N3110 3

Chapter 3
Vector Analysis
Contents
3.1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3.1.1 Equality of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.1.3 Position and Distance Vectors . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.1.4 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.1.5 Scalar and Vector Triple Products . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
3.2.3 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
3.3 Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.3.1 Cartesian to Cylindrical Transformations . . . . 3-25
3.3.2 Cartesian to Spherical Transformations . . . . . 3-26
3.3.3 Cylindrical to Spherical Transformations . . . . 3-27
3.3.4 Distance Between Two Points . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
3.4 Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3.4.1 Gradient Operator in Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
3-1
CHAPTER 3. VECTOR ANALYSIS
3.4.2 Properties of the Gradient Operator . . . . . . . 3-31

3.5 Divergence of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32
3.6 Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-40
3.7 Laplacian Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-44
3-2
3.1. BASIC LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
This chapter departs from the study and analysis of electromag-

netic concepts where 1D scalar quantities was sufficient. Voltage,
current, time, and 1D position will continue to be quantities of inter-
est, but more is needed to prepare for future chapters.
In what lies ahead the vector field quantities E and H are of cen-
tral importance. To move forward with this agenda we will start with
a review of vector algebra, review of some analytic geometry, review
the orthogonal coordinate systems Cartesian (rectangular), cylindri-
cal, and spherical, then enter into a review of vector calculus. The
depth of this last topic will likely be more intense than any earlier
experiences you can remember.
3.1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra

The Cartesian coordinate system should be familiar to you from
earlier math and physics courses
The vector A is readily written in terms of the cartesian unit
vectors xO , yO , and zO
A D xO Ax C yO Ay C zO Az
In linear algebra xO , yO , and zO are known as basis vectors, each

having unit length, i.e., jOxj and mutually orthogonal
Also, the length of A is
q
A D A2x C Ay2 C A2z
and the unit vector in the A direction is
A xO Ax C yO Ay C zO Az
aO D D q
A A2 C A2 C A2
x y z
3-3
3
2
1 z
y
y
1 1 2 3
2 x
3
x
(a) Base vectors
Az
A
Az
Ay
y
Ax Ar
x
(b) Components of A
Figure 3.1:Figure
Expressing3-2 the A in termssystem:
vectorcoordinate
Cartesian the Cartesian
(a) base unit vec-
tors. vectors x , y , and z , and (b) components of vector A.
3.1.1 Equality of Two Vectors
Vectors A and B are equal if their components are equal, i.e.,

Ax D Bx , etc.
3-4
3.1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Addition of vectors means that the individual components are
added together, that is
CDACB
D xO .Ax C Bx / C yO .Ay C By / C zO .Az C Bz /;
thus Cx D Ax C Bx , etc.
Visually you can utilize the head-to-tail or parallelogram rules
C A
A C
B B
(a) Parallelogram rule (b) Head-to-tail rule
Figure 3-3Figure 3.2: Vector addition rules.

Vector addition by (a) the parallelogram rule
and (b) the head-to-tail rule.
Vector subtraction is similar
DDA B
D xO .Ax Bx / C yO .Ay By / C zO .Az Bz /;
thus Dx D Ax Bx , etc.
3-5
3.1.3 Position and Distance Vectors

z
z2
P1 = (x1, y1, z1)
z1 R12 P2 = (x2, y2, z2)
R1 R2
y1 y2
O y
x1
x2
x
Figure 3.3: The notion of the position vector a point, P , R , and
to
Figure 3-4 Distance vector R12 = P1 P2 = R2 Ri 1 , i
distancewhere
between, Pi and
R and Pj , the
R are Rij position
are vectors.
vectors of points P
1 2 1
and P2 , respectively.
Formally a position vector starts at the origin, so we use the
notation
!
Ri D OPi D xO xi C yO yi C zO zi
where xi , yi , and zi correspond to the point Pi D .xi ; yi ; zi /
The scara distance between two points is just d D jRij j

q
d D .xj xi /2 C .yj yi /2 C .zj zi /2
3-6
3.1.4 Vector Multiplication

Vector multiplication takes the form
scalar vector:
B D kA D element-by-element multiply by k
scalar product or dot product:
A B D AB cos AB
where AB is the angle between the vectors (as in linear

algebra)
Note: A cos AB is the component of A along B and B cos AB
is the component of B along A
Also,
A A D jAj2 D A2
p
A D jAj D A A
Using the inverse cosine

1 AB
AB D cos p p
AA BB
Finally,
A A D Ax Bx C Ay By C Az Bz
Commutative and Distributive

ABDBA
A .B C C/ D A B C A C
3-7
Vector product or cross product:
O
A B D nAB sin AB
where nO is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and

