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1 Approaches to Intercultural
Communication
I dont much like him. I think I need to get to know him better. Abraham Lincoln
The curse of the human race is not that we are so different from one another, but that we are
so alike. Salman Rushdie, The Enchantress of Florence
A
lthough the ability to communicate effectively has long been an important aspect of
any social interaction between people from different cultures, within the past two
decades it has become essential. In the wake of the Berlin Wall falling on November
9, 1989, the power structure of the international community moved from a bipolar (United
States and the Soviet Union) to a unipolar (United States) position. Now, the movement is
rapidly toward a multipolar international arrangement. Responsible world leaders are
working toward greater cooperation on all frontseconomic, political, and military. Presi-
dent Obamas policy of engaging other nations, even when their aims appear counter to
U.S. interests, demonstrates this trend toward increased international integration and cross-
cultural interaction.
Movement to a more global, interconnected community has been abetted by dramatic
technological changes, such as digital communication advances that permit the uninter-
rupted transfer of large amounts of data across national borders and breakthroughs in
1
transportation that facilitate the rapid, economical movement of people and goods over vast
distances. These events, often referred to collectively as globalization, have brought about
unprecedented levels of interaction among people from different national, ethnic, and reli-
gious cultural backgrounds. Media originating in one country are generally available
throughout the world. Multinational and transnational organizations, replete with multi-
cultural workforces, are now commonplace. An increasing number of international non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) are engaged in emergency relief, humanitarian
assistance, and charitable service work around the globe. World tourism, once available
only to the wealthy, is a growth industry, with package tours to international destinations
tailored to almost any budget. Nations with declining birthrates and aging populations are
recruiting health care workers from abroad. Immigration, international marriage, and inter-
country adoptions have added to U.S. cultural diversity. For example, for the ten-year
period 19992010, U.S. State Department statistics report that over 178,000 children from
other nations were adopted by U.S. families (Total Adoptions, 2010)1.
Broadly speaking, globalization has brought about the realization that modern socie-
ties must learn to in near-term so-
cooperate in or- lutions but will
Broadly speaking, globalization has ultimately create
der to prevent
their mutual self- brought about the realization that problems that
destruction. There modern societies must learn to are more com-
is a growing per- cooperate in order to prevent their plex. Increased
ception that concern over the
employment of
mutual self-destruction. planets ecologi-
force may result cal degradation
resulting from climate change and pollution has raised awareness of the need for interna-
tional cooperation on a scale previously unseen. There is also a recognition of the need to
engage in global cooperative efforts on a number of other issuesnuclear arms, terror-
ism, over-population, world poverty, and escalating competition for natural resources.
Closer to home, the United States is faced with such culturally related domestic concerns
as immigration, an aging population, growth of minority groups, and ideological divi-
sions. Solutions, either whole or partial, to these circumstances will require increased in-
tercultural understanding.
Before moving further into the study of culture and communication, we need to
specify our approach to intercultural communication and recognize that other people in-
vestigate quite different perspectives. For example, some scholars who examine mass me-
dia are concerned with international broadcasting, worldwide freedom of expression, the
premise of Western domination of media information, and the use of electronic technolo-
gies for instantaneous worldwide communication. Other groups study international com-
munication with an emphasis on communication between national governmentsthe
communication of diplomacy, economic assistance, disaster relief, and even political pro-
paganda. Still others are interested in the communication needed to conduct business on
a global basis. Their concerns include such issues as cross-cultural marketing, negotiation
1
Total Adoptions to the United States. (2010). Intercountry Adoption: Office of Childrens Issues, U.S. Department of State.
Retrieved 13 April 2010 from http://adoption.state.gov/news/total_chart.html#
2 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication
styles, management, and conflict resolution, as well as daily communication within do-
mestic, multinational, and transnational organizations.
Our focus, however, relates to the more personal aspects of communication: What
happens when people from different cultures interact face to face? Thus, our approach
explores the interpersonal dimensions of intercultural communication across different
contexts. The essays we have selected for this edition focus on the variables of culture
and communication that are most likely to influence an intercultural communication en-
counterthose occasions when you attempt to exchange information, ideas, or feelings
with someone from a culture different from your own.
Something as simple as an awareness of cultural variations in eye contact can help
teachers achieve greater communication effectiveness in their multicultural classroom. An
international businessperson who realizes that other cultures have different negotiation
styles is more likely to acquire a contract satisfactory to both parties. Health care workers
who understand that some people place more faith in traditional, natural remedies than
in modern pharmaceuticals may be able to provide better medical treatment. In a cultur-
ally diverse workforce, the manager who understands that there are variations in cultural
values is more apt to be successful. United States Border Patrol agents working with their
Mexican counterparts to stem the flow of narcotics and violence across the border will be
well served by knowledge of Mexican etiquette and customs.
Succinctly, we believe that many cross-cultural problems can be resolved or avoided
through an awareness and understanding of the components of intercultural communica-
tion. This book, by applying those components to numerous cultures and contexts, is an
effort to promote that understanding.
Your exploration of intercultural communication begins with a series of varied arti-
cles designed to (1) introduce the philosophy underlying our concept of intercultural
communication; (2) provide a general orientation to, and overview of, intercultural com-
munication; (3) theorize about the linkage between culture and communication; (4) offer
insight into innovations in the study and teaching of intercultural communication; and
(5) demonstrate how perception can vary in contemporary society. Our objective is to
give you an introduction to the diverse dimensions of intercultural communication that
will help you to approach subsequent chapters with a mindset that makes further inquiry
interesting, informative, and useful.
CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication 3
Using Intercultural Communication:

The Building Blocks
EDWIN R. MCDANIEL LARRY A. SAMOVAR RICHARD E. PORTER
The initial essay, by the three editors of this text, is titled in 2009, a phenomenon that produced approximately
Understanding Intercultural Communications: The Work- $17 billion in tax revenues (Office of Travel, 2010).
ing Principles. This essay will introduce you to many of the In addition to international travel, technology
specific subjects and issues associated with the study of has vastly increased the number of virtual interac-
intercultural communication. As a prologue, we use the tions. People all over the world now interact daily
context of globalization, our rapidly integrating global with others through the medium of modern telecom-
community, to demonstrate the importance of intercultural municationstelephones, Internet, teleconferencing,
communication, both at home and abroad. Next, we discuss etc. Not only has this facilitated international com-
the purpose of communication, define it, and provide a re- merce and tourism, but it has also made transborder
view of its characteristics. Third, we offer an overview of interpersonal relations increasingly frequent. Your
culturewhat it is and what it does. We then focus on some authors know of an international couple where one
specific dimensions of culture that are germane to human works in California and the other in Japan. They use
communicationthose components that constitute the study e-mail to communicate daily, talk via Skype several
of intercultural communication. We exam- times a week, and travel to visit each
ine a number of major variablespercep- The requirement to other every two to three months, all
tual elements, cognitive patterns, verbal the while dealing with their cultural
and nonverbal behaviors, and social con- understand cultural and linguistic differences. Long-
textsto help you better understand differences and distance intercultural relationships,
what happens when people from different communicate across such as theirs, are becoming increas-
cultural backgrounds engage in communi- cultural borders has ingly commonplace as distances
cation. By understanding, at the outset of across the global community con-
the book, what the study of intercultural increased tinue to shrink.
communication entails, you will have a exponentially. Globalization, global society,
greater appreciation for subsequent essays. world community, homogenized
culture, and similar terms have be-
come catchphrases used to characterize the increased
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION economic and social integration of national populations
IN A DYNAMIC WORLD and ethnicities. As a result, the requirement to under-
You live in an era where intercultural communication stand cultural differences and communicate across cul-
skills are not just an asset; they are a requirement. tural borders has increased exponentially. To help you
Never before has it been so easy for people from dif- understand the importance of this requirement, it is
ferent nations and ethnicities to meet and interact. This worthwhile to first look back and then look forward.
increased intermingling is largely the product of the By looking back to your grandparents and parents
stunning advances in technology that now allow peo- generations, you can discover how much more inter-
ple to move quickly and easily across vast distances, cultural the world has become. And by looking at
both physically and virtually. As one example, 54.9 future projections of world events, you will realize
million international travelers visited the United States how much more intercultural the world will become.
This original essay appears here in print for the first time. All rights reserved. Permission to reprint must be obtained from the
authors and the publisher. Dr. Edwin. R. McDaniel is affiliated with San Diego State University; Dr. Larry A. Samovar is Professor
Emeritus in the School of Communication at San Diego State University; Dr. Richard E. Porter is Professor Emeritus in the
Department of Communication Studies at California State University, Long Beach.
Looking Back the United States to launch their careers, but now it is
common to see U.S. managers heading to foreign loca-
One of the most noticeable changes over the past two tions. In 2009, for instance, 24 percent of the graduates
generations is just how international the world has be- from MITs prestigious Sloan School of Management
come. As a result of media and transportation advances, took positions abroad (Job, 2009). Among U.S. em-
you now have access to a wide variety of products and ployers, workplace diversity is a continuing source of
services from abroad. Depending on your location, U.S. concern, and training courses designed to make em-
cable TV companies now offer channels in Chinese, ployees aware of cultural differences and varied com-
Japanese, Tagalog, Hindi, Punjabi, Spanish, Russian, munication behaviors have become routine.
and many other languages. For example, DISH TV Residence abroad has also increased because the
has available more than 170 international channels in globalization of industry and education tramples na-
28 different languages (International, 2010). A visit tional borders, and among the developed nations, the
to your local supermarket will reveal a variety of ethnic foreign-born population exceeds 8 percent on average
foods, many imported from other parts of the world. In (Others, 2009). This international movement also
urban areas, small ethnic food stores have become the includes students in higher education. Current esti-
norm. For instance, in La Jolla, California, a small Ira- mates are that over three million students are studying
nian market sells a selection of fresh feta cheeses im- in a country other than their own, and some 672,000
ported from France, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Greece, as foreign students were attending U.S. universities in
well as delicious pistachios from Iran. 2008 (Leagues, 2010; And, 2009).
A heightened awareness of cul- Contemporary U.S. demographics
ture in the U.S. armed forces is an- People born outside the
probably represent the most easily no-
other significant change from the United States constitute
ticeable change relating to cross-
past. During the Vietnam conflict 13 percent of the total cultural issues. Quite simply, the
(196173) and the first Gulf War U.S. population, the United States has become much more
(199091), culture was an after- multicultural over the past fifty years.
thought at best. However, fighting largest percentage
A glance around your classroom will
in Iran and Afghanistan has brought among the developed probably reveal a mix of people from
the importance of cultural under- nations. different ethnicities, nationalities, age
standing into the spotlight and sever- groups, and, less obvious, sexual pre-
al programs designed to instill cultural awareness have ferences. Most of these classmates will be U.S. born,
been developed. The U.S. Army has instituted the but some may be from other countries. This is because
Human Terrain System, which co-locates civilian people born outside the United States constitute 13
socio-cultural experts with commanders and staff to percent of the total population, the largest percentage
provide a source of knowledge on local peoples and among the developed nations (Ponzi, 2009). And lest
their culture (Human, 2010). In order to acquire you think all immigrants work in low-wage, dirty jobs,
and effectively employ cultural knowledge, the U.S. the 2000 census indicated that 47 percent of scientists
Marine Corps established the Center for Advanced and engineers in America with PhDs were foreign
Operational Cultural Learning, which has the mission born (Economics, 2009, p. 84). Immigrants in the
of training personnel in the application of language United States often group themselves together in urban
and culture to operations (Center, 2010). areas, where they retain their language and culture,
Globalization has brought profound changes to unlike their predecessors in the early twentieth century
the commercial sector, including the creation of numer- who were expected, and indeed often forced, to assim-
ous transnational corporations whose reach influences ilate to the dominant U.S. culture. A particularly vivid
markets around the world. For example, Yum! Brands, example of contemporary U.S. cultural diversity was
the parent company of KFC, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, Long the 2010 census website, which could be accessed in
John Silver, and others, employs over one million work- over fifty languages (United States, 2010).
ers in more than 110 countries (Taking, 2009). In The preceding overview of selected changes
earlier years, international corporate managers came to arising from globalization was intended to make you
McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 5

aware of how culture has become an important The December 2009 climate summit in Copen-
consideration in modern society. Now we turn our at- hagen, Denmark was attended by over 100 heads of
tention to the future, where culture and communication state and government, [y]et from its opening the
promise to play an even more vital role in our lives. conference was marked by bitter divisions, confusion,
and setbacks. (Summary, 2009). The many global
Looking Forward environmental issues will not be easily solved, but
The financial crisis that began in 2007, which brought any successful resolutions will also require competent
about the collapse of several large U.S. financial firms intercultural communication skills.
and weakened many international institutions, is a Changing environmental conditions are also
particularly salient example of how interrelated the creating environmentally induced migration
world economy has become. Although the problems people driven from their traditional homelands as a
initially started in the United States, they quickly result of environmental degradation (New, 2009).
spread worldwide. Almost no nation, and certainly The International Organization for Migration esti-
no developed country, has been unaffected by the mates there may be upwards of 200 million environ-
problems. This economic interconnectedness will mental migrants by 2050, and as their means of
continue and grow in complexity. Already we see livelihood are destroyed, many are likely to become
old icons taking on new personasthe Volvo brand, long-term migrants (Warner et al., 2009).These refu-
originally Swedish, is now owned by a Chinese com- gees will be in addition to the numbers of immi-
pany; an Indian firm now owns Land Rover and grants motivated by traditional causeseconomic,
Jaguar, once U.K. brands. Even greater changes are religious and political persecution; armed conflict;
on the horizon as the members of the BRIC group and ethnic discrimination.
of nations (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) continue The likelihood of cultural conflicts arising from
their economic growth. According to some predic- growing immigrant populations is obvious, and the
tions, the BRIC group will surpass the current lead- potential is particularly high in Western Europe.
ing economies by the middle of this century, a There, immigrants already represent 10 percent of
tectonic shift that by this reckoning will eventually the total population, and antipathy toward immigrant
nudge the United States and Western Europe away communities appears to be on the rise (Treacher-
from the center of world productivity and power ous, 2009). Evidence of the growing anxiety includes
(Kramer, 2009, p. 2). This ever-increasing intercon- Frances barring of the Muslim veil and headscarf
nectivity and shifting of the world economy will ne- from public buildings and state schools (War,
cessitate greater cultural awareness among the 2010), Switzerlands decision to prohibit construction
workforces. The ability to work effectively with peo- of minarets at mosques (Swiss, 2009), and consid-
ple from other nations and ethnicities, speaking dif- eration by Belgium of banning Islamic veils that cover
ferent languages and possessing varied values and the face (Belgian, 2010).
beliefs, will become a common requirement.
Information technology has greatly increased pub- United States Demographics
lic awareness of the seriousness of worldwide environ-
mental issues. Climate change, whether natural or Year 2005 2050
human induced, is producing often-catastrophic human
Total population (millions) 296 438
disasters, such as the prolonged drought in southern
Sudan, which has left thousands on the brink of starva- Population Groups*
tion. Altered rainfall patterns are accelerating desertifica- White (non-Hispanic) 67% 47%
tion in China and Africa. Pelagic pollution is having a Hispanic 14% 29%
detrimental impact on ocean marine life. Coral reefs are
Black 13% 13%
dying due to rising ocean temperatures, overfishing, and
excessive runoff of silt and farm fertilizer. International Asian 5% 9%
efforts to slow and eliminate these environmentally ener- *Native American and Pacific Islanders not included.
Source: Passel & Cohen, 2008
vating practices are proving problematic.
Changing demographics in the United States This contemporary mixing of people from var-
also present fertile ground for future clashes between ied nationalities and ethnic groups, brought about
people of varied cultures. According to multiple re- by immigration, global business connections, the
ports, minorities will represent the collective majority ease of international travel, Internet social network-
by 2050, and 19 percent of the total population ing sites, and increased societal acceptance is also
will be foreign born (Passel & Cohen, 2008; U.S. dramatically increasing the number of international
Census, 2008). This demographic shift is expected interpersonal relationships. In Europe, international
to produce considerable social change as members marriages (also referred to as interracial marriage,
of minority ethnicities continue to replace the white biracial marriage, cross-cultural marriage, intercul-
majority in political, commercial, and educational tural marriage, interethnic marriage, and inter-
positions of power. marriage) are growing in number (Pulsipher &
In the commercial sector, changes are already Pulsipher, 2008), no doubt abetted by the European
occurring. In states such as New Mexico and Califor- Unions emphasis on cultural diversity. A recent re-
nia, where Hispanics constitute over 30 percent of the port indicates that in the United States 7 percent of
population, Spanish-language media programs are Americas 59 million married couples in 2005 were
common, and several large U.S. retailers, including interracial, compared to less than 2 percent in 1970
Walmart, have opened stores in Texas and Arizona (Crary, 2007, para. 4). These cross-cultural unions
specifically catering to the Hispanic market. Accord- are expected to increase, and such couples will en-
ing to a Walmart press release, the new stores feature counter a host of challenges, both within society and
a layout and product assortment designed to make it between themselves. Cultural issues such as identity,
more relevant to local Hispanic customers (Moreno, gender roles, religious traditions, language, com-
2009; New Supermercado, 2009). This is an excel- munication behaviors, conflict styles, child-rearing
lent example of how culture influences our lives. We practices, family acceptance, and many, many
are comfortable with the things we know and are more, including some as mundane as food choices,
drawn to them, but we are often uncomfortable will have to be managed.
with things we do not know and frequently avoid The issues of the future we have mapped out
them. in this section represent only a portion of the cul-
tural challenges you will need to confront in the
increasingly globalized social order. Others prob-
Food for Thought lem areas requiring intercultural skills include the
A review of various websites containing information
following:
about the opening of the Walmart Supermercado Religious fundamentalism will continue to pres-
stores revealed instances of vitriolic comments, with ent inflexible opinions on a variety of U.S. do-
calls for people living in the United States to learn mestic subjectsgay rights, same-sex marriage,
English and adopt the U.S. culture. Think about the
pro-life/pro-choice, etc.which can lead to
following: Have you ever traveled abroad? Did you
see any U.S. fast food outlets such as those listed
violent confrontation.
below? International fundamentalism remains the moti-
Starbucks in Berlin Burger King in vation for many terrorists and underlies the
Pizza Hut in Beijing London IsraeliPalestinian problem.
Dennys in Tokyo KFC in Paris Aging populations coupled with declining birth-
Wendys in rates will create a shortage of indigenous workers
Taco Bell in
Bangalore Mexico City in many developed nations, requiring a still
greater influx of immigrants. These new, younger
How did you feel? How do you think the local resi- arrivals will be needed to fill vacant jobs and to
dents might have reacted when those restaurants contribute to the tax base supporting national
were opened in their home country? Why? social welfare programs.

