3.1 Crane Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410. 1976. New York City: Crane
Manufacturing Co.
4. Jump up to:4.0 4.1 Engineering Data Book, ninth edition. 1972. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Natural Gas
Processors Suppliers Assn.
5. Jump up to:5.0 5.1 Westway, C.R. and Loomis,A.W. ed. 1979. Cameron Hydraulic Data Book,
sixteenth edition. Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey: Ingersoll-Rand.
Fuente: http://petrowiki.org/Pressure_drop_evaluation_along_pipelines