B (see picture below for details)
z
A B = n AB sin AB
n B
AB
y
x A
(a) Cross product
AB
A
(b) Right-hand rule
Figure 3.4: The
Figure 3-6 cross product
Cross AA
product B
andB the right-hand
points in the rule.
which is perpendicular to the plane
direction n,
containing
The crossAproduct is anticommuntative
and B and defined by the right-hand rule.
ABD BA
3-8
The cross product is distributive
A .B C C/ D A B C A C
To calculate use the determinant formula

xO yO zO

A B D Ax Ay Az

Bx By Bz
D xO .Ay Bz Az By / C yO .Az Bx A x Bz /
C zO .Ax By Ay Bx /
3.1.5 Scalar and Vector Triple Products

Certain, make sense, vector products arise in electromagnetics
Scalar Triple Product

Definition:
A .B C/ D B .C A/ D C .A B/

Ax Ay Az

D Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
Vector Triple Product

Definition
A .B C/
Note:
A .B C/ .A B/ C/
3-9
It can however be shown that
A .B C/ D B.A C/ C.A B/;
which is known as the bac-cab rule
Example 3.1: Numpy for Vector Numerics
To make things more convenient define the helper function

vec_fmt (see Chapter 3 Jupyter notebook)
Figure 3.5: Using Numpy for basic vector numerical calculations.
3-10
Figure 3.6: Using Numpy for more vector numerical calculations.
3-11
Example 3.2: TI Nspire CAS
The TI nspire CAS can do both numerical and symbolic calcu-

lations
Numerical examples are given below
TI Nspire CAS: Portions of Text Example 3-1
Figure 3.7: Using the TI Nspire CAS for vector numerics.
3-12
3.2. ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
3.2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

There three orthogonal coordinate systems in common usage
in electromagnetics:
The Cartesian or rectangular system: xO Ax C yO Ay C zO Az

O C zO Az
The cylindrical system: rO Ar C A
O R C A
The spherical system: RA O C A
O
Table 3.1: Vector relations in the three common coordinate systems.

Table 3-1 Summary of vector relations.
Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical
Coordinates Coordinates Coordinates
Coordinate variables x, y, z r, , z R, ,
Vector representation A = x Ax + y Ay + z Az r Ar + A + z Az R + A + A
RA
( ( (
Magnitude of A |A| = +
A2x + A2y + A2z + A2 + A2 + A2 + A2 + A2 + A2
r z R
1,
Position vector OP1 = x x1 + y y1 + z z1 , r r1 + z z1 , RR
for P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) for P(r1 , 1 , z1 ) for P(R1 , 1 , 1 )
Base vectors properties x x = y y = z z = 1 r r = = z z = 1
RR = = = 1
x y = y z = z x = 0 r = z = z r = 0 = = R
R =0
x y = z r = z =
R
y z = x z = r = R
z x = y z r = R =
Dot product AB = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz Ar Br + A B + Az Bz AR BR + A B + A B
4 4 4 4 4 4
4 x z 44 4 r z 44 4 R 44
4 y 4 4
Cross product B =
A 4 Ax Ay Az 4 4 Ar A Az 4 4 AR A A 4
4 4 4 4 4 4
4 Bx By Bz 4 4 Br B Bz 4 4 BR B B 4
Differential length dl = x dx + y dy + z dz r dr + r d + z dz dR + R d + R sin d

R
Differential surface areas dsx = x dy dz dsr = r r d dz dsR = RR 2 sin d d
dsy = y dx dz ds = dr dz ds = R sin dR d

dsz = z dx dy dsz = z r dr d ds = R dR d
Differential volume d v = dx dy dz r dr d dz R2 sin dR d d
The three systems are needed to best fit the problem geometry
at hand
3-13
3.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
We will have need of differential quantities of length, area and

volume
Differential Length
d l D xO d lx C yO d ly C zO d lz D xO dx C yO dy C zO dz
Differential Area
A vector, d s, that is normal to the two coordinates describing

the scalar area ds
There are three different differential areas, d s, to consider:
d sx D xO d ly d lz D xO dy dz (y z-plane)
d sy D xO dx dz (x z-plane)
d sz D xO dx dy (x y-plane)
Differential Volume
d V D dx dy dz
3-14
z dsz = z dx dy
dy
dx
dsy = y dx dz
dz
dz
dl dv = dx dy dz
dsx = x dy dz
dy
y
dx
x
Figure3-8
Figure 3.8: Differential
Differential length,
length, area,
area, and
and volume.
volume in
Cartesian coordinates.
3.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
The cylindrical system is used for problems involving cylindri-
cal symmetry
It is composed of: (1) the radial distance r 2 0; 1/, (2) the