The preference for male children is already cre- processed by a person from a different culture. While
ating a gender imbalance in some countries this may seem simple and undemanding, it requires
(e.g., India, China, and Korea). The lack of a thorough understanding of two key ingredients
available indigenous brides in these nations communication and culture. Just as the first require-
raises the potential for a host of problems. ment in constructing a house is to build a good foun-
The continuing empowerment of women is cre- dation, the remaining sections in this essay will give
ating widespread societal change as traditional you the background you need to comprehend the
gender roles evolve. rest of the articles in this book more easily. We begin
by examining communication and its various compo-
International competition for declining natural
nents. Then, culture is explained. Finally, we explore
resources carries the potential for violent conflict.
how these two concepts are fused into several compo-
The availability of water, humankinds most vital
nents of intercultural communication.
resource, is already such a serious concern in
many areas of the world that it was the subject
of a special issue of National Geographic magazine UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION
(Water, 2010). Communication is inescapable. It is something we
The struggle between rich na- have to do and something we enjoy
tions and poor nations, coupled doing, and in the digital age, we do
with world poverty, will contin- A knowledge of
a lot of it. Think about the many dif-
ue to require cross-cultural me- intercultural ferent ways that you engage in com-
diation skills. communication, and munication every dayby watching
Measures to solve many of the the ability to use it TV; listening to music; talking to
friends; listening to a class lecture
existing and future problems will cre- effectively, can help (well, at least pretending to); day-
ate distrust and acrimony, and per- bridge cultural
haps even lead to open conflict dreaming; sending and receiving mes-
among the participants due to cultur- differences, mitigate sages through e-mail, Facebook, and
al variations. Solving problems usual- problems, and assist in Twitter; searching for something new
on YouTube; wearing a suit to an in-
ly entails changing something, and achieving more
when applied to culture, change can terview; and in many, many other
harmonious, productive ways.
be quite frightening. Peoples lives are
guided by their cultural perspectives,
relations. These are but a few of the com-
and when their worldview, beliefs, munication activities you participate in
and values come under assault through social change, on a daily basis. If one is to function in
they can feel threatened and resort to extreme mea- todays data-rich society, one cannot avoid communi-
sures to maintain the status quo. A knowledge of cating. Moreover, we seem to have an innate need to
intercultural communication, and the ability to use associate with, and connect to, other people through
it effectively, can help bridge cultural differences, mit- communication. Thus, the motives for entering into
igate problems, and assist in achieving more harmo- any communicative interaction can be categorized un-
nious, productive relations. der one of three broad classifications. When people
The essays in this text are designed to help you communicate, regardless of the situation or context,
achieve the awareness and ability necessary to become they are trying to (1) persuade, (2) inform, or (3)
a more skilled intercultural communicator. Each chap- entertain. In other words, when you communicate,
ter introduces you to a topic considered critical to ac- you have a purpose, an objective.
quiring and improving intercultural competence. As
the first step on that path, we begin with a fundamen- Explaining Communication
tal definition: Intercultural communication occurs when- It should be intuitively evident that communication is
ever a person from one culture sends a message to be fundamental to contemporary daily life. But what
exactly is communication? What happens when we the sender to the receiver. For example, an oral mes-
communicate? In answering those questions, we will sage may be sent directly when in the immediate
first define and then explain the phenomenon. presence of the receiver or mediated through a cell
Communication has been defined variously, phone, a conference call, or a YouTube video. A
and each definition is usually a reflection of the visual, or nonverbal, message can be transmitted di-
authors objective or of a specific context. Often rectly, such as by smiling to indicate pleasure, or
the definition is long and rather abstract, because mediated through a photograph or text. Today,
the author is trying to incorporate as many aspects websites such as YouTube, Facebook, and MySpace
of communication as possible. In some instances, provide channels that offer senders a means to reach
the definition is narrow and precise, designed to ex- millions of receivers through mediated messages.
plain a specific type or instance of communication. The receiver(s) is the intended recipient of the
When studying the union of culture and communi- message and the location where meaning is created.
cation, however, a succinct, easily understandable Because the receiver interprets the message and as-
definition is in everyones best interest. Thus, for signs a meaning, which may or may not be what
us, communication is the management of messages the receiver intended, communication is often charac-
with the objective of creating meaning (Griffin, 2005). terized as receiver based. You may send a friend a text
This definition is somewhat broad, yet is precise in message, but for a variety of reasons, such as lack of
specifying what occurs in every communicative epi- nonverbal cues or insufficient context, the receiver
sode. It does not attempt to establish what constitu- may (mis)interpret the message and feel offended.
tes successful or unsuccessful communication, After interpreting the message and assigning a
which is actually determined by the involved parti- meaning, the receiver may prepare a response. This
cipants, can vary from one person to another, and is is any action taken by the receiver as a result of the
frequently scenario dependent. The only qualifiers meaning he or she assigns to the message. A response
we place on communication are intentionality and can be benign, such as simply ignoring a provocative
interaction. In other words, if communication is remark, or, at the other extreme, a physically aggres-
considered to be purposefulto persuade, inform, sive act of violence.
or entertainthen we communicate with an inten- The feedback component of communication is
tion, and we achieve our objective only by interact- related to, yet separate from, the response. Feedback
ing with someone. helps us to evaluate the effectiveness of a message.
Perhaps the receiver smiles, or frowns, after decod-
ing your message. This offers a clue as to the mean-
The Framework of Communication ing the receiver assigned to the message and helps
Employing the definition of communication pro- you adjust to the developing situation. Depending
vided above, lets now examine the eight major on the feedback, you may rephrase or amplify the
structural components used to manage messages message to provide greater clarity, ask whether
and create meaning. The first and most obvious is the message was understood, or perhaps even retract
the senderthe person or group originating the the statement.
message. A sender is someone with a need or desire, Every communicative interaction takes place
be it social, work, or public service, to communicate within a physical and contextual environment. The
with others. In completing this desire, the sender physical environment refers to the location where
formulates and transmits the message via a channel the communication occurs, such as a classroom, cof-
to the receiver(s). fee shop, business office, or airplane cabin. The con-
The message consists of the information the textual, or social, environment is more abstract and
sender desires to have understoodthe data used exerts a strong influence on the style of communica-
to create meaning. Messages, which can be verbal tion employed. Think about the different styles of
or nonverbal, are encoded and transmitted via a communication you use when participating in an in-
channel to the receiver. The channel is any means terview, applying for a student loan, asking a stranger
that provides a path for moving the message from for directions, visiting your professors office, or

apologizing when late to meet a friend. We alter our and even why we communicate. However, you must
communicative style in response to the occasion and first understand the concept of culture itself in order to
the receiverthe contextual environment. appreciate how it influences communication.
Noise, the last component of communication,
concerns the different types of interference or distrac-
tions that plague every communication event. Physical WHAT IS CULTURE?
noise is separate from the communication participants Culture is an extremely popular and increasingly
and can take many forms, such as two people talking overused term in contemporary society. Expressions
in the back of the classroom during a lecture, some- such as cultural differences, cultural diversity, multicul-
one talking loudly on the subway, the sounds of traf- turalism, corporate culture, cross-culture, and other
fic coming through the window of an apartment, or variations continually appear in the popular media.
static on your cell phone. Culture has been linked to such fields as corporate
Noise that is inherent to the people participating management, health care, psychology, education,
in the communication episode can take a variety of public relations, marketing, and advertising. We of-
forms. Suppose that during a Friday afternoon class ten hear about U.S. forces operating in Afghanistan
you find yourself concentrating more on plans for a with insufficient knowledge and understanding of
spring break trip than on the lecture. Perhaps you are the local culture. The pervasive use of the term cul-
in a funk after learning your car needs an expensive ture attests to the increased awareness of the role it
brake job, or are worried about a term paper due the plays in our everyday activities. Seldom, however,
next week. These are examples of psychological noise are we given a definition of just what constitutes
that can reduce your understanding of the classroom culture or exactly what culture does. This section
communication. Physiological noise relates to the phys- will provide that information.
ical well-being of the people engaged in the commu-
nication activity. Coming to class with too little sleep,
dealing with a head cold, or simply feeling too hot or Explaining Culture
cold in the room will interfere with your ability to As with communication, the term culture has been
comprehend fully the classroom activity. the subject of numerous and often complex, abstract
The final type of noise often occurs during in- definitions. What is frequently counted as one of the
tercultural communication and can easily produce earliest and easily understandable definitions of cul-
misunderstandings. For effective communication in ture, and one still used today, was written in 1871
an intercultural interaction, participants must rely by British anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor,
on a common language, which usually means that who said culture is that complex whole which in-
one or more individuals will not be using their na- cludes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
tive tongue. Native fluency in a second language is and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
very difficult, especially when nonverbal behaviors man as a member of society (Sir Edward, 2010,
are considered. People who use another language para 1).
will often have an accent or might misuse a word Ruth Benedict offered a more succinct definition
or phrase, which can adversely influence the recei- when she wrote, What really binds men together is
vers understanding of the message. This type of their culturethe ideas and the standards they have
distraction, referred to as semantic noise, also encom- in common (1959, p.16). A more complex explana-
passes jargon, slang, and specialized professional ter- tion was provided by Clifford Geertz, who said cul-
minology (West & Turner, 2004). ture was a historically transmitted pattern of
Collectively, these eight components provide an meaning embodied in symbols, a system of inherited
overview of factors that can facilitate, shape, or hamper conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of
communication encounters. But there is also another which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop
influential factor that normally plays a role in commu- their knowledge about and attitudes toward life
nicative interactions. Our culture provides each of us (1973, p. 89). Contemporary definitions of culture
with a set of standards that govern how, when, what, commonly mention shared values, attitudes, beliefs,
behaviors, norms, material objects, and symbolic re- and be effective in a particular culture, you need to
sources (e.g., Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008; Jandt, know how to play by the rules. We learn the rules
2009; Klyukanov, 2005; Lustig & Koester, 2009; of our own culture as a matter of course, beginning at
Martin & Nakayama, 2010; Neuliep, 2008; Oetzel, birth and continuing throughout life. As a result, own
2008; Samovar, et al., 2009). Indeed, the many and culture rules are ingrained in the subconscious, en-
varied definitions attest to the complexity of this so- abling us to react to familiar situations without think-
cial concept called culture. ing. It is when you enter another culture, with
We propose an applied and hopefully more different rules, that problems are encountered.
simplified explanation of culture. Stop for a minute
and think about the word football. What mental pic-
ture comes to mind? Most U.S. Americans will envi- What Culture Does
sion two teams of eleven men each in helmets and If we accept the idea that culture can be viewed as a
pads, but someone in Montral, Canada, would set of societal rules, its purpose becomes self-evident.
imagine twelve men per team. A resident of Sidney, Cultural rules provide a framework that gives mean-
Australia, may think of two eighteen-man teams in ing to events, objects, and people. The rules enable us
shorts and jerseys competing to kick an oblong ball to make sense of our surroundings and reduce uncer-
between two uprights, while a young woman in Sao tainty about the social environment. Recall the first
Paulo, Brazil, would probably picture two opposing time you were introduced to someone you were at-
teams of eleven men, or women, attempting to kick tracted to. You probably felt some level of nervous-
a round ball into a net. In each case, the contest is ness because you wanted to make a positive
referred to as football, but the playing fields, impression. During the interaction, you may have
equipment, and rules of each game had a few thoughts about what to do
are quite different. Culture provides the and what not to do. Overall, you had a
Try to think about how you good idea of the proper courtesies,
rules for playing the
would react in the following situa- what to talk about, and generally
tions. Following your successful job game of life. how to behave. This is because you
interview with a large Chinese com- had learned the proper cultural rules
pany, you are invited to dinner. At the restaurant, you of behavior by listening to and observing others.
sit at a round table with other people, and plates of Now, take that same situation and imagine being in-
food are continually being placed on a turntable in the troduced to a student from a different country, such
tables center. People are spinning the turntable, tak- as Jordan or Kenya. Would you know what to say
ing food from different dishes, talking with each oth- and do? Would the cultural rules you had been learn-
er, and urging you to try items you are completely ing since childhood be effective, or even appropriate,
unfamiliar with. How do you feel? At a later date, one of in this new social situation?
your close friends, whose parents immigrated from Culture also provides us with our identity, or
Mumbai, India, invites you to his home for the first sense of self. From childhood, we are inculcated
time. There, you are introduced to your friends with the idea of belonging to a variety of groups
grandfather, who places his palms together in front family, community, church, sports teams, schools,
of his chest as if praying, bows and says namaste. What and ethnicityand these memberships form our dif-
do you do? In each of these examples, perhaps you felt ferent identities. Our cultural identity is derived from
unsure of what to do or say, yet in China and India, our sense of belonging to a particular cultural or
these behaviors are routine. ethnic group (Lustig & Koester, 2006, p. 3), which
These examples illustrate our applied definition may be Chinese, Mexican American, African Ameri-
of culture. Simply stated, culture is the rules for living can, Greek, Egyptian, Jewish, or one or more of
and functioning in society. In other words, culture pro- many, many other possibilities. Growing up, we learn
vides the rules for playing the game of life (Gudy- the rules of social conduct appropriate to our specific
kunst, 2004; Yamada, 1997). Because the rules cultural group, or groups in the case of multicultural
differ from culture to culture, in order to function families such as Vietnamese American, Italian