azimuthal angle, 2 0; 2/, and z 2 . 1; 1/, which can
be thought of as height
O and zO are mutually
As in the case of the Cartesian system, rO ; ,
perpendicular or orthogonal to each other, e.g., rO O D 0, etc.
Likewise the cross product of the unit vectors produces the

cyclical result
rO O D zO ; O zO D rO ; zO rO D O
3-15
z = z1 plane
z1 P = (r1, 1, z1)
R1
r = r1 cylinder
O y
1 r1 z

= 1 plane
r
x
Figure 3-9 Point P(r1 , 1 , zFigure 3.9: coordinates;

1 ) in cylindrical A point in the
r1 is the cylindrical the origin in the xy plane, 1 is the
system.
radial distance from
angle in the xy plane measured from the x axis toward the y axis, and z1 is the vertical distance from the xy plane.
The general vector expansion
O C zO Az
A D aO jAj D rO Ar C A
is obvious, as is the scalar length

q
jAj D A2r C A2 C A2z
Looking at 3.9 it is interesting to note that O is absent in the

position vector
!
OP D rO r1 C zO z1;
but is present in the point P .r1; 1; z1/ itself
3-16
dz dsz = z r dr d
r d dr
ds = dr dz
dz dv = r dr d dz
dsr = r r d dz
O y

r
x r d
dr
Figure 3.10: Differential

Figure 3-10 quantitiesareas
Differential in theand
cylindical
volumesystem.
in
cylindrical coordinates.
Differential Quantities
The differential quantities do not follow from the Cartesian

system
The differential length of the azimuthal component is also a

function of the radial component, i.e.,
d lr D dr; d l D rd; d lz D dz
In the end
O
d l D rO dr C rd C zO dz
3-17
The differential surface follows likewise
d sr D rO r d dz . z cylindrical surface/
d s D O dr dz .r z plane/
d sz D zO dr d .r plane/
The differential area is likely the most familiar from calculus
d V D r dr dz
Example 3.3: Distance Vector from z-Axis to r -Plane
When making field calculations due to charge or current along

a line, we need the distance vector shown below:
z
P1 = (0, 0, h)
a
A
O y
0 r 0
P2 = (r0, 0, 0)
Figure 3.11: Distance vector

Figure 3-11 from z-axis
Geometry in r
to point3-3.
of Example plane.
3-18
The vector from a point P1 on the z-axis, .0; 0; h/, to a point

P2 in the r-plane, .r0; 0; 0/, is
! !
A D OP 2 OP 1 D rO r0 zO h
The unit vector is

rO r0 zO h
aO D q
r02 C h2
Note: is not present!
Once D 0 is specified the unambiguous point direction

resolved
Example 3.4: Volume of a Cylinder
Consider a cylinder of height 2 cm and diameter 3 cm
Using simple calculus, the surface area of the cylinder is

Z 2 Z 2
D 6 (cm)2

SD r d dz
0 0 rD3=2
The volume of the cylinder is

3=2 Z 2 Z 2
r 2 3=2 9
Z
VD r d dz dr D 4 D (cm)3
0 0 0 2 0 2
3-19
3.2.3 Spherical Coordinates

In this coordinate system a single range variable R plus two
angle variables and are employed

R

P = (R1, 1, 1)
R1
= 1
conical 1
surface
y
1

x
Figure 3.12:
FigureThe spherical
3-13 coordinate system showing a point P1
Point P(R1 , 1 , 1 ) in spherical coordi-
O
nates.vector R1 .
and position
It is composed of: (1) the radial distance r 2 0; 1/, (2) the

azimuthal angle (same as cylindrical), 2 0; 2/, and the
zenith angle 2 0; , which is measured from the positive
z-axis
All coordinates are again mutually orthogonal to span a 3D

space
3-20
The cross product of the unit vectors produces the cyclical re-
sult
O O D ;
R O O
O O D R; O D O
O R
The general vector expansion

O R C A
A D aO jAj D RA O C A
O
is obvious, as is the scalar length

q
jAj D A2R C A2 C A2
The position vector R1 (3.12) is

! O 1;
R1 D OP D RR
but needs knowledge of 1 and 1 to be complete
Differential Quantities
The differential quantities are different yet again from the Cat-
estian and the cylindrical systems
The differential length of the zenith component is like the az-

imuthal component in the cylindrical system
The differential length of the azimuthal component is now a

function of both the radial component and the zenith compo-
nent, i.e.,
d lR D dR; d l D Rd; d l D R sin d
3-21
In the end
O
d l D Rdr O
C Rd O sin dz
C R
The differential surface follows

O 2 sin d d . spherical surface/
d sR D RR
d s D O R sin dR d .R conical plane/
O dR d .R plane/
d s D R
Again the differential area is likely the most familiar from cal-
culus
d V D R2 sin dR d d
z
R sin d
d = R2 sin dR d d
dR R d
R

d
y

d
x
Figure 3.13:3-14
Figure The spherical coordinate differential volume.
Differential volume in spherical coordi-
3-22
nates.
Example 3.5: Preview of Chapter 4 - A Charge density
A volume charge density
v D 4 cos2 .C/m3/
is present in a sphere of radius 2 cm
To find the total charge in the sphere we integrate the charge

density over the volume
Z
Q D v d V
ZV 2 Z Z 0:02
4 cos2 R2 sin dR d d

D
D0 D0 RD0
Z 2 Z 3 0:02
R
D4 sin cos2 d d
0 0 3
Z 2 0 3
32 6 cos
D 10 d
3 0 3 0
Z 2
64 128
D 10 6 d D 10 6
9 0 9
D 44:68 .C/
Just a little calculus review, especially the anti-derivative of

sin cos2
3-23
3.3 Coordinate Transformations

Overview of the various transformations: .x; y; x/ , .r; ; z/,
.x; y; z/ , .R; ; /, and .r; ; z/ , .R; ; /
TableTable
3.2: Coordinate transformations.
3-2 Coordinate transformation relations.
Transformation Coordinate Variables Unit Vectors Vector Components

+
Cartesian to r = + x2 + y2 r = x cos + y sin Ar = Ax cos + Ay sin
cylindrical = tan1 (y/x) = x sin + y cos A = Ax sin + Ay cos
z=z z = z Az = Az
Cylindrical to x = r cos x = r cos sin Ax = Ar cos A sin
Cartesian y = r sin y = r sin + cos Ay = Ar sin + A cos
z=z z = z Az = Az
+
Cartesian to R = + x2 + y2 + z2 R = x sin cos AR = Ax sin cos
spherical + + y sin sin + z cos + Ay sin sin + Az cos
= tan1 [ + x2 + y2/z] = x cos cos A = Ax cos cos
+ y cos sin z sin + Ay cos sin Az sin
= tan1 (y/x) = x sin + y cos A = Ax sin + Ay cos
Spherical to x = R sin cos x = R sin cos Ax = AR sin cos
Cartesian + cos cos sin + A cos cos A sin
y = R sin sin y = R sin sin Ay = AR sin sin
+ cos sin + cos + A cos sin + A cos
z = R cos z = R cos sin
Az = AR cos A sin

Cylindrical to R = + r2 + z2 R = r sin + z cos AR = Ar sin + Az cos
spherical = tan1 (r/z) = r cos z sin A = Ar cos Az sin
= = A = A
Spherical to r = R sin r = R sin + cos Ar = AR sin + A cos
cylindrical = = A = A
z = R cos z = R cos sin Az = AR cos A sin
There are three aspects of each to and from coordinate trans-

formations:
1. The coordinate variables .x; y; z/, .r; ; z/, and .R; ; /

O ;
O zO /, and .R;
2. The unit vectors .Ox; yO ; zO /, .Or; ; O /
O
3. The vector components .Ax ; Ay ; Az /, .Ar ; A ; Az /, and
.AR ; A ; A /
3-24
3.3. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
3.3.1 Cartesian to Cylindrical Transformations

This is the most obvious and most familiar
p y
1
r D x 2 C y 2; D tan (watch the quadrant)
x
x D r cos ; y D r sin
zDz
P(x, y, z)
z
y
3
r
2
x = r cos
1
123
y = r sin
x
Figure 3.14: Cartesian and cylindrical variable relationships.
Figure 3-16 Interrelationships between Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) and cylindrical coordinates (r, , z).
y

r
y
r

x
x
Figure 3.15: Cartesian and cylindrical unit vector relationships.
Figure 3-17 Interrelationships between base vectors
(x, y ) and (r, ). 3-25
3.3.2 Cartesian to Spherical Transformations
These are less familiar, but very useful in this course
p !
p
1 x2 C y2
RD x 2 C y 2 C z 2; D tan
z
y
1
D tan (watch the quadrants)
x
x D R sin cos ; y D R sin sin
z D R cos
z

z

R
(/2 )
R r

z = R cos
y
x = r cos
r

y = r sin
r
x
Figure 3.16: Cartesian and spherical variable and unit vector rela-
Figure 3-18 Interrelationships between (x, y, z) and
tionships.
(R, , ).
3-26
3.3. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
3.3.3 Cylindrical to Spherical Transformations