American, or Russian American. Cultural identity can many sources. You are also a source for passing these
become especially prominent during interactions be- cultural expectations, usually with little or no varia-
tween people from different cultural groups, such as a tion, to succeeding generations. Culture represents
Pakistani Muslim and an Indian Hindu, who have our link to the past and, through future generations,
been taught varied values, beliefs, and different sets hope for the future. The critical factor in this equation
of rules for social interaction. Thus, cultural identity is communication.
can be a significant factor in the practice of intercul-
tural communication. Culture Is Symbolic. Words, gestures, and images
are merely symbols used to convey meaning. It is
our ability to use these symbols that allows us to
Cultures Components engage in the many forms of social intercourse used
While there are many explanations of what culture is to construct and convey culture. Our symbol-making
and does, there is general agreement on what consti- ability facilitates learning and enables transmission of
tutes its major characteristics. An examination of meaning from one person to another, group to group,
these characteristics will provide increased under- and generation to generation. In addition to transmit-
standing of the abstract, multifaceted concept and ting meaning, the portability of symbols creates the
also offer insight into how communication is influ- ability to store information, which allows cultures to
enced by culture. preserve what is considered important and to create a
history. The preservation of culture provides each
Culture Is Learned. At birth, we have no knowledge new generation with a road map to follow and a ref-
of the many societal rules needed to function effec- erence library to consult when unknown situations
tively in our culture, but we quickly begin to inter- are encountered. Succeeding generations may modify
nalize this information. Through interactions, established behaviors or values, or construct new
observations, and imitation, the proper ways of think- ones, but the accumulation of past traditions is
ing, feeling, and behaving are communicated to us. what we know as culture.
Being taught to eat with a fork, a pair of chopsticks
or even ones fingers is learning cultural behavior. Culture Is Dynamic. Despite its historical nature,
Attending a Catholic mass on Sunday or praying culture is never static. Within a culture, new ideas,
at a Jewish Synagogue on Saturday is learning inventions, and exposure to other cultures create
cultural behaviors and values. Celebrating Christmas, change. Discoveries such as the stirrup, gunpowder,
Kwanzaa, Ramadan, or Yon Kippur is learning cul- the nautical compass, penicillin, and nuclear power
tural traditions. Culture is also acquired from art, are demonstrations of cultures susceptibility to inno-
proverbs, folklore, history, religion, and a variety of vation and new ideas. More recently, advances made
other sources. This learning, often referred to as en- by minority groups, the womens movement, and gay
culturation, is both conscious and subconscious, and rights advocates have significantly altered the fabric of
has the objective of teaching us how to function contemporary U.S. society. Invention of the computer
properly within our cultural milieu. chip and the Internet and the discovery of DNA have
brought profound changes not only to U.S. culture
Culture Is Transmitted Intergenerationally. Spanish but also to the rest of the world.
philosopher George Santayana wrote, Those who Diffusion, or cultural borrowing, is also a source
cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat of change. Think about how common pizza (Italian),
it. He was certainly not referring to culture, which sushi (Japanese), tacos (Mexican), and tandoori
exists only if it is remembered and repeated by peo- chicken and naan bread (India) now are in the U.S.
ple. You learned your culture from family members, American diet. The Internet has accelerated cultural
teachers, peers, books, personal observations, and a diffusion by making new knowledge and insights eas-
host of media sources. The appropriate way to act, ily accessible. Immigrants bring their own cultural
what to say, and things to value were all communi- practices, traditions, and artifacts, some of which be-
cated to the members of your generation by these come incorporated into the culture of their new
homelandfor example, Vietnamese noodle shops in An inability to understand or accept different

the United States, Indian restaurants in England, or ways and customs can also provoke feelings of ethno-
Japanese foods in Brazil. centrism. It is quite natural to feel at ease with people
Cultural calamities, such as war, political up- who are like you and adhere to the same social norms
heaval, or large-scale natural disasters, can cause and protocols. You know what to expect, and it is
change. U.S. intervention in Afghanistan is bringing usually easy to communicate. It is also normal to
greater equality to the women of that nation. For bet- feel uneasy when confronted with new and different
ter or worse, the invasion of Iraq raised the influence social values, beliefs, and behaviors. You do not know
of Shia and Kurdish cultural practices and lessened what to expect, and communication is probably diffi-
those of the Sunni. International emergency relief cult. However, to view or evaluate those differences
workers responding to the earthquake in Haiti negatively simply because they vary from your
brought their own cultural practices to the situation, expectations is a product of ethnocentrism, and an
some of which have likely become intermingled with ethnocentric disposition is detrimental to effective in-
the cultural practices of the native Haitians. tercultural communication.
Immigration is a major source of cultural diffu-
sion. Many of the large U.S. urban centers now have INTEGRATING COMMUNICATION
areas unofficially, or sometimes officially, called Little
Italy, Little Saigon, Little Tokyo, Korea Town, China- AND CULTURE
town, Little India, etc. These areas are usually home By now you have probably realized that culture is an
to restaurants, markets, and shops catering to a spe- extremely complex, abstract concept that exerts a per-
cific ethnic group. However, they also serve to intro- vasive influence on every aspect of your life. A number
duce different cultural practices into other segments of culture-related components are important to the
of the population. study of intercultural communication. These include
Most of the changes affecting culture, especially (1) perception, (2) patterns of cognition, (3) verbal be-
readily visible changes, are often topical in nature, such haviors, (4) nonverbal behaviors, and (5) the influence
as dress, food preference, modes of transportation, or of context. Although we will discuss each of these com-
housing. Values, ethics, morals, the importance of reli- ponents separately in this essay, you must keep in mind
gion, or attitudes toward gender, age, and sexual ori- that in an intercultural setting, all become integrated
entation, which constitute the deep structures of and function at the same time.
culture, are far more resistant to major change and
tend to endure from generation to generation.
Perception
Culture Is Ethnocentric. The strong sense of group Every day we encounter an overwhelming amount of
identity, or attachment, produced by culture can also varied stimuli that we must cognitively process and
lead to ethnocentrism, the tendency to view ones own assign a meaning to. This process of selecting, orga-
culture as superior to other cultures. Ethnocentrism nizing, and evaluating stimuli is referred to as percep-
can arise from ones enculturation. Being continually tion. The volume of environmental stimuli is far too
told that you live in the greatest country in the world, large for us to pay attention to everything, so we se-
that Americas way of life is better than those of other lect only what we consider relevant or interesting.
nations, or that your values are superior to those of After determining what we will attend to, the next
other ethnic groups can lead to feelings of cultural step is to organize the selected stimuli for evaluation.
superiority, especially among children. Ethnocen- Whether in this book or in the university library, me-
trism can also result from a lack of contact with other dia news outlets, or websites, information must be
cultures. If you were exposed only to a U.S. cultural given a structure before it can be interpreted. The
orientation, it is likely that you would develop the third step of perception thus becomes a process of
idea that your country is the center of the world, evaluating and assigning meaning to the stimuli.
and you would tend to view the rest of the world A common assumption is that people conduct
from the perspective of U.S. culture. their lives in accordance with how they perceive the

world. These perceptions are strongly influenced by will likely employ an indirect communication style.
culture. In other words, we see, hear, feel, taste, and In contrast, a U.S. American can be expected to use
even smell the world through the criteria that culture a more direct style, because frankness, honesty, and
has placed on our perceptions. Thus, ones idea of openness are valued.
beauty, attitude toward the elderly, concept of self in Our beliefs and values push us to hold certain
relation to otherseven ones perception of what tastes attitudes, which are learned tendencies to act or re-
good or badare culturally influenced and can vary spond in a specific way to events, objects, people, or
among social groups. For example, Vegemite is a yeast orientations. Culturally instilled beliefs and values ex-
extract spread used on toast and sandwiches that is ert a strong influence on our attitudes. Thus, people
sometimes referred to as the national food of Austra- tend to embrace what is liked and avoid what is dis-
lia. Yet, few people other than those from Australia or liked. Someone from a culture that considers cows
New Zealand like the taste, or even the smell, of this sacred will take a negative attitude toward your invi-
salty, dark paste. tation to have a Big Mac for lunch.
As you would expect, perception is an important
aspect of intercultural communication, because people
Worldview. Although quite abstract, the concept of
from dissimilar cultures frequently perceive the world
worldview is among the most important elements of
differently. Thus, it is important to be aware of the
the perceptual attributes influencing intercultural
more relevant socio-cultural elements that have a sig-
communication. Stated simply, worldview is what
nificant and direct influence on the meanings we assign
forms peoples orientation toward such philosophical
to stimuli. These elements represent our belief, value,
concepts as deities, the universe, nature, and the like.
and attitude systems and our worldview.
Normally, worldview is deeply imbedded in ones
psyche and operates on a subconscious level. This
Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes. Beliefs can be de-
can be problematic in an intercultural situation,
fined as individually held subjective ideas about
where conflicting worldviews can come into play.
the nature of an object or event. These subjective
As an example, many Asian and Native North Ameri-
ideas are, in large part, a product of culture, and
can cultures hold a worldview that people should
they directly influence our behaviors. Bullfighting
have a harmonious, symbiotic relationship with na-
is thought to be cruel and inhumane by most people
ture. In contrast, Euro-Americans are instilled with
in the United States, but certainly not by the many
the concept that people must conquer and mold na-
people in Spain and Mexico who love the sport. A
ture to conform to personal needs and desires. Indi-
strict adherent of Judaism or Islam would probably
viduals from nations possessing these two contrasting
find the thought of eating a ham sandwich repulsive.
worldviews could well encounter difficulties when
Regarding religion, many people believe that there is
working to develop an international environmental
only one god but others pay homage to multiple
protection plan. The concept of democracy, with ev-
deities.
eryone having an equal voice in government, is an
Values represent those things we hold impor-
integral part of the U.S. worldview. Contrast this
tant in life, such as morality, ethics, and aesthetics.
with Afghanistan and parts of Africa, where world-
We use values to distinguish between the desirable
views hold that ones tribe takes precedence over
and the undesirable. Each person has a set of unique,
the central government.
personal values and a set of shared, cultural values.
The latter are a reflection of the rules a culture has
established to reduce uncertainty, lessen the likeli-
hood of conflict, help in decision making, and pro- Cognitive Patterns
vide structure to social organization and interactions. Another important consideration in intercultural
Cultural values are a motivating force behind our be- communication is the influence of culture on cogni-
haviors. Someone from a culture that places a high tive thinking patterns, which include reasoning and
value on harmonious social relations, such as Japan, approaches to problem solving. Culture can often
produce different ways of knowing and doing. Re- preserve their language. Like culture, language must
search by Nisbett (2003) has disclosed that Northeast be shared in order to exist.
Asians (Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans) employ a Language itself is merely a set of symbols that a
holistic thinking pattern, whereas Westerners use a cultural group has arbitrarily agreed upon to help
linear cause-and-effect model that places considerable them bring meaning to objects, events, emotions, ex-
value on logical reasoning and rationality. Thus, pro- periences, places, and the like. Different cultures
blems can be best solved by a systematic, in-depth have, of course, decided to use different sets of sym-
analysis of each component, progressing from the bols. The use of symbol systems to construct and
simple to the more difficult. Northeast Asians, how- express meaning, however, is an inexact process, be-
ever, see problems as much more complex and inter- cause the meanings for words are open to a variety of
related, requiring a greater understanding of, and translations by both individuals and cultures. The
emphasis on, the collective rather than a focus on word parallel can be used to demonstrate how culture
individual parts. influences meaning and can lead to misunderstand-
Thought patterns common to a culture influence ings in intercultural exchanges. In the United States,
the way individuals communicate and interact with telling someone they are on a parallel course implies
each other. However, what is common in one culture agreement or similarity of views. In Japanese, how-
may be problematic in another culture. To illustrate the ever, parallel is used to indicate that the parties dis-
potential of this problem, in JapaneseU.S. business agree, because parallel lines (heiko-sen) never
negotiations the Japanese have a tendency to reopen converge.
previously discussed issues that the U.S. side considers
resolved. United States negotiators find this practice to
be frustrating and time consuming, Nonverbal Behavior
believing that once a point has been Culture can often Another critical factor in intercultural
agreed upon, it is completed. From communication is nonverbal behavior,
produce different ways
the Japanese perspective, however, which includes gestures, facial expres-
new topics can have an influence on of knowing and doing. sions, eye contact and gaze, posture
previously discussed points (McDa- and movement, touch, dress, silence,
niel, 2000). This example demonstrates both the im- the use of space and time, objects and artifacts, and
portance of understanding that different patterns of paralanguage. These nonverbal behaviors, which are
cognition exist, and the need to learn how to accom- inextricably intertwined with verbal behaviors, often
modate them in an intercultural communication communicate as much or more meaning than spoken
encounter. words. Like language, culture also directly influences
the use of, and meanings assigned to, nonverbal be-
havior. In intercultural communication, inappropriate
Verbal Behaviors or misused nonverbal behaviors can easily lead to
The role of language in intercultural communication misunderstandings and sometimes result in insults.
is self-evident in that all of the participants must, to A comprehensive examination of all nonverbal beha-
some degree, share a language, be it their first or sec- viors is beyond the scope of this chapter, but we will
ond. What is not so self-evident is the symbiosis that draw on a few culture specific examples to demon-
exists between culture and language, because one strate their importance in intercultural communica-
cannot exist without the other. Without a common tion exchanges.
language, a group of people would not be able to Nonverbal greeting behaviors show remarkable
establish and perpetuate a culture. They would be variance across cultures. In the United States, a firm
unable to share their beliefs, values, social norms, handshake among men is the norm, but in some
and worldview with one another or to transmit these Middle Eastern cultures, a gentle grip is used. In
cultural characteristics to succeeding generations. In Mexico, acquaintances will often embrace (abrazo)
turn, culture helps people to establish, evolve, and each other after shaking hands. Longtime Russian

male friends may engage in a bear hug and kiss each shorts and tennis shoes or talk on your cell phone
other on both cheeks. People from Japan and India during the service. Your culture has taught you that
traditionally bow to greet each other. Japanese men these behaviors are contextually inappropriate (i.e.,
will place their hands at the side of the body and disrespectful).
bow from the waist, with the lower-ranking person Context is also an important consideration in
bowing first and dipping lower than the other per- intercultural communication interactions, where
son. Indians will perform the namaste, which entails the rules for specific situations usually vary.
holding the hands together in a prayer-like fashion at What is appropriate in one culture is not necessar-
mid-chest while slightly bowing the head and ily correct in another. As an example, among most
shoulders. White U.S. Americans, church services are rela-
Eye contact is another important culturally tively serious occasions, but among African Ameri-
influenced nonverbal communication behavior. For can congregations, services are traditionally more
U.S. Americans, direct eye contact is an important demonstrative, energetic gatherings. In a restaurant
part of making a good impression during an inter- in Germany, the atmosphere is usually somewhat
view. However, in some cultures, direct eye contact subdued, with customers engaging in quiet conver-
is considered rude or threatening. Among some sation. In Spain, however, the conversation is
Native Americans, children are taught to show much louder and more animated. In U.S. universi-
adults respect by avoiding eye contact. When giving ties, students are expected to interactively engage
a presentation in Japan, it is common to see people the instructor, but in Japan the expectation is that
in the audience with their eyes shut, because this is the instructor will simply lecture, with very little
thought to facilitate listening. (Try ityou may be or no interaction.
surprised.) How a person dresses also sends a strong In these examples, we see the importance of
nonverbal message. What are your thoughts when having an awareness of the cultural rules governing
you see an elderly woman wearing a hijab, a Jewish the context of an intercultural communication ex-
boy with a yarmulke, or a young black man in a change. Unless all parties in the exchange are sensi-
colorful dashiki? tive to how culture affects the contextual aspects of
Nonverbal facial and body expressions, like communication, difficulties will most certainly arise
language, form a coding system for constructing and could negate effective interaction.
and expressing meaning, and these expressions are
culture bound. Through culture, we learn which
nonverbal behavior is proper for different social in- CONCLUSION
teractions. But what is appropriate and polite in one We began with a discussion of how globalization has
culture may be disrespectful or even insulting in an- harnessed the forces of contemporary geopolitics,
other culture. People engaging in intercultural com- technology, economics, immigration, and media to
munication, therefore, should try to maintain a produce an ever-shrinking world community, making
continual awareness of how body behaviors may in- interaction among people from different cultures
fluence an interaction. more and more common and necessary. We end
with a reflection on the requirement and urgency
for greater tolerance of cultural differences generated
Contextual Influences by this new multipolar world order.
We have defined culture as a set of rules established The worlds population, as well as U.S. do-
and used by a group of people to conduct social mestic demographics, continues to move toward a
interaction. These rules determine what is consid- pluralistic, multicultural society at a quickstep
ered correct communicative behavior, including pace. The social forces behind this movement will
both verbal and nonverbal elements, for both physi- not easily or soon subside. The resulting cultural
cal and social (situational) contexts. For example, mixing requires that we, both individually and as
you would not normally attend a funeral wearing a society, become more tolerant of the varied
beliefs, worldviews, values, and behaviors of people Selected Societal Sources of

from other cultures. Acceptance or tolerance may U.S. Domestic Division
not be appropriate in every situation, nor is univer-
sal, unquestioning acquiescence to every difference Stem cell research Same-sex marriage
advocated. We do, however, have to be willing to Gay rights Illegal immigration
Affirmative action Government
live and let live on a broader scale. That we do
involvement in
not yet seem able or prepared to do this is demon- Right to life vs. health care or
strated by ongoing international and domestic freedom of choice health insurance
struggles. School prayer
The international community is beleaguered School voucher
with sectarian violence arising from ideological, cul- Legalization of drugs program
tural, and ethnic differences. As we write this chapter, Death penalty Sex education
conflict between religious factions in Iraq appears to Assisted suicide Gun control
be resurging. In the Darfur region of Sudan, people
continue to be killed and driven from their homes as As tides of immigrants and refugees continue to
a result of cultural and racial differences. The long- arrive in the United States and other developed nations,
standing IsraeliPalestinian conflict remains unre- we will be confronted with increased cultural diversity.
solved, and there is little promise of a solution in If we are to continue to assert that cultural diversity is a
the near future. The dispute between India and valuable, desirable asset and embrace the concept of a
Pakistan continues over who should control the dis- global village, we must quickly learn to accept and tol-
puted region of Jammu and Kashmir in the Hima- erate the resulting differences. Your authors do not pro-
layas. The conflict between the Russian government fess to have the solution to these problems. However, as
and separatist movements in the Caucasus continues a means of better preparing you for life in the global
to ebb and flow. The indigenous Uygur ethnic minor- village, which will require frequent interactions with
ity in western China continues to exhibit animosity people who experience the world differently from
toward government policies favoring immigration you, we do hope to stimulate thought and discussion
into the region by other Chinese ethnic groups, espe- about the advantages and difficulties of multiculturalism
cially the Han. Drought, famine, a burgeoning popula- and the need for effective intercultural communication.
tion, and ineffective governmental control continue to
exacerbate ethnic and religious violence throughout References
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increased facility in intercultural communication ing of culture and communication behaviors would be
would be useful? What are some of these occasions? beneficial.
Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede

Model in Context
GEERT HOFSTEDE
A thorough understanding of the study of culture and power distance cultures, (2) weak- and strong-
intercultural communication must include the influential uncertainty avoidance societies, (3) collectivistic and indi-
work of Geert Hofstede, a contemporary pioneer in using vidualistic societies, (4) feminine and masculine societies,
statistical methods to discern the cultural traits of social and (5) short- and long-term oriented societies.
groups. Professor Hofstede begins his essay with a defini- Next, Hofstede explains how his research led to addi-
tion of culture and a description of the various disciplines tional investigation by other scholars, who extended his
of cultural research. He then provides a review of the findings and developed new investigative scales. This led
efforts of earlier scholars to establish a system of catego- to further refinement of Hofstedes theoretical concepts, in-
rization that can be used to classify cultures. Hofstede cluding the development of additional cultural dimensions
then explains the statistical methodology employed in that could be used to characterize cultural groups. Use of
his groundbreaking study of international employees in the cultural dimensions in studying organizational culture
IBM subsidiaries in fifty countries. This is followed by is then discussed. Hofstede concludes his essay with an ac-
an overview of his cultural dimensions model, which con- count of an envisioned model for the future study of culture.
tinues to be widely studied and applied in intercultural The significance of Hofstedes work will become ap-
research. He contrasts the differences among five exten- parent as you read subsequent essays in this text, where
sively used cultural dimensions: (1) small- and large- his cultural dimensions model is referred to frequently.
Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 2, Chapter 14), June 2009. Reprinted by permission of the author. Geert Hof-
stede is Professor Emeritus from the University of Maastricht and a Fellow of the Center for Economic Research at the University
of Tilburg, both in the Netherlands.
Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 19

INTRODUCTION facts of cultural relativity. All cultures constitute

Culture has been defined in many ways; this authors so many somewhat distinct answers to essen-
shorthand definition is, Culture is the collective pro- tially the same questions posed by human biol-
ogy and by the generalities of the human
gramming of the mind that distinguishes the members of
one group or category of people from others. It is always situation. Every societys patterns for living
a collective phenomenon, but it can be connected to must provide approved and sanctioned ways
for dealing with such universal circumstances
different collectives. Within each collective there is a
variety of individuals. If characteristics of individuals as the existence of two sexes; the helplessness
are imagined as varying according to some bell curve, of infants; the need for satisfaction of the ele-
mentary biological requirements such as food,
the variation between cultures is the shift of the bell
curve when one moves from one society to the other. warmth, and sex; the presence of individuals
of different ages and of differing physical and
Most commonly the term culture is used for tribes or
other capacities (Kluckhohn, 1962:31718).
ethnic groups (in anthropology), for nations (in polit-
ical science, sociology and management), and for Many authors in the second half of the twentieth
organizations (in sociology and management). A rela- century have speculated about the nature of the basic
tively unexplored field is the culture of occupations problems of societies that would present distinct di-
(for instance, of engineers versus accountants, or of mensions of culture (for a review see Hofstede, 2001,
academics from different disciplines). 2931). The most common dimension
The term can also be applied to the Culture is the used for ordering societies is their de-
genders, to generations, or to social gree of economic evolution or moder-
classes. However, changing the level collective programming nity. A one-dimensional ordering of
of aggregation studied changes the of the mind that societies from traditional to modern
nature of the concept of culture. distinguishes the fitted well with the nineteenth- and
Societal, national and gender cul- members of one group twentieth-century belief in progress.
tures, which children acquire from Economic evolution is bound to be re-
their earliest youth onwards, are or category of people flected in peoples collective mental pro-
much more deeply rooted in the hu- from others. gramming, but there is no reason why
man mind than occupational cultures economic and technological evolution
acquired at university, or than organizational cultures should suppress other cultural variety. There must be
acquired on the job. The latter are exchangeable when dimensions of culture unrelated to economic evolution.
people take a new job. Societal cultures reside in (of- U.S. anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1976)
ten unconscious) values, in the sense of broad tenden- divided cultures according to their ways of commu-
cies to prefer certain states of affairs over others nicating, into high-context (much of the information
(Hofstede, 2001:5). Organizational cultures reside is implicit) and low-context (nearly everything is ex-
rather in (visible and conscious) practices: the way plicit). In practice this distinction overlaps largely
people perceive what goes on in their organizational with the traditional versus modern distinction.
environment. U.S. sociologists Talcott Parsons and Edward
Shils (1951:77) suggested that all human action is
determined by five pattern variables, choices between
CLASSIFYING CULTURES: pairs of alternatives:
CONCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS 1. Affectivity (need gratification) versus affective
In an article first published in 1952, U.S. anthropolo- neutrality (restraint of impulses);
gist Clyde Kluckhohn argued that there should be 2. Self-orientation versus collectivity-orientation;
universal categories of culture: 3. Universalism (applying general standards) versus
In principle there is a generalized framework particularism (taking particular relationships into
that underlies the more apparent and striking account);
4. Ascription (judging others by who they are) versus the meaning of time, age, history, sickness, and jus-
achievement (judging them by what they do); tice. She seemed to imply that these dimensions are
5. Specificity (limiting relations to others to specific applicable to any level of aggregation.
spheres) versus diffuseness (no prior limitations to The one- or more-dimensional classifications
nature of relations). above represent subjective reflective attempts to order
a complex reality. Each of them is strongly colored by
Parsons and Shils claimed that these choices are the subjective choices of its author(s). They show
present at the individual (personality) level, at the some overlap, but their lack of clarity about and mix-
social system (group or organization) level, and at ing of levels of analysis (individualgroupculture)
the cultural (normative) level. They did not take are severe methodological weaknesses.
into account that different variables could operate at These weaknesses were avoided in an exten-
different aggregation levels. sive review article by U.S. sociologist Alex Inkeles
U.S. anthropologists Florence Kluckhohn and and psychologist Daniel Levinson (1954). The
Fred Strodtbeck (1961:12) ran a field study in five authors limited themselves to culture at the level
geographically close, small communities in the South- of nations, and they summarized all available socio-
western United States: Mormons, Spanish Americans, logical and anthropological studies dealing with
Texans, Navaho Indians, and Zuni Indians. They dis- what was then called national character, which
tinguished these communities on the following value they interpreted as a kind of modal (most com-
orientations: mon) personality type in a national society. What
1. An evaluation of human nature (evilmixed I have labeled dimensions they called standard ana-
good); lytic issues. They proposed
2. The relationship of man to the surrounding natu- To concentrate, for purposes of comparative
ral environment (subjugationharmony mastery); analysis, on a limited number of psychological
3. The orientation in time (toward pastpresent issues that meet at least the following crite-
future); ria. First, they should be found in adults uni-
4. The orientation toward activity (beingbeing in versally, as a function both of maturational
potentials common to man and of socio-
becomingdoing); and
cultural characteristics common to human so-
5. Relationships among people (lineality [that is, hi- cieties. Second, the manner in which they are
erarchically ordered positions]collaterality [that handled should have functional significance
is, group relationships]individualism). for the individual personality as well as for
Others have extrapolated Kluckhohn and the social system (1969:44).
Strodtbecks classification to all kind of social com- From their survey of the literature Inkeles and
parisons, without concern for their geographic limita- Levinson distilled three standard analytic issues that
tions, without considering the effect of levels of
met these criteria:
aggregation, and without empirical support.
British anthropologist Mary Douglas (1973) pro- 1. Relation to authority;
posed a two-dimensional ordering of ways of looking 2. Conception of self, including the individuals
at the world: concepts of masculinity and femininity; and
1. Group or inclusionthe claim of groups over 3. Primary dilemmas or conflicts, and ways of deal-
members, and ing with them, including the control of aggres-
2. Grid or classificationthe degree to which sion and the expression versus inhibition of
interaction is subject to rules. affect.
Douglas saw these as relating to a wide variety of As will be shown below, Inkeles and Levinsons
beliefs and social actions: views of nature, traveling, standard analytic issues were empirically supported in
spatial arrangements, gardening, cookery, medicine, a study by this author more than 20 years later.

EMPIRICAL APPROACHES AND My hunch that the IBM data might have impli-
THE HOFSTEDE DIMENSIONS cations beyond this particular corporation was sup-
ported when I got the opportunity to administer a
In 1949, U.S. psychologist Raymond Cattell pub- number of the same questions to nearly 400 manage-
lished an application of the new statistical technique ment trainees from some 30 countries in an interna-
of factor analysis to the comparison of nations. Cattell tional program unrelated to IBM. Their mean scores
had earlier used factor analysis for studying aspects of by country correlated significantly with the country
intelligence from test scores of individual students. scores obtained from the IBM database. So it seemed
This time he took a matrix of nation-level variables that employees of this multinationala very special
for a large number of countries, borrowing from ge- kind of peoplecould serve for identifying differ-
ography, demographics, history, politics, economics, ences in national value systems. The reason is that
sociology, law, religion and medicine. The resulting from one country to another they represented almost
factors were difficult to interpret, except for the im- perfectly matched samples: they were similar in all
portant role of economic development. Replications respects except nationality, which made the effect of
of his method by others produced trivial results (for national differences in their answers stand out unusu-
a review see Hofstede, 2001:3233). More meaning- ally clearly.
ful were applications to restricted facets of societies. Encouraged by the results of the country-level
U.S. political scientists Phillip Gregg and Arthur correlation analysis I then tried country-level factor
Banks (1965) studied aspects of political systems; analysis. The latter was similar to the approach used
U.S. economists Irma Adelman and Cynthia Taft earlier by Cattell and others, except that now the vari-
Morris (1967) studied factors influencing the devel- ables in the matrix were not indices for the country as
opment of poor countries, and Irish psychologist a whole, but mean scores and sometimes percentages
Richard Lynn (1971; with S.L. Hampson, 1975) stud- of survey answers collected from individuals in those
ied aspects of mental health. countries. Analyses of data at higher levels of aggre-
In the 1970s this author more or less by accident gation are sometimes called ecological. Ecological
got access to a large survey database about values and factor analysis differs from the factor analysis of indi-
related sentiments of people in over fifty countries vidual scores in that a usual caution no longer ap-
around the world (Hofstede, 1980). These people plies: the number of cases does not need to be
worked in the local subsidiaries of one large multina- (much) larger than the numbers of variables. The sta-
tional corporation: IBM. Most parts of the organization bility of the results of an ecological factor analysis
had been surveyed twice over a four-year interval, and does not depend on the number of cases, but on
the database contained more than 100,000 question- the number of individuals whose scores were aggre-
naires. Initial analyses of the database at the level of gated into these cases. One may even start from a
individual respondents proved confusing, but a break- matrix with fewer cases than variables.
through occurred when the focus was directed at cor- Factor analyzing a matrix of 32 values questions
relations between mean scores of survey items at the for initially 40 countries, I found these values to clus-
level of countries. Patterns of correlation at the country ter very differently from what was found at the indi-
level could be strikingly different from what was found vidual level. The new factors revealed common
at the individual level, and needed an entirely different problems with which IBM employees in all these so-
interpretation. One of the weaknesses of much cross- cieties had to cope, but for which their upbringing in
cultural research is not being aware of the difference their country presented its own profile of solutions.
between analysis at the individual level and at the cul- These problems were:
ture level. This leads to what I call a reverse ecological
fallacy. In an impressive review of 180 studies using 1. Dependence on superiors;
my work by Kirkman et al. (2006), more than half 2. Need for rules and predictability, also associated
failed to distinguish individual level results from with nervous stress;
culture-level generalizations, which led to numerous 3. The balance between individual goals and depen-
errors of interpretation and application. dence on the company;
4. The balance between ego values (like the need the same or similar questions with other cross-
for money and careers) and social values (like national populations. Between 1990 and 2002 six ma-
cooperation and a good living environment). jor replications (14 or more countries) used country
The former were more frequently chosen by elites, employees and managers of other corporations
men, the latter by women, but there were also and organizations, airline pilots, consumers and civil
country differences. servants; (see Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005, p. 26).
A breakthrough in the research occurred when
These empirical results were strikingly similar to
country scores on the dimensions turned out to corre-
the standard analytical issues described in Inkeles and
late significantly with conceptually related external
Levinsons 1954 article. Dependence on superiors re-
data. Thus Power Distance scores correlated with a
lates to the first, need for predictability to the third,
dimension from Gregg and Banks analysis of political
the balance between the individual and the company
systems and also with a dimension from Adelman and
to the conception of self, and the balance between ego
Morris study of economic development; Uncertainty
and social values to concepts of masculinity and fem-
Avoidance correlated with a dimension from Lynn
ininity, which were also classified under the second
and Hampsons study of mental health; Individualism
standard analytic issue.
correlated strongly with national wealth (Gross Na-
The four basic problem areas defined by Inkeles
tional Product per capita) and Femininity with the per-
and Levinson and empirically supported in the IBM
centage of national income spent on development aid.
data represent dimensions of national cultures. A di-
These external validations are continued, and the sec-
mension is an aspect of a culture that can be mea-
ond edition of Cultures Consequences (Hofstede,
sured relative to other cultures. Later, on the basis
2001:50320) lists more than 400 significant correla-
of research by Canadian psychologist Michael Harris
tions between the IBM-based scores and results of
Bond centered in the Far East (Hofstede and Bond,
other studies. Recent validations show no loss of valid-
1988), a fifth dimension was added. These dimen-
ity, indicating that the country differences these di-
sions were labeled (Hofstede, 1991, 2001):
mensions describe are, indeed, basic and long-term.
1. Power Distance, related to the different solutions In correlating the dimensions with other data
to the basic problem of human inequality; the influence of national wealth (Gross National Prod-
2. Uncertainty Avoidance, related to the level of stress uct per capita) should always be taken into account.
in a society in the face of an unknown future; Two of the dimensions, Individualism and small
Power Distance, are significantly correlated with
3. Individualism versus Collectivism, related to the wealth. This means that all wealth-related phenomena
integration of individuals into primary groups; tend also to correlate with these dimensions. Differ-
4. Masculinity versus Femininity, related to the divi- ences in national wealth can be considered a more
sion of emotional roles between women and parsimonious explanation of these other phenomena
men; than differences in culture. In correlating with the
5. Long Term versus Short Term Orientation, related culture dimensions, it is therefore advisable to always
to the choice of focus for peoples efforts: the include the wealth variable. After controlling for
future or the present and past. wealth, correlations with culture may disappear. The
shared correlation of Individualism and (small) Power
Each country could be positioned relative to Distance with national wealth implies that these di-
other countries through a score on each dimension. mensions tend to be intercorrelated. However, if na-
The dimensions were statistically distinct and oc- tional wealth is controlled for, this intercorrelation
curred in all possible combinations, although some usually disappears.
combinations were more frequent than others. Of particular interest is a link that was found
After the initial confirmation of the country dif- between culture according to the Hofstede dimen-
ferences in IBM in data from management trainees sions and personality dimensions according to the
elsewhere, the IBM dimensions and country scores empirically based Big Five personality test (Costa
were validated through replications by others, using and McCrae, 1992). This test has now been used in