See Table 3.2
p
R D r 2 C z 2; D tan 1.r=z/; D
r D R sin ; D ; z D R sin
3.3.4 Distance Between Two Points

The distance between two points, P1 D .x1; y1; z1/ and P2 D
.x2; y2; z2/, arises frequently
In Cartesian coordinates the answer is obvious
d D jR12j D .x2 x1/2 C .y2 y1/2 C .z2 z1/2

For the case of cylindrical coordinates we apply the variable

transformations to arrive at
d D .r2 cos 2 r1 cos 1/2 C .r2 sin 2 r1 sin 1/2

1=2
C .z2 z1/2
2 1=2
2 2

D r2 C r1 2r1r2 cos.2 1/ C .z2 z1/
Finally, for the spherical coordinates
d D R22 C R12 2R1R2cos 2 cos 1

1=2
C sin 2 sin 1 cos.2 1/
3-27
3.4 Gradient of a Scalar Field

In this section we deal with the rate of change of a scalar quan-
tity with respect to position in all three coordinates .x; y; z/
The result will be a vector quantity as the maximum rate of

change of the scalar quantity will have direction
Think of skiing down a mountain; if you want to descend

as quickly as possible you ski the path the follows the
negative of the maximum rate of change in elevation
The route corresponds to the negative of the gradient
Suppose T represent the scalar variable of temperature in a

material as a function of .x; y; z/
The gradient of temperature T is written as
@T @T @T
rT D grad T D xO C yO C zO
@x @y @z
Note: A differential change in the distance vector d l dotted

with the gradient gives the scalar change in temperature, d T ,
i.e.
d T D rT d l

D rT xO dx C yO dy C zO dz
@T @T @T
D dx C dy C dz
@x @y @z
3-28
3.4. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD
As an operator we can write the so-called del operator in Carte-

sian coordinates as
@ @ @
r D xO C yO C zO
@x @y @z
Directional Derivative
In calculus you learn about the directional derivative
dT
D rT aO l
dl
as the derivative of T along aO , which is the unit vector of the
differential distance d dl D aO l d l
A nice extension is to find the difference T2 T1, which corre-

sponds to points P1 D .x1; y1; z1/ and P2 D .x2; y2; z2/
We integrate both side of the directional derivative definition

to obtain Z P2
T2 T1 D rT d l
P1
Example 3.6: Directional Derivative of T D x 2 C y 2z
We seek the directional derivative of T along the direction xO 2C

yO 3 zO 2 evaluated at .1; 1; 2/
Start by finding the gradient
rT D xO 2x C yO 2yz C zO y 2
3-29
Note that
l D xO 2 C yO 3 zO 2;
so
xO 2 C yO 3 zO 2
aO l D p
17
The directional derivative is

O O O

dT x 2 C y 3 z 2
D xO 2x C yO 2yz C zO y 2

p
dl 17
2
4x C 6yz 2y
D p ;
17
At the point .1; 1; 2/ we finally have

d T 10
D p D 0:588
d l .1; 1;2/ 17
The surface is dT/dl

dT/dl at z = 2
dT/dl
The point
(1, -1, 2)
dT/dl
Figure 3.17: The directional derivative, d T =d l, as a surface over

.x; y/ with z fixed at 2.
3-30
3.4. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD
3.4.1 Gradient Operator in Cylindrical and Spher-

ical Coordinates
To move forward with the expressing gradient in the other two
coordinate systems, requires a bit of calculus
For cylindrical coordinates it can be shown that

@ 1 @ @
r D rO C O C zO
@r r @ @z
For spherical coordinates it can be shown that
O @ C O 1 @ C O
rDR
1 @
@R R @ R sin @
3.4.2 Properties of the Gradient Operator

From basic calculus it follows that

r U C V D rU C rV

r U V D U rU C V rU
rV n D nV n 1 rV; for any n
Example 3.7: Gradiant of V

Consider the scalar function
V D x 2y C xy 2 C xz 2
The gradient is simply

rV D xO .2xy C y 2 C z 2/ C yO .x 2 C 2xy/ C zO .2xz/
3-31
At the point P1 D .1; 1; 2/ the gradiant vector is
rV .1; 1; 2/ D xO 3 yO C zO 4
3.5 Divergence of a Vector Field

The divergence of a vector field is in a sense complementary
to the gradient:
Gradient of a scalar function ) Vector function

Divergence of a vector function ) Scalar function
So what is it? Take a look at https://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/Divergence
For a 3D vector field it measures the extent to which the vector

field behaves as a source or sink
A 3D field has field lines and corresponding flux density, which

defines the outward flux crossing a unit surface ds
For the EE: Consider a point charge Cq; if we place a

sphere (infinitesimally small) around it, there will be a
net flow of flux over the surface of the sphere; move the
sphere away from the charge location and the net flow of
flux (in/out) is zero
For the ME: Consider heating or cooling of air in a re-
gion; the velocity of the air, which is influenced by the
heating, is a vector field; the velocity points outward from
3-32
3.5. DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD
the heated region just like the electric field from the Cq
charge
+q
Imaginary
spherical
surface
E
Figure 3.18: The electric field flux lines due to a point charge Cq
Figure 3-20 Flux lines of the electric field E due to a
O centered on the charge.
are normal to a sphere (n)
positive charge q.
In more detail the Cq charge produces flux density (outward

flux crossing a unit surface)
E ds
Flux density of E D D E nO
jd sj
where d s includes the orientation of the surface via s and the

dot product insures that only the flux normal to the surface
is accounted for; nO is the outward normal to the surface, i.e.,
d s=jd sj
3-33
The total flux crossing a closed surface S (e.g., a sphere) is

I
Total flux D E d sO
S
For a general vector field, say E.x; y; z/OxEx C yO Ey C zO Ez ,

we can sum the outward flux through each of the faces of a
differential cube as shown in Figure3.18
E
n 4
E
(x, y + y, z) x
Face 4
z
E
Face 1 Face 2
n 1 n 2
y (x, y, z)
(x + x, y, z)
Face 3
y
(x, y, z + z)
n 3 x
z
Figure 3.19: Detailing divergence by considering the flux exiting the
Figure 3-21 Flux lines of a vector field E passing
six facesthrough
of a differential cube (parallelpiped).
a differential rectangular parallelepiped of
volume v = x y z.
In the end we have

@Ex @Ey @Ez
I

E ds D C C D divE V
S @x @y @z
3-34
Now, we take the limit as V ! 0 to obtain the formal defini-

tion of divergence
@Ex @Ey @Ez

r E D div E D C C
@x @y @z
If r E > 0 a source if present, while r E < 0 means a sink

is present, and r E D 0 means the field is divergenceless
Divergence Theorem
Moving forward into Chapter 4 we will quickly bump into the
divergence theorem, which states that
Z I
r E dV D E ds
V S
Example 3.8: Divergence in Cartesian Coordinates
Consider E D xO 3x 2 C yO 2z C zO x 2z at the point P1 D .2; 2; 0/
Using the definition in Cartesian coordinates
@3x 2 @2z @x 2z
r ED C C
@x @y @z
D 6x C 0 C x 2 D x 2 C 6x
Evaluating at .2; 2; 0/ we have

r E D 16
.2; 2;0/
3-35
The positive diverge at .2; 2; 0/ can be seen in a 3D vector

slice plot from Mathematica
Out[50]=
Figure 3.20: 3D vector field plot from Mathematica with a cut-

sphere centered at .2; 2; 0/; the positive divergence is clear.
3-36
Example 3.9: Divergence in Spherical Coordinates

Working a diverge calculation in cylindical or spherical re-
quires the formulas inside the back cover of the text
For the problem at hand we have

O 3 cos =R2/
E D R.a O 3 sin =R2/;
.a
which is in spherical coordinates
Find the divergence at P2 D .a=2; 0; /

1 @ 2
1 @
r ED 2 R ER C E sin
R @R R sin @
1 @E
C
R sin @ !
3 2
1 @ 3 1 @ a sin
D 2 a cos C
R @R R sin @ R2
2a3 cos
D
R3
At the point .a=2; 0; / we have

r E D 16
.a=2;0;/
Since the divergence is negative at this point, we conclude that

a field sink is present
A 2D vector plot (Python, Mathematica, or MATLAB) can be

used to review the field behavior using arrows
3-37
a = 10
3.0
2.5
2.0

Out[64]= 1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

R
Figure 3.21: 2D vector field plot for a D 10 in just the R and axes
making the negative divergence at .5; 0; / clear.
3-38
Example 3.10: Ulaby 3.44b
Each of the following vector fields is displayed below in the

form of a vector representation. Determine r A analytically
and then compare the results with your expectations on the ba-
sis of the displayed pattern.
Worked using the Jupyter notebook (screen shots)
Figure 3.22: Ulaby problem 3.44b set-up in the Jupyter notebook.