over 30 countries, and significant correlations were is statistical, not every line applies equally strongly to
found between country norms on the personality di- every country.
mensions (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Power Distance has been defined as the extent to
experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) which the less powerful members of organizations
and culture dimension scores. For example, 55% of and institutions (like the family) accept and expect
country differences on Neuroticism can be explained that power is distributed unequally. This represents
by a combination of Uncertainty Avoidance and Mas- inequality (more versus less), but defined from below,
culinity, and 39% of country differences on Extraver- not from above. It suggests that a societys level of
sion by Individualism alone (Hofstede and McCrae, inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as
2002). So culture and personality are linked but the by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are
link is statistical, and should not be used for stereo- extremely fundamental facts of any society. All socie-
typing individuals. ties are unequal, but some are more unequal than
Validating the dimensions is of course not only others. Table 1.1 lists a selection of differences between
and not even mainly a quantitative issue. Equally im- national societies that validation research showed to
portant is the qualitative interpretation of what differ- be associated with the Power Distance dimension.
ences on the dimensions mean for each of the societies For a more complete review the reader is referred to
studied, which calls for an emic approach to each Hofstede, 2001 and/or Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005.
society, linking it to the etic of the dimensional data. The statements refer to extremes; actual situations
may be found anywhere in between the extremes,
and the association of a statement with a dimension is
always statistical, never absolute.
THE HOFSTEDE DIMENSIONS Power distance index scores were higher for East
IN A NUTSHELL European, Latin, Asian and African countries and
In this section I will summarize the content of each lower for Germanic and English-speaking Western
dimension, opposing cultures with low and high countries.
scores. These oppositions are based on correlations Uncertainty Avoidance is not the same as risk
with studies by others, and because the relationship avoidance; it deals with a societys tolerance for
TABLE 1.1 Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies
Small Power Distance Large Power Distance
Use of power should be legitimate and is subject to criteria Power is a basic fact of society antedating good or evil: its
of good and evil legitimacy is irrelevant
Parents treat children as equals Parents teach children obedience
Older people are neither respected nor feared Older people are both respected and feared
Student-centered education Teacher-centered education
Hierarchy means inequality of roles, established for Hierarchy means existential inequality
convenience
Subordinates expect to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to do
Pluralist governments based on majority vote and changed Autocratic governments based on co-optation and changed
peacefully by revolution
Corruption rare; scandals end political careers Corruption frequent; scandals are covered up
Income distribution in society rather even Income distribution in society very uneven
Religions stressing equality of believers Religions with a hierarchy of priests
ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture pro- and in German speaking countries, lower in English
grams its members to feel either uncomfortable or speaking, Nordic and Chinese culture countries.
comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured Individualism on the one side versus its opposite,
situations are novel, unknown, surprising, different Collectivism, as a societal, not an individual, character-
from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to min- istic, is the degree to which people in a society are
imize the possibility of such situations by strict be- integrated into groups. On the individualist side we
havioral codes, laws and rules, disapproval of find cultures in which the ties between individuals
deviant opinions, and a belief in ab- are loose: everyone is expected to
solute Truth; there can only be one look after him/herself and his/her im-
Truth and we have it. Research has
Masculinity versus its mediate family. On the collectivist
shown that people in uncertainty opposite, Femininity side we find cultures in which people
avoiding countries are also more refers to the from birth onwards are integrated into
emotional, and motivated by inner distribution of values strong, cohesive in-groups, often ex-
nervous energy. The opposite type, tended families (with uncles, aunts
uncertainty accepting cultures, are
between the genders. and grandparents) that continue pro-
more tolerant of opinions different tecting them in exchange for unques-
from what they are used to; they try to have fewer tioning loyalty. Again, the issue addressed by this
rules, and on the philosophical and religious level dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding
they are relativist and allow different currents to all societies in the world. Table 1.3 lists a selection of
flow side by side. People within these cultures are differences between societies that validation research
more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not ex- showed to be associated with this dimension.
pected by their environment to express emotions. Individualism prevails in developed and Western
Table 1.2 lists a selection of differences between soci- countries, while collectivism prevails in less-developed
eties that validation research showed to be associated and Eastern countries; Japan takes a middle position on
with the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension. this dimension.
Uncertainty avoidance scores are higher in East and Masculinity versus its opposite, Femininity, again
Central European countries, in Latin countries, in Japan as a national, not as an individual characteristic, refers
TABLE 1.2 Ten Differences Between Weak- and Strong- Uncertainty Avoidance Societies
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
The uncertainty inherent in life is accepted and each day is The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a continuous
taken as it comes threat that must be fought
Ease, lower stress, self-control, low anxiety Higher stress, emotionality, anxiety, neuroticism
Higher scores on subjective health and well-being Lower scores on subjective health and well-being
Tolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is different is Intolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is different
curious is dangerous
Comfortable with ambiguity and chaos Need for clarity and structure
Teachers may say I dont know Teachers supposed to have all the answers
Changing jobs no problem Staying in jobs even if disliked
Dislike of ruleswritten or unwritten Emotional need for ruleseven if not obeyed
In politics, citizens feel and are seen as competent towards In politics, citizens feel and are seen as incompetent to-
authorities wards authorities
In religion, philosophy and science: relativism and In religion, philosophy and science: belief in ultimate
empiricism truths and grand theories

TABLE 1.3 Ten Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Societies
Individualism Collectivism
Everyone is supposed to take care of him- or herself and People are born into extended families or clans which
his or her immediate family only protect them in exchange for loyalty
Iconsciousness Weconsciousness
Right of privacy Stress on belonging
Speaking ones mind is healthy Harmony should always be maintained
Others classified as individuals Others classified as in-group or out-group
Personal opinion expected: one person one vote Opinions and votes predetermined by in-group
Transgression of norms leads to guilt feelings Transgression of norms leads to shame feelings
Languages in which the word I is indispensable Languages in which the word I is avoided
Purpose of education is learning how to learn Purpose of education is learning how to do
Task prevails over relationship Relationship prevails over task
to the distribution of values between the genders, Italy and Mexico; it is moderately high in English
which is another fundamental issue for any society speaking Western countries; it is low in Nordic coun-
to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM tries and in the Netherlands and moderately low in
studies revealed that (a) womens values differ less some Latin and Asian countries like France, Spain,
among societies than mens values; (b) mens values Portugal, Chile, Korea and Thailand.
from one country to another contain a dimension Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation:
from very assertive and competitive and maximally This fifth dimension was found in a study among
different from womens values on the one side, to students in 23 countries around the world, using a
modest and caring and similar to womens values questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars (Hofstede
on the other. The assertive pole has been called mas- and Bond, 1988). Values associated with Long Term
culine and the modest, caring pole feminine. The Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associ-
women in feminine countries have the same modest, ated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tra-
caring values as the men; in the masculine countries dition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting
they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not ones face. Both the positively and the negatively
as much as the men, so that these countries show a rated values of this dimension are found in the teach-
gap between mens values and womens values. In ings of Confucius around 500 B.C. So it is not correct
masculine cultures there is sometimes a taboo around to equal Long-Term Orientation with Confucianism; it
this dimension (Hofstede et al., 1998). Taboos are represents a focus on the future-oriented maxims of
based on deeply rooted values; this taboo shows Confucianism, at the expense of the past-oriented
that the Mas/Fem dimension in some societies ones. Also, the dimension applies equally well to coun-
touches basic and often unconscious values, too pain- tries without a Confucian heritage. Table 1.5 lists a
ful to be explicitly discussed. In fact, the taboo vali- selection of differences between societies that valida-
dates the importance of the dimension. Table 1.4 lists tion research showed to be associated with this
a selection of differences between societies that vali- dimension.
dation research showed to be associated with this Long-term oriented are East Asian countries, in
dimension. particular China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and
Masculinity is high in Japan, in German- South Korea but to a lesser extent also India and
speaking countries, and in some Latin countries like Brazil. A medium term orientation is found in most
TABLE 1.4 Ten Differences Between Feminine and Masculine Societies
Femininity Masculinity
Minimum emotional and social role differentiation Maximum emotional and social role differentiation
between the genders between the genders
Men and women should be modest and caring Men should be and women may be assertive and
ambitious
Balance between family and work Work prevails over family
Sympathy for the weak Admiration for the strong
Both fathers and mothers deal with facts and feelings Fathers deal with facts, mothers with feelings
Both boys and girls may cry but neither should fight Girls cry, boys dont; boys should fight back, girls
shouldnt fight
Mothers decide on number of children Fathers decide on family size
Many women in elected political positions Few women in elected political positions
Religion focuses on fellow human beings Religion focuses on God or gods
Matter-of-fact attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way of Moralistic attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way of
relating performing
TABLE 1.5 Ten Differences Between Short- and Long-Term-Oriented Societies
Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation
Most important events in life occurred in the past or take Most important events in life will occur in the future
place now
Immediate need gratification expected Need gratification deferred until later

There are universal guidelines about what is good and evil What is good and evil depends upon the circumstances
Traditions are sacrosanct Traditions are adaptable to changed circumstances
Family life guided by imperatives Family life guided by shared tasks
What one thinks and says should be true What one does should be virtuous
Children should learn tolerance and respect Children should learn to be thrifty
Social spending and consumption Saving, investing
Unstructured problem solving Structured, mathematical problem solving
In business, stress on short-term profits In business, stress on future market position
European countries, but the United States and Britain OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE
are more short term oriented. A very short-term ori-
DIMENSIONAL PARADIGM
entation is found in Africa and in a number of Islamic
countries. When Cultures Consequences appeared in 1980, it re-
presented a new paradigm in social science research:
analysing survey-based values data at the national From my point of view the horizontal/vertical distinc-
level and quantifying differences between national tion for Ind/Col as a dimension of culture is redun-
cultures by positions on these dimensions. Like other dant. It may be useful at the individual level, but this
new paradigms, it initially met with rejection, criti- is for others to decide.
cism and ridicule next to enthusiasm (Kuhn, 1970). Like individualism and collectivism, the terms
By the 1990s the paradigm had been taken over by masculinity and femininity have also been used for
many others, and discussions shifted to the content describing values at the individual level. Earlier stud-
and number of dimensions. The paradigm inspired a ies by U.S. psychologist Sandra Bem (1974) showed
number of other studies into dimensions of national already that in this case masculinity and femininity
cultures. should again rather be treated as separate aspects
Many studies further explored the dimension of than as opposite poles.
individualism and collectivism (e.g. Kim et al., 1994; An important alternative application of the di-
Triandis, 1995; Hofstede, 2001: Chapter 5). From all mensional paradigm was developed by the Israeli
the Hofstede dimensions, this one met with the most psychologist Shalom Schwartz. From a survey of
positive reactions among psychologists, especially in the literature, Schwartz composed a list of 56 va-
the U.S.A., which happened to be the highest scoring lues. Through a network of colleagues he collected
country on it. Ind/Col scores were strongly correlated scores from samples of elementary school teachers
with national wealth, which led some people to the and of college students in over 50 countries.
conclusion that promoting individualism in other cul- (Schwartz, 1994; Schwartz and Bardi, 2001). Re-
tures would contribute to their economic develop- spondents scored the importance of each value as
ment. In fact, data show that the causality is most a guiding principle in my life. Schwartz at first as-
probably reversed: wealth tends to lead to individual- sumed the same dimensions would apply to indivi-
ism (Hofstede, 2001: 253). The individualism in U.S. duals and to countries, but his data showed he
culture also led people to studying it at the individual needed different classifications at different levels.
level (comparing one person to another), not at the At the country level he distinguished seven dimen-
level of societies. In this case it is no longer a dimensions: Conservatism, Hierarchy, Mastery, Affective
sion of culture but possibly a dimension of personal- autonomy, Intellectual autonomy, Egalitarian com-
ity. Also, there is no more reason why individualism mitment and Harmony. Country scores for teachers
and collectivism need to be opposite; they should published by Schwartz in 1994 were significantly
rather be considered separate aspects of personality. correlated with the IBM scores for Individualism,
An extensive review of studies of individualism at the Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede,
individual level was published by Oyserman, Coon 2001, p. 265).
and Kemmelmeier (2002). Comparing these studies Another large scale application was the GLOBE
across societies, they found a different ranking of (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effec-
countries from the Hofstede studies; but Schimmack, tiveness) project, conceived by US management scholar
Oishi and Diener (2005) proved this was due to a Robert J. House in 1991. At first House focused on
methodological error: Oyserman et al. forgot to control leadership, but soon the study branched out into other
for acquiescence (response set), and the acquiescence aspects of national and organizational cultures. In the
in their data was significantly negatively correlated period 19941997 some 170 voluntary collaborators
with the object of their study which made their results collected data from about 17,000 managers in nearly
random. 1,000 local (non-multinational) organizations belong-
The cultural focus on the Individualism versus ing to one of three industries: food processing, financial
Collectivism dimension led Triandis (1995) to split- services, and telecommunication services, in some 60
ting it into horizontal and vertical individualism. This societies throughout the world. In the preface to the
split overlooks the fact that the Hofstede dimension book describing the project (House et al., 2004),
of large versus small Power Distance already covered House writes We have a very adequate dataset to rep-
the horizontal/vertical aspect quite satisfactorily. licate Hofstedes (1980) landmark study and extend
that study to test hypotheses relevant to relationships both correlated with Hofstedes Individualism, one
among societal-level variables, organizational practices, of these also with Power Distance (Smith, Trompe-
and leader attributes and behavior. naars and Dugan, 1995; Smith, Dugan and Trompe-
For conceptual reasons GLOBE expanded the naars, 1996). The only country scores that could be
five Hofstede dimensions to nine. They maintained based on Trompenaars data refer to these two flavors
the labels Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance of individualism (Smith, Peterson and Schwartz,
(but not necessarily their meaning). They split Collec- 2002). Trompenaars claim to seven dimensions
tivism into Institutional Collectivism and In-Group therefore lacks empirical support.
Collectivism, and MasculinityFemininity into Asser- One large international survey effort that devel-
tiveness and Gender Egalitarianism. Long Term oped independently from the search for cultural di-
Orientation became Future Orientation. They added mensions is the World Values Survey led by U.S.
two more dimensions: Humane Orientation and political scientist Ronald Inglehart. A study of values
Performance Orientation. The nine dimensions via public opinion surveys was started in the early
were covered by 78 survey questions, half of them 1980s as the European Values Survey. In 1990 a
asking respondents to describe their culture (as is) second round was started, renamed the World
and the other half to judge it (should be). GLOBE Values Survey (WVS). It eventually covered some
thus produced 9 2 = 18 culture scores for each 60,000 respondents across 43 societies, representing
country: nine dimensions as is and nine dimensions about 70 percent of the worlds population with a
should be. questionnaire including more than 360 forced-
In an evaluation of the GLOBE project choice questions. Areas covered were ecology, econ-
(Hofstede, forthcoming), I refactor analyzed the omy, education, emotions, family, gender and
country scores on GLOBEs 18 dimensions. Five sexuality, government and politics, health, happi-
meta-factors emerged, of which the strongest, group- ness, leisure and friends, morality, religion, society
ing seven of the 18 measures, was highly significantly and nation, and work (Inglehart, Basaez and
correlated with GNP per capita and next with the Moreno, 1998; Inglehart et al., 2004). Although the
Hofstede Power Distance dimension. Three more search for dimensions was not a primary purpose
meta-factors were significantly correlated with, of this study, Inglehart in an overall statistical analy-
respectively, the Hofstede Uncertainty Avoidance, sis found two key country-level factors which he
Individualism and Long Term Orientation dimen- called: Well-being versus survival and Secular-
sions. The GLOBE questionnaire contained very few rational versus traditional authority (Inglehart,
items covering Masculinity in the Hofstede sense, but 1997, p. 8198). These were again significantly cor-
whatever there was belonged to the fifth meta-factor. related with the Hofstede dimensions: Well-being
The results show that in spite of a very different ap- versus survival correlated with a combination of In-
proach, the massive body of GLOBE data still re- dividualism and Masculinity; Secular-rational versus
flected the structure of the original Hofstede model. traditional authority negatively with Power Distance.
An author sometimes cited as having researched Further analysis of the enormous WVS survey data
dimensions of national culture is the Dutch manage- bank may produce additional dimensions; one
ment consultant Fons Trompenaars (1993). He dis- promising example follows.
tinguished seven conceptual dimensions, the first five
borrowed from Parsons and Shils (1951) and the last
two from Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), which EXPANDING THE HOFSTEDE
he applied to the level of nations (see earlier in this
article). Trompenaars collected a database of survey
DIMENSIONAL MODEL WITH NEW
items related to these dimensions, but in the only DATA: MINKOVS CONTRIBUTION
statistical analysis of his data published so far, apply- The first, 1980 edition of Cultures Consequences was
ing Multidimensional Scaling to some 9,000 ques- inspired by my personal experiences as a psychologist
tionnaires, only two interpretable factors emerged, on the international staff of IBM, and its research base