3-39
Figure 3.23: Ulaby problem 3.44b vector (quiver) plot in Jupyter

notebook to verify divegence of zero.
3.6 Curl of a Vector Field

Moving forward, the next vector operator, Curl, applies more
often to magnetic fields; See https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Curl_(mathematics)
The Curl describes the rotation of a 3D field, in an infinitesimal

sense
3-40
3.6. CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD
A field B has circulation if the line integral

I
Circulation D B dl 0
C
For the case of a uniform field, e.g., B D xO B0, forming a line

integral around a closed rectangular contour in the x y plane
yields zero, i.e.,
Z b Z c
Circulation D xO B0 xO dx C xO B0 yO dy
a b
Z d Z a
C xO B0 xO dx C xO B0 yO dy
c d
D B0 x B0 x D 0
Futhermore, a small fictitious paddle wheel placed in the uni-

form field will not rotate, no matter the orientation of the wheel
rotation axis
y
a d
Contour C
x x
b c
B
x
(a) Uniform field
Figure 3.24: A uniform field, B D xO B0 with circulation over C zero.
z
3-41
Consider the azimuthal field of a wire carrying current I along

the z-axis
y
The magnetic flux in thex y plane follows O with strength
a d
0I =.2 r/
Contour C
x we consider
To compute the circulation x differential length d l D
O d and determine the circulation to be
r
b c
2
0 I O
Z
Circulation D O r d D 0I
0 2 r
B
x placed in this field will rotate!
Clearly a paddle wheel
(a) Uniform field
z
Current I

Contour C
y
r
B
(b) Azimuthal field

O 0I =.2 r/ with circulation
Figure 3.25: An azimuthal field, B D
around the z-axis.3-22 Circulation is zero for the uniform field
Figure
in (a), but it is not zero for the azimuthal field in (b).
3-42
3.6. CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD
Finally we cab defined curl as

I
1
r B D curl B D lim nO B dl
s!0 s C max
Note: The contour C is oriented to given the maximum circu-

lation; position the paddle wheel so it spins the fastest
O the unit normal of

Since r B is a vector, its direction is n,
surface s (use the right-hand rule with the fingers curling in
O
the direction of C and the thumb pointing along n)
In rectangular coordinates we compute the curl via

xO yO zO

@ @ @
r B D @x @y @z

Bx By Bz
For other coordinate systems consult the back page of the text
Stokes Theorem
Stokes theorem converts a surface integral of the curl to a line
integral of a vector along a contour C bounding surface S
Z I

r B ds D B dl
S C
3-43
3.7 Laplacian Operator

The Laplacian operator shows up in a number of contexts
The text mentions the divergence of the gradiant, .r .rV //

as one possibility
The result is known as del square
2 @2V @2 V @2V
r V D C 2 C 2
@x 2 @y @z
In Chapter 4 Laplaces equation, r 2V D 0, arises when deter-

mining the electrostatic potential in 1D, 2D, and 3D problems
3-44

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Chapter 3

3.4.2 Properties of the Gradient Operator . . . . . . . 3-31

This chapter departs from the study and analysis of electromag-

3.1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra

 In linear algebra xO , yO , and zO are known as basis vectors, each

3.1.1 Equality of Two Vectors

 Vectors A and B are equal if their components are equal, i.e.,

3.1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction

 Visually you can utilize the head-to-tail or parallelogram rules

Figure 3-3Figure 3.2: Vector addition rules.

 Vector subtraction is similar

3.1.3 Position and Distance Vectors

z1 R12 P2 = (x2, y2, z2)

 The scara distance between two points is just d D jRij j

3.1.4 Vector Multiplication

scalar product or dot product:

where AB is the angle between the vectors (as in linear

Using the inverse cosine

Commutative and Distributive

 Vector product or cross product:

where nO is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and

The cross product is distributive

To calculate use the determinant formula

3.1.5 Scalar and Vector Triple Products

Scalar Triple Product

Vector Triple Product

 It can however be shown that

A .B C/ D B.A C/ C.A B/;

which is known as the bac-cab rule

Example 3.1: Numpy for Vector Numerics

 To make things more convenient define the helper function

Figure 3.5: Using Numpy for basic vector numerical calculations.

Figure 3.6: Using Numpy for more vector numerical calculations.

Example 3.2: TI Nspire CAS

 The TI nspire CAS can do both numerical and symbolic calcu-

 Numerical examples are given below

TI Nspire CAS: Portions of Text Example 3-1

Figure 3.7: Using the TI Nspire CAS for vector numerics.