was the data bank of employee attitude survey scores author and a team of collaborators in the 1980s
collected by the IBM World Trade Corporation across (Hofstede et al., 1990). Qualitative and quantitative
more than fifty national subsidiaries. At that time (the data were collected in twenty work organizations or
mid-1970s), the IBM database was very likely the parts of organizations in the Netherlands and Den-
largest cross-national collection of comparative value mark. The units studied varied from a toy manufactur-
statements in the world. ing company to two municipal police corps. This study
Now, more than thirty years later, a number of found large differences among units in perceptions of
new cross-national databases of value measurements daily practices but only modest differences in values,
have been created and made accessible to the re- beyond those due to such basic facts as nationality,
searcher. If I had to start from scratch now, I would education, gender and age group.
select the most relevant data from presently available Six independent dimensions are used to describe
sources like the World Values Survey. The second, the larger part of the variety in organization practices.
2001 edition of Cultures Consequences where possible These six dimensions can be used as a framework to
correlates my IBM-based dimension scores with such describe organization cultures, but their research base
new data. I considered a continuing search into the in twenty units from two countries is too narrow to
ever-expanding body of data highly desirable, but be- consider them as universally valid and sufficient. For
yond my possibilities. Much to my pleasure, Professor describing organization cultures in other countries
Michael Minkov from Sofia, Bulgaria, who some ten and/or in other types of organizations, additional di-
years ago crossed my path, took up this challenge, as mensions may be necessary or some of the six may be
he proved with his 2007 book What Makes Us Differ- less useful. The six dimensions were:
ent and Similar.
1. Process-oriented versus results-
My cooperation with Minkov
The dimensional oriented. Process-oriented cultures
and two other colleagues led to a
are dominated by technical and bu-
new, 2008 version of the Values Sur- paradigm has also been reaucratic routines, results-oriented
vey Module, a set of questions avail- applied at the level of by a common concern for out-
able to researchers who wish to
replicate my research into national
organizations. comes. This dimension was associ-
ated with the cultures degree of
culture differences. Earlier versions
homogeneity: in results-oriented
were issued in 1982 (VSM82) and 1994 (VSM94).
units, everybody perceived their practices in about
Next to the established five Hofstede dimensions,
the same way; in process-oriented units, there were
the VSM08 includes, on an experimental basis, two
vast differences in perception among different levels
new dimensions from Minkov: Indulgence versus Re-
and parts of the unit. The degree of homogeneity of a
straint, and Monumentalism versus Self-Effacement
culture is a measure of its strength: the study con-
(or Flexumility).
firmed that strong cultures are more results-oriented
The Values Survey Module (VSM) can be down-
than weak ones, and vice versa (Peters & Water-
loaded from www.geerthofstede.nl. Aspiring users
man, 1982).
should carefully study the accompanying Manual be-
fore they decide to collect their own data. In most 2. Job-oriented versus employee-oriented. The former
cases, the use of existing quality research is to be assume responsibility for the employees job per-
preferred above amateur replications. formance only, and nothing more; employee-
oriented cultures assume a broad responsibility
for their members well-being. At the level of in-
DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL dividual managers, the distinction between job
CULTURES orientation and employee orientation has been
The dimensional paradigm has also been applied at popularized by Blake and Moutons Managerial
the level of organizations. A research project similar Grid (1964). The Hofstede et al. study shows
to the IBM studies but focusing on organization that job versus employee orientation is part of a
rather than national cultures was carried out by this culture and not (only) a choice for an individual
manager. A units position on this dimension DIMENSIONALITY OF CULTURES

seems to be largely the result of historical factors, IN THE FUTURE
like the philosophy of its founder(s) and the
presence or absence in its recent history of eco- The fact that the world around us is changing does not
nomic crises with collective layoffs. need to affect the usefulness of the dimensional paradigm;
on the contrary, the paradigm can help us understand the
3. Professional versus parochial. In the former, the internal logic and the implications of the changes.
(usually highly educated) members identify pri- Some critics suggest that the number of dimen-
marily with their profession; in the latter, the sions should be extended. Triandis (2004) has de-
members derive their identity from the organiza-
fended this position, and the GLOBE project
tion for which they work. Sociology has long actually tried to extend the five Hofstede dimensions
known this dimension as local versus cosmo- to eighteen. But additional dimensions are only
politan, the contrast between an internal and
meaningful if they are both conceptually and statisti-
an external frame of reference (Merton, 1949). cally independent from those already available, and
4. Open systems versus closed systems. This dimen- they should also be validated by significant correla-
sion refers to the common style of internal and tions with conceptually related external measures.
external communication, and to the ease with There is an epistemological reason why the number
which outsiders and newcomers are admitted. of meaningful dimensions will always be small. Di-
This is the only one of the six dimensions for mensions should not be reified. They do not exist
which a systematic difference was found between in a tangible sense. They are constructs: if they exist,
Danish and Dutch units. It seems that organiza- it is in our minds. They should help us in under-
tional openness is a societal characteristic of standing and handling the complex reality of our so-
Denmark more than of the Netherlands. This cial world. But human minds have a limited capacity
shows that organization cultures also contain ele- for processing information, and therefore dimensional
ments from national culture differences. models that are too complex will not be experienced
5. Tight versus loose control. This dimension deals as useful. In a famous little article, Miller (1956) ar-
with the degree of formality and punctuality within gued that useful classifications should not have more
the organization; it is partly a function of the units than seven categories, plus or minus two. I would go
technology: banks and pharmaceutical companies for the minus rather than the plus.
can be expected to show tight control, research Within the dimensional model cultures can of
laboratories and advertising agencies loose control; course change their position on a dimension. Critics
but even with the same technology some units may argue that Hofstede country scores based on IBM
still be tighter or looser than others. subsidiaries around 1970 are obsolete. But studies
6. Pragmatic versus normative. The last dimension correlating the old country scores with related vari-
describes the prevailing way (flexible or rigid) ables available on a year-by-year basis find no weak-
of dealing with the environment, in particular ening of the correlations. A good reason for this is
with customers. Units selling services are likely that the country scores on the five dimensions do
to be found towards the pragmatic (flexible) side, not provide absolute country positions, but only their
units involved in the application of laws and positions relative to the other countries in the set. The
rules towards the normative (rigid) side. This di- relationship of the dimensions to basic problems of
mension measures the degree of customer orien- societies and the historical evidence of the continuity
tation, which is a highly popular topic in the of national solutions to such problems suggest that
management literature. even over much longer periods the measures obtained
will retain their validity. Influences like those of new
The research grounding of these dimensions is technologies tend to affect all countries without nec-
documented extensively in Hofstede et al. (1990). essarily changing their relative position or ranking; if
Applications and implications can be found in their cultures change, they change in formation. Only
Hofstede and Hofstede (2005, Chapter 8). if on a dimension one country leapfrogs over others

will the validity of the original scores be reduced. This Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures Consequences: Comparing
is a relatively rare occurrence. Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across
Some authors predict that new technologies will Nations. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
make societies more and more similar. Technological Hofstede, G. (2006). What did GLOBE really measure?
modernization is an important force toward culture Researchers minds versus respondents minds. Journal
change and it leads to partly similar developments of International Business Studies.
in different societies, but there is not the slightest Hofstede, G. & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius con-
proof that it wipes out variety on other dimensions. nection: from cultural roots to economic growth.
Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 421.
It may even increase differences, as on the basis of
Hofstede, G. & McCrae, R. R. (2004). Culture and person-
pre-existing value systems societies cope with techno-
ality revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of cul-
logical modernization in different ways.
ture. Cross-cultural Research, 38(1), 5288.
Culture change basic enough to invalidate the
Hofstede, G. & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and Orga-
country dimension index rankings, or even the rele-
nizations: Software of the Mind, Revised and expanded
vance of the dimensional model, will need either a 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
much longer periodsay, 50 to 100 yearsor ex- Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D. D. & Sanders, G.
tremely dramatic outside events. Many differences be- (1990). Measuring organizational cultures: A qualita-
tween national cultures at the end of the 20th century tive and quantitative study across twenty cases. Admin-
were already recognizable in the years 1900, 1800 istrative Science Quarterly, 35, 286316.
and 1700 if not earlier. There is no reason why they Hofstede, G. with Arrindell, W. A., Best, D. L., de Mooij, M.
should not play a role until 2100 or beyond. Hoppe, M. H., van de Vliert, E., van Rossum, J. H. A.,
Verweij, J., Vunderink, M. & Williams, J. E. (1998).
Masculinity and Femininity: The taboo dimension of na-
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Concepts and Questions
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M. & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). 1. Hofstede refers to culture as a collective phenomenon.
Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation How would you explain this? Can you provide some
of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-Analyses. Psy- examples?
chological Bulletin, 128(1), 372. 2. What is the purpose of attempting to categorize or
Parsons, T. & Shils, E. A. (1951). Toward a General Theory classify cultures through the use of cultural dimen-
of Action. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. sions? How would you define a cultural dimension?
Peters, T. J. & Waterman, R. H., Jr. (1982). In Search of 3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the meth-
Excellence: Lessons from Americas Best-Run Companies. odology Hofstede used to identify his set of cultural
New York: Harper & Row. dimensions?
Schimmack, U., Oishi, S. & Diener, E. (2005). Individual- 4. Why do you think power distance scores were lower
ism: A valid and important dimension of cultural dif- in English-speaking Western countries?
ferences between nations. Personality and Social 5. Do you see yourself as a high- or low- uncertainty
Psychology Review, 9, 1731. avoidance person? Why?
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism:
6. Some scholars contend that traditionally collectivistic-
New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C.
leaning nations are becoming more individualistic.
Triandis, C. Kagitibasi, S. C. Choi & G. Yoon (Eds.),
What do you think might be some causes behind a
Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and
movement from a group focus to an individual
Applications (pp. 85119). Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
focus?
Schwartz, S. H. & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across
culture: Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of 7. According to Hofstedes research, the United States
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 26890. scores moderately high in masculinity. Do you think
immigrants to the Unites States will affect this score?
Smith, P. B., Trompenaars, F. & Dugan, S. (1995). The Rotter
In what way?
locus of control scale in 43 countries: A test of cultural
relativity. International Journal of Psychology, 30, 377400. 8. Looking at Hofstedes Short- and Long-Term dimen-
sion, what are some of the problems that a U.S. com-
Smith, P. B., Dugan, S. & Trompenaars, F. (1996). National
pany doing business in China might encounter?
culture and the values of organizational employees: A
dimensional analysis across 43 nations. Journal of 9. Do you think that Hofstedes cultural dimensions
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 23164. model can be a reliable measure of organizational cul-
Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F. & Schwartz, S. H. (2002) ture? Why?
Cultural values, sources of guidance, and their rele- 10. In your opinion, will new and emerging technologies
vance to managerial behavior: a 47-nation study. Jour- make national cultures more or less similar? What is
nal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, [TX], 188208. the basis for your opinion?

Text not available due to copyright restrictions
Harry C. Triandis Culture and Conflict 35





Intercultural Communication
in a Globalized World
BERNARD SAINT-JACQUES
Our next essay discusses the impact of globalization on as ways of thinking, beliefs, and values, and a greater
the study of culture and intercultural communication. incorporation of language into the teaching of ICC.
Professor Saint-Jacques first critiques preglobalization Our inclusion of this essay is intended to show you
era theoretical concepts of culture and proposes a new that there are many ways of viewing culture, but also that
approach. He contends that events over the past several your views should not become static. Culture and com-
decades have changed the way we should consider culture munication are influenced by societal changes, and these
because globalization has created a mixture of cultures changes need to be acknowledged, both in theory devel-
and people within each culture. As a result, earlier cul- opment and in classroom instructional methods.
tural concepts, such as Hofstedes model of individualism
collectivism, are dated and no longer reflect the contem-
porary societal setting. Saint-Jacques believes that any A NEW APPROACH TO A THEORY
theory of culture in the globalized society must address
three basic facts: (1) Cultural Predestination!, (2) Indi-
OF CULTURE
vidual Values, and (3) A Set of Dynamic Processes of Introduction
Generation and Transformation. These three considera- Intercultural communication is based on intercultural
tions are then integrated to form the basis for Saint- understanding. Intercultural understanding cannot be
Jacquess proposed new theoretical approach to culture. realized without an objective and up-to-date under-
Japan is used as a case study to illustrate how culture is standing of the notion of culture. Globalization, how-
being transformed by the shrinking global community. ever, has changed the notion of culture. Culture can
The concept of identity and how it has been altered no longer be described as the property of a single
by globalization is also discussed in the essay. Saint- nation. Globalization has changed the concept of cul-
Jacques sees people in modern society as living at the ture (Ogura, 2006:23). Globalization stands for the
same time within particular cultural settings on the one overlapping of global and local factors (Robertson,
hand, and between different cultural environments on the 1997). Human beings are living at the same time
other one, which produces multiple identities. In the sec- within particular settings on the one hand, and be-
ond part of his essay, Saint-Jacques proposes an approach tween different cultural environments on the other
to teaching intercultural communication (ICC) in the one. This is nothing new. One lives between ones
globalized society. His method involves viewing culture home in a family on the one side, and also is situated
author and the publisher. Dr. Bernard Saint-Jacques is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of British Columbia
and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.
Bernard Saint-Jacques Intercultural Communication in a Globalized World 45

in the daily life worldgoing to school, working in Three Decades Have Passed
ones professional life on the other. This has been
happening for thousands of years. In a culturally It is essential to recall that three decades have passed
globalized world, between-situations are becoming since Hofstede proposed his cultural dimensions and
essential for any understanding of culture. There his classification of countries. During that time, there
were three stages in globalization. The first one was were many reviews of Hofstedes work expressing
political, the founding of the United Nations in 1945. several important caveats in dimensionalising cultural
The second one was the economic globalization, the values. A large number of questions remains as to
spread of free-market capitalism in virtually every how exactly these concepts work in real-life relation-
country of the world since 1980. The third one ships. These concepts suffer from the same weakness
is cultural globalization, which has an essential as the concepts of culture in that they are too readily
function for the efficient working of the political used to explain everything that occurs in a society
and economic globalizations of the world. In fact, (Kim, Triandis, Kagitcibasi, Choi, 1994). Concerning
the economic and political globalizations have given individualism versus collectivism, the multidimen-
rise to the problematic triangle identityculture sional nature of these concepts has been frequently
communication in international relations (Wolton, discussed. We can be both individualistic in some
2005). As the technology for worldwide transmission situations and collectivistic in others (Kim et al.,
of information continues to progress, attempts by 1996). In a recent paper, Chirkov, Linch, and Niwa
some countries to restrict this transmission are be- (2005), examining the problems in the measurements
coming more and more ineffective (McPhail, 1989). of cultural dimensions and orientations, raised three
The debates on globalization have fo- basic questions: (1) The operationalization of indi-
cused on economic and political is- vidualism/collectivism assumes a high
sues, but the powerful impact of The powerful impact of degree of cultural homogeneity of the
globalization on culture has not surveyed countries across geographical
globalization on culture regions and across different life do-
been sufficiently analyzed and
has not been sufficiently mains. This assumption however is
researched.
Globalization provides a good analyzed and far from reality, especially in multi-
opportunity to reflect on the efficien- researched. ethnic countries (p. 472). (2) More-
cy of the tools which the intercultural over, this operationalization of cultural
enterprise so far has developed to promote intercul- dimensions ignores the fact that differ-
tural understanding (Kalscheuer, 2002). Thomass ent cultural values and practices may be internalized
(1996) definition of culture as a system that is valid by people to different degrees, thus demonstrating
for all members of a society or nation, as well as Halls high interpersonal variation in their endorsement
(1984) and Hofstedes (1980, 1991, 1997) (DAndrade, 1992). (3) Measuring culture-related
cultural dimensions, fixed sets of polar attributes constructs to average individuals scores on, for exam-
(collectivism vs. individualism, monochromic vs. ple, an individualismcollectivism self-report scale,
polychronic, high power distance vs. low power dis- across samples taken from different countries is
tance, high context culture vs. low context culture, etc wrong. This does not make sense because culture
) obtained with questionnaires to very small groups is not an attribute of a person, nor is it the main value
of participants of a given society, are not any more of some aggregate of individuals (p. 473). Further,
adapted to research in intercultural understanding. quoting Fisk (2002), Chirkov et. al. (2005) conclude
Cultures are not homogeneous and stable entities. that taking the mean of a group of individual scores
Recent cultural theory takes into account the increas- does not make such variables into measurements of
ing mixture of cultures and people within each cul- culture (p. 473). Moreover, the expressed cultural
ture, and emphasizes the hybrid nature of culture values of many intercultural surveys and question-
(Bhabba, 1994, Pieterse, 1994, Shweder & Sullivan, naires are not necessarily the same as behaviors. The
1990). Welsh (1999) stresses the reciprocal influences sample and the participants used in intercultural sur-
of cultures. veys have often been criticized as not representative
of the culture of a given country being studied. In For instance, in a recent paper by Sasaguwa, Toyada,
many cases, the participants were college or univer- and Sakano (2006, p. 337), I was astonished by their
sity students, and sometimes surveyed outside of grouping Australia, Belgium, Canada, England, France,
their country of origin, without taking into account Germany, Italy, Scotland, Spain, and the United States
the cultural influence of the country in which they as individualistic countries, and China, Columbia,
had been international students for some years. Ecuador, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Kazakh-
Visser, Krosnick and Lavrakas (2000) have empha- stan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Morocco,
sized the non-probability and the non-representative Singapore, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines
sample of participants in most cross-cultural studies. Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, The Nether-
These authors warned social and cross-cultural psy- lands, South Africa, [and] Switzerland as collectivistic.
chologists that social psychological research attempt- The three Japanese authors of this paper must have
ing to generalize from a college student sample to a regretted their allegiance to this rigid dichotomy
nation looks silly and damages the apparent credibility individualistic versus collectivistic, because their
of our enterprise (p. 237, quoted in Chirkov et al., results show that students returning from so-called
2005). collectivistic countries were more individualistic than
In Goodwins book Personal Relationships across returnees from so-called individualistic countries
Cultures (1999), one can find interesting discussions (p. 340). Moreover, these 141 Japanese students had
of Hofstedes classification. In the introduction, sojourned in 39 different countries, which as a sample
Goodwin writes: I will try to demonstrate how per country means only 3.6 participants! One more
many of our cherished views of other cultures are example of this traditional approach to the study
becoming less relevant and less accurateIf, indeed, of culture and intercultural understanding can be
they were ever accurate at all (1999, p. 1). What found in a study by Merkin (2006) that reports data
is also striking is that data from a reexamination tending to confirm the following in Hofstedes
of Hofstedes country classifications, conducted hypotheses:
twenty-five years after the original research, suggests
[H1]: Members of strong uncertainty-avoidance
significant shifts in value classifications in some
cultures are more likely to communicate ritualisti-
countries (Fernandez, et. al., 1997, p. 52). In an
cally than members of weak uncertainty-avoidance
interview in Canada published in the InterCultures
cultures,
Magazine, Oct. 2006, when asked, Between the
[H2]: Members of strong uncertainty-avoidance
time that you were first analyzing the IBC data and
cultures are less likely to use harmonious facework
now, has your definition of culture changed at all?
strategies than members of weak uncertainty-
Hofstede answered:
avoidance cultures,
No, not really. Of course, you have to realize [H3]: Members of strong uncertainty-avoidance
that culture is a construct. When I have intelli- cultures will be more likely to respond to face-
gent students in my class, I tell them: One threatening acts with aggression than members of weak
thing we have to agree on: culture does not uncertainty-avoidance cultures. These confirmations are
exist. Culture is a concept that we made up based on the following data: 658 college students (442
which helps us understand a complex world, women and 216 men) representing the following six
but it is not something tangible like a table or countries: Japan, Sweden, Israel, Hong Kong, Chile and
a human being. What it is depends on the way the United States. The samples from each country were
in which we define it. So, lets not squabble with not equal, the United States having the largest
each other because we define culture slightly number241 students, and Hong Kong only 32.
differently; thats fine. From this data, one can have serious doubts about the
scientific value of these confirmations of the Hofstede
From this interview, it is quite clear that Hof-
hypotheses which read Members of strong
stedes cultural dimensions are not at all the rigid
Uncertainty-Avoidance cultures , when in this paper
and universal fixed sets of polar attributes that several
members is restricted to college students who in 5 of
scholars are still using in their intercultural research.

the 6 countries represent a very small number of partici- Human beings seem to like to give themselves a
pants. As mentioned before, any social psychological sense of security by forming simplistic notions about
research attempting to generalize from a college sample the culture of other countries. Stereotypes are then
to a nation has no scientific basis. often created. It is essential to research distinctive
features in the light of features which are common
Several other examples could be given. It is
to other cultures. To put it in Yamazakis words:
quite clear, however, that intercultural research based
Commonalities are essential if comparisons are to
on the traditional cultural dimensions is certainly not
be made (Yamazaki, 2000. p. V). Cultures are not
the key for intercultural understanding. From now
predestined to have some immutable distinctive
on, research dealing with cultures can no longer be
characteristics. Yamazaki uses the expression cul-
satisfied with the approach which consists only in try-
tural predestination (2000, p. 9) and Demorgon
ing to apply to all cultures so-called universal cul-
(2005, p. 170) emphasizes the same idea: The ab-
tural dimensions or fixed sets of polar attributes.
solute distinctiveness of cultures is a problematic
notion. The reason for this is quite simple: cultures
Three Basic Facts for a Theory of influence each other and often there is a process of
fusion. How can one attribute at a given moment
Culture and Intercultural distinctive features to a culture which is in perpetual
Understanding development and change? This point
Any theory of culture in this globalized Research dealing with will be developed to a greater extent
world must address the following cultures can no longer in the section dealing with the dyna-
three basic facts: (1) Cultural Predesti- mism of cultures.
nation!, (2) Individual Values, and
be satisfied with the
(3) A Set of Dynamic Processes of approach which
Generation and Transformation. consists only in trying Individual Values
Some aspects of these facts are not to apply to all cultures A nation or an ethnic group cannot be
new and have been discussed by scho- considered as a single unit. Nations are
lars in the past; these basic facts, how-
so-called universal not culturally homogeneous. Within
ever, have often been disregarded by cultural dimensions the same nation, social classes, age,
those doing research in intercultural or fixed sets of polar gender, education, religious affiliations
communication, resulting in very du- attributes. and several other factors constitute the
bious affirmations about the nature of self-awareness and self-consciousness
various cultures and people living in which become the markers of cultural
these cultures. The pragmatic integration of these three identity, subcultures within a national culture. There
facts in intercultural research represents the essential are, within a nation, regional cultures, cultures of
basis for the new approach to a theory of culture pro- towns and villages, small group cultures, and family
posed in this paper. cultures which form cultural units. Renans 1882 fa-
mous definition of nation, Lessence dune nation est
que tous les individus aient beaucoup de choses en
Cultural Predestination! commun [The essence of a nation is that the indivi-
Cultural comparisons should avoid overstressing duals of this nation have many things in common] has
differences because it leads to overemphasizing the to be extended to the various groups which constitute
features of a given culture, as if it were a unique cultural units in a nation. The members of these
attribute. It is quite clear that in the past, in order groups also have many things in common. Nations
to make comparisons more striking, people have are not culturally homogeneous. Individuals within a
been tempted to exaggerate differences, leading to given nation are not always identical and their cultural
a focus on a given countrys distinctive features at behavior might be different. Several studies, for in-
the expense of those characteristics it shares with stance, Kim (2005), and Kim, Hunter, Miyara, Hor-
other societies. Yamazaki (2000, p. 3) writes: vath, Bresnahan and Yoon (1996) have emphasized
this point. Very often, individual values rather than of generation and transformation (Yamazaki, 2000,
cultural values will be better predictors of behavior p. 119). To affirm the singularity of culture is ques-
(Leung, 1989, Leung & Bond, 1989, Triandis, tionable, insists Demorgon (2005, p. 21), how indeed
1988). It is quite evident in the modern world that can one label a culture as unique and coherent when
culture-level generalizations or national-culture gener- it is in constant development? Different cultures in-
alizations are no longer adequate for intercultural re- fluence each other, occasionally fusing. It is necessary
search. It is sufficient to consider the vast number of therefore to direct attention from narrowly defined
countries in the world which are multicultural and culture theory and seek not for the attributes present
multilingual and where there is considerable immigra- in specific cultures, but for the fundamental princi-
tion. Canada, where you have English-Canadians and ples that precede and give rise to all cultures. These
French-Canadians, First Nations, and another 35 per- pre-cultural principles are subliminally present in ev-
cent of the population which is neither from British or ery culture. According to Yamazaki, cultural fusion,
French origin but coming from forty different coun- therefore, is not a matter of one culture assimilating
tries, is only one example. It is also the case for the features of another but something in the other culture
United States, all countries of the European Union, stimulating the full flowering of aspects already pres-
South American countries, most Asian and African ent in the first. One of these pre-cultural principles is
countries. Here, one cannot resist quoting some pas- individuation. The tendency toward individuation re-
sages of a very recent article by James B. Waldram presents the drive to preserve individual units of life.
(2009): Anthropologists began to appreciate the arti- This principle is antecedent to culture. The concept of
ficial nature of their notion of cultures as distinct, individuation relates to the modern notion of individ-
bounded units harbouring culturally identical citi- ualism but precedes it (Yamazaki, 2000, p. 13).
zens. We began to appreciate Following several authors, Waldram
culture as a live experience of indi- (2009) argues that the concept of
viduals in their local, social worlds Culture is not static, it acculturation has outlived whatever
(p. 173). In addition, he adds: is a dynamic process usefulness it may have had, and that
Cross-cultural psychology has re- scholars should focus on the process
tained the broad generalizations and essentializations of enculturation, or culture learning. For Waldram,
rejected by anthropology, to continue to assign re- culture learning is the process of learning to be
search participants to groups as if there were no sig- cultural in a given real world context (Waldram,
nificant intra-cultural variability, and then engage in 2009, p. 174). He concludes that a new paradigm
primarily quantitative comparisons (p. 174). for culture is needed: one that is theoretically and
It is now more than evident that serious cultural conceptually driven, rather than methodologically
research cannot apply anymore the absolute and gen- driven. This, of course, represents quite a shift
eral dimensions of individualism versus collectivism, in thinking from the classic emphases on contact
high-context versus low-context and other similar involving autonomous cultural systems (Waldram,
dimensions to most countries in the world. 2009, p. 175).
Moreover, it has to be strongly emphasized that
Culture Is a Set of Dynamic globalization is not a factor of homogenization but of
Processes of Generation and diversity. In a recent paper, Bhawuk (2008, p. 316)
writes: Creating new knowledge using concepts and
Transformation ideas from indigenous cultures will help increase the
The third fact which must be considered in intercul- diversity of theories and models which may be neces-
tural research is that culture is not static, it is a dy- sary for the global village. Quality cross-cultural
namic process. In his recent book, Demorgon (2005) research demands that models and theories that ques-
insists that cultures are not static phenomena; they tion the contemporary values, beliefs, and models be
change constantly and are indefinitely renewable. welcomed. Globalization is not about homogeneity
Yamazaki makes the same point: Culture is by no but about diversity. It is hoped that researchers will
means a fixed entity, but a set of dynamic processes contribute to the differentiation of knowledge base

rather than force homogeneity for defending mono- The seniority-based wage systems and promo-
cultural theories. tion systems are giving way to performance-based
systems, and companies are looking for talented in-
dividuals who would be an asset for the company
IndividualismCollectivism, the Case from day one.
of Japan This new individualism tendency also influ-
enced the most basic group underlying all other
In relation to the individualism-collectivism dimen-
groups: the family. The rate of divorce has climbed
sion, many scholars have disregarded the three facts
to previously unknown heights. Japanese women
mentioned above. A typical example is the Japanese
marry later and have fewer children. Many women
culture. During the last 30 years, drastic changes
now decide not to marry. In the 2005 census, about
have taken place in one aspect of Japanese culture:
60 percent of women in their late twenties and 30
the group orientation. Jiko tassei, the promotion of
percent in their early thirties reported they were sin-
the individual, is no longer a taboo subject. Individ-
gle. In comparison with the 1975 census, the first
ualization has been making strong inroads in the
figure has roughly tripled and the second
Japanese society. For the young generation, self,
quintupled.
the individual, has become more important than
In his recent book, The New Japan, Matsumoto,
the group. Recently, in a white paper, the Japanese
quoting his own research and that of several other
government described these changes, giving exam-
scholars, makes the statement that there is no sup-
ples. An example is the young salary man who re-
port for the claim that Japanese are less individualis-
fuses to work late at night or during weekends
tic and more collectivistic than Americans (2002,
because he wants to relax or do things that he likes.
p. 41). He makes the distinction of two groups in
Or again, the young salary man who refuses to be
Japan, the young generation being more individual-
transferred to another city, thus giving up a promo-
istic and the older generation still attached to the
tion, because he wants to be with his family. The
importance of the group. He proposes the concept
lifetime employment, which is the lifetime commit-
of individual collectivism, that is, a society which
ment between corporations and their employees, is
can celebrate cultural diversity in thought and ac-
also under siege (Abegglen, 2003). According to a
tion, that is, individualism, while maintaining core
survey by the Management and Coordination
values related to the importance of the group and
Agency, in the one-year period ending February
hierarchy, that is, collectivism. Robert Christopher
1989, about 2.5 million Japanese switched jobs.
was more than prophetic when in 1983 he wrote:
Seventy-three percent said they changed jobs to
To an extent unmatched by the inhabitants of any
seek better working conditions for themselves. Gakusei
other nations, the Japanese succeeded in marrying
Engokai in 1989 conducted a survey among young
the social discipline that is the chief virtue of a
salary men aged between 20 and 30 in the Tokyo
strong collective consciousness with individualism
and Osaka areas: Seventy-four percent declared
(Christopher, 1983, p. 328). Moreover, it should be
that their own personal work and happiness were
remembered, as Tanaka points out in his 2007 paper
more important than the company which employs
Cultural Networks in Premodern Japan, that the
them. Ninety percent of these same salary men also
Japanese of the Edo period were not nearly as
believe that in the future even more salary people
group-oriented (collectivism) as most people are in-
will change jobs (Saint-Jacques, 2005). In a recent
clined to believe. The Japanese of the Edo period did
paper, Shigeyuki writes:
not have the group mentality in the sense in which
Around the year 2000, personnel managers be- this concept is generally understood: that is, a strong
gan talking about how the latest recruits had a tendency for the individual to conform to group
whole new outlook. They said that the new em- norms in respect to education, values, skills, fash-
ployees were narrowly focused on their careers, ions and lifestyle (Tanaka, 2007). It is quite evident
interested only in themselves, and lacking loy- that Japan cannot simply be classified as a collectiv-
alty to the company (2006, p. 20). istic culture.
Identity immigrant identity as an individual process to a

more broad, contextual, and political phenomenon
Closely related to the concept of culture are the no- (p. 141). Their research shows clearly that the accul-
tions of individual, social and national identities. turation experiences of Indian immigrants living in
Identity, particularly in the age of globalization, is the diaspora in the United States are constructed
never a fixed reality, a pre-given identification; it through a dynamic, back-and-forth play concurrently
is a dynamic and evolving reality. Cultural identity between structure and self, being privileged and mar-
is a matter of becoming as well as being. It belongs to ginalized, caught in the web of socio-political and
the future as much as to the past. It is not something historical forces (p. 147). Human beings are living
which already exists, transcending places, time, his- at the same time within particular cultural settings
tory and culture. Cultural identities come from some- on the one hand, and between different cultural en-
where, they have histories. But like everything which vironments on the other one. Bayart (2005) argues
is historical, they undergo constant transformation that identities are fluid, never homogenous and some-
(Hall, 1990, p. 225). Identity is never a priori, not times invented. Fixed cultural identities never exist.
a finished product (Bhabba, 1986, p. xvi). Things Globalization can be a profoundly enriching
fall apart, the centre cannot hold (Yeats). This fa- process, opening minds to new ideas and experi-
mous quotation from Yeats, which he wrote in the ences, and strengthening the finest values of human-
aftermath of the First World War, has often been ity. The homogenizing influences of globalization
used to highlight the current sense of cultural frag- that are most often condemned by the new national-
mentation and dislocation of the individual in the ists and by cultural romanticists are
new world dominated by globaliza- actually positive: globalization pro-
tion. In this new world, individual Identity, particularly motes integration and the removal
identities, group identity, cultural not only of cultural barriers but of
and ethnic identity, as well as na- in the age of
many of the negative dimensions of
tional identity are no longer clearly globalization is a culture. Globalization is a vital step to-
defined concepts to which indivi- dynamic and evolving ward both a more stable world and
duals and groups can relate and reality. better lives for the people in it (Roth-
find their own identification. Identity kopf, 1997). This new approach to in-
is no longer conceptualized as a tercultural understanding might help
given but rather as something which is constantly intercultural communication.
negotiated and struggled over (Saint-Jacques, 2002,
p. 13). In this world, the individuals activity has
been diversifying and group membership becomes
HOW TO TEACH MULTICULTURAL
more pluralistic; belonging to a number of groups COMMUNICATION
means that the individual will have several identities Multicultural or intercultural communication cannot
or multiple identities. The case of immigrants is a be learned without intercultural understanding, which
good example. In a recent article, Van Oudenhoven, is based on the knowledge of culture. The word cul-
Ward and Masgoret write that immigrants may give ture has four different meanings: (1) High culture, the
up parts of their cultural heritage without giving up achievements of a society in terms of the most es-
their cultural identity (2006, p. 647), Hybridity and teemed forms of literature, art, music. (2) Culture as
multiple identities (whether affirmed or negated) are behavior, the ways people agree to behave, act, and
part of the human condition, and we should begin respond. (3) Culture as ways of thinking: modes of
considering them as normal (Boyland, 2005). In perception, beliefs and values. (4) Culture as language,
their recent paper, Bhatia and Ram (2009) rightly the close link between language and culture. The sec-
make the point that acculturation and immigrant ond meaning of culture, that is, culture as behavior, is
identity is not only an individual process: We call related to clothing, food, architecture, transportation,
for a shift from conceptualizing acculturation and appearance and so on, it is usually called overt