3.2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

The Cartesian or rectangular system: xO Ax C yO Ay C zO Az

Table 3.1: Vector relations in the three common coordinate systems.

Differential length dl = x dx + y dy + z dz r dr + r d + z dz dR + R d + R sin d

3.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates

 We will have need of differential quantities of length, area and

 A vector, d s, that is normal to the two coordinates describing

 There are three different differential areas, d s, to consider:

 It is composed of: (1) the radial distance r 2 0; 1/, (2) the

 Likewise the cross product of the unit vectors produces the

Figure 3-9 Point P(r1 , 1 , zFigure 3.9: coordinates;

 The general vector expansion

is obvious, as is the scalar length

 Looking at 3.9 it is interesting to note that O is absent in the

but is present in the point P .r1; 1; z1/ itself

Figure 3.10: Differential

 The differential quantities do not follow from the Cartesian

 The differential length of the azimuthal component is also a

 The differential surface follows likewise

 The differential area is likely the most familiar from calculus

Example 3.3: Distance Vector from z-Axis to r -Plane

 When making field calculations due to charge or current along

Figure 3.11: Distance vector

 The vector from a point P1 on the z-axis, .0; 0; h/, to a point

 The unit vector is

In linear algebra xO , yO , and zO are known as basis vectors, each

Vectors A and B are equal if their components are equal, i.e.,

Visually you can utilize the head-to-tail or parallelogram rules

Vector subtraction is similar

The scara distance between two points is just d D jRij j

where AB is the angle between the vectors (as in linear

Vector product or cross product:

It can however be shown that

To make things more convenient define the helper function

The TI nspire CAS can do both numerical and symbolic calcu-

Numerical examples are given below

We will have need of differential quantities of length, area and

A vector, d s, that is normal to the two coordinates describing

There are three different differential areas, d s, to consider:

It is composed of: (1) the radial distance r 2 0; 1/, (2) the

Likewise the cross product of the unit vectors produces the

The general vector expansion

Looking at 3.9 it is interesting to note that O is absent in the

but is present in the point P .r1; 1; z1/ itself

The differential quantities do not follow from the Cartesian

The differential length of the azimuthal component is also a

The differential surface follows likewise

The differential area is likely the most familiar from calculus

Example 3.3: Distance Vector from z-Axis to r -Plane

When making field calculations due to charge or current along

The vector from a point P1 on the z-axis, .0; 0; h/, to a point

The unit vector is

Once D 0 is specified the unambiguous point direction

Consider a cylinder of height 2 cm and diameter 3 cm

Using simple calculus, the surface area of the cylinder is

The volume of the cylinder is

It is composed of: (1) the radial distance r 2 0; 1/, (2) the

All coordinates are again mutually orthogonal to span a 3D

The general vector expansion

The position vector R1 (3.12) is

but needs knowledge of 1 and 1 to be complete

The differential length of the zenith component is like the az-

The differential length of the azimuthal component is now a

d lR D dR; d l D Rd; d l D R sin d

The differential surface follows

A volume charge density

To find the total charge in the sphere we integrate the charge

There are three aspects of each to and from coordinate trans-

1. The coordinate variables .x; y; z/, .r; ; z/, and .R; ; /

These are less familiar, but very useful in this course

In Cartesian coordinates the answer is obvious

For the case of cylindrical coordinates we apply the variable

Finally, for the spherical coordinates

d D R22 C R12 2R1R2cos 2 cos 1

The result will be a vector quantity as the maximum rate of

Suppose T represent the scalar variable of temperature in a

The gradient of temperature T is written as

Note: A differential change in the distance vector d l dotted

As an operator we can write the so-called del operator in Carte-

A nice extension is to find the difference T2 T1, which corre-

We integrate both side of the directional derivative definition

We seek the directional derivative of T along the direction xO 2C

Start by finding the gradient

For cylindrical coordinates it can be shown that

For spherical coordinates it can be shown that

The gradient is simply

At the point P1 D .1; 1; 2/ the gradiant vector is

So what is it? Take a look at https://en.wikipedia.org/

For a 3D vector field it measures the extent to which the vector

A 3D field has field lines and corresponding flux density, which

In more detail the Cq charge produces flux density (outward

The total flux crossing a closed surface S (e.g., a sphere) is

For a general vector field, say E.x; y; z/OxEx C yO Ey C zO Ez ,

Now, we take the limit as V ! 0 to obtain the formal defini-

If r E > 0 a source if present, while r E < 0 means a sink