culture or, in the iceberg model of culture, what is his own culture or the perceptions a person of a
above the waterline and therefore easily observable. different culture holds about her or his own culture?
Culture as behavior is subject to constant changes No, it is quite possible through questioning, debates,
and is easily learned. The third meaning of culture, discussions, reflective writing about one single cul-
modes of perception, beliefs and values, [is] not easily tural aspect, thus allowing the person to reflect
observable and [is] often out of our own and others about her or his own perception about one cultural
awareness, it is called covert culture and, in the ice-aspect, often linked to other aspects of the culture.
berg model of culture, what is below the waterline. In Thus, the door to ones perception of ones culture
our search of how to teach and learn intercultural un- has been opened. The types of questions and discus-
derstanding and communication, we shall be dealing sions in this approach will vary according to the age
with meanings three and four of culture. and background of students. Lets say that we are
dealing with university students. If a student or a
Culture as Ways of Thinking, Beliefs person of another culture is present, this is an ideal
situation because that person can also answer the
and Values same question and then a lively discussion can take
Culture is first of all perceptions concerning our sys- place. When it is not possible, however, answers for
tem of values, our ways of thinking, our beliefs, our a question can be found in books dealing with a
psychological orientations. Intercul- variety of cultures. Here are some ex-
tural understanding is therefore the amples of questions that students
ability to understand the perceptions Multicultural or have to answer, and statements they
concerning ones own culture and intercultural have to qualify: strongly agree, agree,
the perceptions of the people who no opinion, disagree, or strongly
communication cannot
belong to another culture, and the disagree:
capacity to negotiate between the be learned without
two. The Greek philosopher Socrates intercultural Men in my country usually expect
had chosen for himself the following women to prepare and serve food.
understanding which is
maxim: gnthi seauton, Know A married man should help
based on the knowledge around the house, doing cleaning,
Thyself. The same is true for inter-
cultural understanding. The first step of culture. ironing and cooking.
for intercultural understanding is to In my country, it is common for a
have a clear idea about ones own culture and about man to give up his seat to a woman on public
our personal perceptions of this culture. This is not transport.
an easy task, however. Perceptions about ones cul- In my country, it is not typical for women to
ture are mostly unconscious. When asked to describe speak their minds and contradict men.
ones culture, a person might have very vague an-
swers or often provide certain social generalizations Do you think that both husband and wife should
which are stereotypes about ones culture. There are contribute to the household income?
two important facts concerning perceptions of ones How normal is going Dutch (when each pays
culture: First, nations are not culturally homoge- half of the costs) when a man and a woman
neous, individuals in a nation might have different go out?
perceptions about their culture. These perceptions If a man and a woman are having dinner together,
will vary according to social class, age, education, is it OK for the woman to pay the bill?
gender, experiences in life and many other factors. Is it OK for a man to give a woman a pat on the
Second, cultures are not static, they change con- backside to show he likes her?
stantly. These two facts are true for all cultures.
Does this mean that it is practically impossible Is it proper for a man to hold a door open for a
to find out the perceptions a person has about her or woman?
Whenever a mixed group of people (male/female) constitutes the centre of the teaching and learning
come together the men always sit together. processes. A language is a window into the culture of
If you are a student at school and you received a people speaking this language. For instance, the teach-
mark that seemed not to reflect your knowledge, ing of personal pronouns I and You in languages like
is it proper to talk to the teacher about it? French, German, Spanish, and Japanese is an excellent
opportunity to enter various aspects of the cultures of
If children do well at school, parents should re-
these languages, such as the social relations between
ward them with a present or pocket money.
two persons talking together: How well do they know
Do students in your country treat what the tea- each other? Is one superior to the other because of age,
chers and textbooks teach as something final and sex, position, or the social group to which one belongs?
unquestionable? In these languages, there are choices of personal pro-
Faithfulness is the most important factor for a nouns which have to be selected according to the refer-
successful marriage. ence points mentioned earlier. In French, for You, tu
In English, the terms stewardess (or steward for or vous, in German, du or Sie, in Spanish, tu or usted.
men) have been replaced with the gender-neutral In Japanese, for I, (to mention only a few) ore, boku,
term flight attendant. Can you give examples of watakushi, watashi, for You, omae, kimi, anata
such changes in your language? (Saint-Jacques, 1971). In the English language, the
speaker does not have to worry about these various
These are only a few examples. Statements and points of reference: the personal pronouns I, and You
questions could be prepared dealing with all aspects are the only pronouns. However, in these other lan-
of life, but only one cultural aspect at a given time. guages, the teaching of these pronouns provides a un-
After discussions, students can be asked to do some ique opportunity to observe language as an essential
reflective writing, for instance, describe what YOU and closely integrated element of social behavior. In
think of marriage. It is quite possible that students these languages, the wrong choice of pronouns can
of the same culture have different perceptions about have disastrous effects for the speaker. Recently, a Ger-
several cultural aspects. man driver who was arrested for speeding was so mad
Pictures and videos showing daily life scenes of that he forgot the basic rules of pronouns in his mother
people (for instance, ways of greeting between two tongue: the pronoun du is not to be used with people
men, two women or between a man and a woman) who are not close friends. He was fined for using du to
from ones country and other countries are also excel- the officer who arrested him! Intercultural learning in-
lent indirect ways to start fascinating discussions volves developing an understanding of ones own lan-
about differences in cultures and students reactions guage and culture in relation to an additional language
about these differences. This approach is the first step and culture (Liddicoat, Scarino, Papademetre &
to the understanding of ones perception about ones Kohler 2003, p. 43). Traditional language teaching
culture and absolutely essential for apprehending the and learning with the sole emphasis on phonetics and
perceptions of a person of another culture, that is, syntax cannot produce speakers who have acquired
intercultural understanding and communication. some understanding of ones own language and culture
in relation to an additional language and culture
Culture as Language: The Close Link necessary conditions for intercultural understanding
Between Language and Culture and communication.
It is quite evident that the teaching and learning of a Moreover, there is also another important rea-
second language could be an excellent way to access son to link the teaching and learning of a language
another culture and therefore to improve intercultural together with the culture of the people speaking this
understanding and communication. This, however, is language. To learn a language, whether it is a first or
possible only if this learning and teaching begin with second language, two basic conditions are essential:
the idea that language and culture learning are funda- motivation and the opportunity to use this language.
mentally interrelated and that this interrelationship These two facts are closely related to each other, if

there is no opportunity to use a language, motivation Teachers, Australian Government Department of Edu-
also ceases to exist, that is, the learners motivation to cation, 2005.
learn the language will become weaker and eventually
disappear. The opportunity or necessity to use a lan-
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Yamazaki M. (1994). Individualism and the Japanese: An al- 3. Can you think of situations where you act in an indi-
ternative approach to cultural comparison. Trans. Bar- vidualistic manner and others where you take a more
bara Sugihara, Trans. Tokyo: Japan Echo, Inc. collectivistic approach? Explain.
(Originally published as M. Yamazaki, 1990, Nihon 4. Do you agree or disagree with Saint-Jacquess opinion
bunka to kojinshugi, Chuo Koron Sha.) that research dealing with cultures can no longer be
Waldram, J. B. (2009). Is there a future for culture in satisfied with the approach which consists only in try-
acculturation research? An anthropologist perspective. ing to apply to all cultures so-called universal cultural
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), dimensions or fixed sets of polar attributes? Why?
172176. 5. Explain the term cultural predestination as used in
Welsch, W. (1999). Transculturality: The puzzling form of this essay.
cultures today. In M. Featherstone & S. Lash (Eds.),
6. According to Saint-Jacques, nations are not culturally
Spaces of Cultures, (pp. 194213). London: Sage.
homogeneous. Explain this statement using the Uni-
Wolton, D. (2005). Il faut sauver la communication. Paris: tes States as your context.
Flammarion.
7. Do you think globalization is making the world more
Yeats, W. B. (1991). Selected Poetry. Harmondsworth: homogeneous or more diverse? Why?
Penguin.
8. For Saint-Jacques, identity in the age of globalization
is never a fixed reality, a pre-given identification; it is
Concepts and Questions a dynamic and evolving reality. Explain this state-
ment. How does it apply to your identity?
1. Saint-Jacques says we are living within particular set-
9. Why is understanding ones own culture an important
tings and concurrently between different cultural
part of intercultural communication?
environments. Explain this assertion using examples
from an international context. 10. What do you think Saint-Jacques means when he
writes, language and culture learning are fundamen-
2. How do you think that identityculturecommunica-
tally interrelated?
tion could be a problem in international relations for
a globalized society?
Worldview in Intercultural Communication:

A Religio-Cosmological Approach
SATOSHI ISHII DONALD KLOPF PEGGY COOKE
We extend our understanding of culture with the essay cosmos and universe function and how each individual
Worldview in Intercultural Communication: A Religio- fits into that religious and philosophical scheme. Your
Cosmological Approach, which uses the concept of personal worldview serves as a guide to answering ques-
worldview as a window for looking at culture. The tions related to pain, suffering, death, the meaning of
authors, Satoshi Ishii, Donald Klopf, and Peggy Cooke, life, and many more philosophical considerations. The
contend that worldview is a fundamental building block of authors basic premise is that worldview shapes a cul-
culture that permeates all other components of culture tures psyche and helps the members of that culture
and helps us to distinguish among cultures. A cultures make sense of the world.
worldview represents a collective description of how the
This original essay appeared in print for the first time in the twelfth edition. All rights reserved. Permission to reprint must be
obtained from the publisher and the authors. Dr. Satoshi Ishii is Professor Emeritus at Dokkyo University, Japan, Dr. Donald
Klopf is Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii and West Virginia University, and Dr. Peggy Cooke is an intercultural
communication consultant and manages a training program for the State of Washington.
While worldview can take a variety of forms (scien- WORLDVIEW DEFINED

tific, metaphysical, and religious), it is generally agreedAlthough the term worldview probably originated in
that religion exerts the greatest influence. Even a secularGerman philosophy as Weltanschauung, literally
person is greatly affected by the writings, attitudes, beliefs,
worldview, it has come to represent a variety of ap-
and ethics advanced by a cultures religious traditions. Toproaches to help understand the underpinnings of
help you appreciate the impact of religion on culture, thiscultural diversity. It consists of the most general and
essay highlights the major dimensions of Eastern and West-
comprehensive concepts and unstated assumptions
ern religions, which collectively encompass some 80 percentabout human life.
of all people in the world. The authors also provide a dis- Anthropologists Spradley and McCurdy (1980)
cussion of some of the problems that might occur when
define worldview as the way people characteristically
Eastern and Western worldviews collide in the context of look out on the universe. To communication educa-
environmental communication. They conclude by recom-
tors Paige and Martin (1996), worldview is one of the
mending a religio-cosmological approach to investigating
lenses through which people view reality and the rest
worldview, which can help to resolve and prevent intercul- of the world. Sociologists Cosner, Nock, Steffan, and
tural communication problems.
Rhea (1987) define it as a definition of reality. Psy-
oday we live in a world in which we are inescap- chologist Harriman (1947) relates the association of
T ably connected to each other, yet separated by
divergent points of view that make it increasingly dif-
worldview with German Weltanschauung and considers
it to be a total frame of reference.
ficult to reach each other. How can Reflecting a religious perspective, Helve (1991)
we achieve understanding across the characterizes worldview as a systema-
gulf of worldviews that separate and Worldview forms tized totality of beliefs about the
threaten us? (Spectra, December some of the most world. In the same vein, Emerson
2006, p. 10) (1996) conceives it as a set of assump-
Worldview forms some of the
fundamental portions tions about how the world is and
most fundamental portions of culture of culture. ought to be organized. Nurius
and serves to distinguish one culture (1994), operating from a social work
from another. Its importance stems from the role it orientation, assumes a tack at odds with other world-
plays in defining reality and truth or explaining the view advocates. She uses the term assumptive worlds
purposes of human life. Worldview thus represents to describe clusters of fundamental assumptions that
one of the most essential qualities of culture, impact- people hold about themselves and the world sur-
ing all aspects of how a culture perceives and recog- rounding them. Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel
nizes the environment. Nurius (1994) reflects that the (2007) report a more inclusive view: that worldview
propensity for individuals to establish and sustain an is cultures orientation to supernatural, human, and
image of a comprehensive, orderly, and predictable natural entities in the cosmological universe and
world fulfills one of the most fundamental human other philosophical issues influencing how its mem-
needs. Pennington (1985) proclaims that worldview bers see the world.
must be given high, if not first, priority in the study of Klopf and McCroskey (2007) also offer an inclu-
culture because it permeates all other components sive perspective in their definition of worldview:
of culture. She further suggests that by understanding Worldview is a set of interrelated assumptions
a cultures worldview, it is possible to attain reason- and beliefs about the nature of reality, the orga-
able accuracy in predicting behaviors and motivations nization of the universe, the purposes of human
in other dimensions. As such, worldview becomes a life, God, and other philosophical matters that are
critical element of successful intercultural and envi- concerned with the concept of being. Worldview
ronmental communication. relates to a cultures orientations toward ontolog-
Under such scholarly circumstances, this study ical matters or the nature of being and serves to
attempts to delineate major qualities, types, and explain how and why things got to be as they are
religio-cosmological perspectives of worldview. and why they continue that way. (p. 97)
Ishii Klopf Cooke Worldview in Intercultural Communication: A Religio-Cosmological Approach 57

ELEMENTS OF WORLDVIEW Dodd (1987) categorizes worldview elements

What constitutes worldview? The definitions stated into nine groups, most of which tend to stereotypi-
above include some of the essential elements of cally contrast the East and the West.
worldview. Other elements are to be added beginning Shame vs. Guilt. An Easterner bringing shame to a group
with an anthropological analysis extended by Redfield is likely to be cast out of it. Westerners consider the indi-
(1953). He argues that the framework is the same for vidual more important than the group. Saving face is
every cultures interpretation of worldview. His important in the East; not so in the West.
Cartesian-dualistic system includes twelve general
conceptions of these elements: Task vs. People. The East accentuates peoples rela-
1. The self or principal actor on humankinds stage tionships. The West stresses task accomplishment.
2. The others, those within the purview of the self
Secular vs. Spiritual. Eastern spiritual cultures rely
3. Other peoplethe unidentifiable mass on intuition and introspection. Secular Western cul-
4. Differences between men and women tures are analytical and logical.
5. Distinctions between we (our own people) and
they (other people) Dead vs. Living. The East believes the dead can
6. Distinctions between what is human and what influence the living, bringing them luck or harm.
is not The West is less prone to think that way.
7. Invisible beings, forces, and principles
Human vs. Nature. Humans are either subject to
8. Animals nature, in harmony with nature, or should control
9. Concepts of human nature nature. The East favors harmony with nature; the
10. A spatial orientation West, control.
11. A temporal orientation
Doing vs. Being. The East prefers harmonious rela-
12. Ideas about birth and death tions, being rather than doing.
Penningtons (1985) cosmological conceptions of
worldview elements appear in the form of ten statements. Linear vs. Cyclical. In the East, life is birth, life,
The salient characteristics of her statement list are: death, and rebirth. In the West, [it is] birth, life, and
death.
1. The cultures dominant beliefs and attitudes
about a humans place in nature and society
Fatalism vs. Control. To the fatalist, what happens is
2. The general pattern of relationships between beyond a persons control; this tends to be an Eastern
humans and nature view. In the control view, people are masters of their
3. The relationship between humans and the cul- own destiny; this tends to be a Western view. World-
tures supreme being view is thus closely connected with religious attitudes,
4. The supreme beings power over life and events beliefs, values, and practices.
5. Humans competitive or cooperative nature
6. Humans expressions of their beliefs FORMATION OF WORLDVIEWS
7. Humans myths about the origins of people Worldview is implicit and symbolically implied but
8. Humans beliefs in the supernatural not explicitly expressed. Helve (1991) believes it is
improbable that people would be aware of their latent
9. The living patterns as group practices worldview. How it is formed, therefore, is a signifi-
10. The ways a group uses rituals, prayers, and other cant matter of speculation.
ceremonies Worldview evidently develops in early child-
hood. Helve (1991) determined through empirical
research that its actual growth can be comprehended a persons position in the social structure as significant.
by applying one or all of the theories identified as He perceives it, however, as only secondary. Reason-
cognitive development, social learning, or socialization. able people living in different cultures of the world are
She concluded [that] each extended a sensible exposed to dissimilar realities in their everyday life.
explanation. This dissimilar exposure leads them to arrive at distinct
Rubin and Peplau (1975) credit the childs par- worldviews. Emersons point is substantiated by Cooke
ents, religious instruction, and education in the (1992), who measured worldview among university
schools attended as contributors to worldview forma- students in Japan, Korea, Puerto Rico, and the United
tion. Each childs maturation, his or her experiences States. Her survey findings reveal significant differences
in the physical environment, and his or her among the four socio-cultural groups; each group ar-
activities in the social environment contribute to the rived at different conceptions of worldview.
formation of worldview. Then each child draws con- Although religion plays one of the most signifi-
clusions about what the world is like from his or her cant roles in the formation of worldview, it is inappro-
experiences and activities in the physical and social priate to constrain it to a purely religious dimension.
environment. In this respect, each child is an active Worldview stems from a variety of other sources.
product of the environment, and his or her way of
viewing the world is shaped by shared images and
constructions of his or her social group or class. TYPES OF WORLDVIEW
Children and young people view and conceptual- Helve (1991) classifies worldview into three major
ize the world in various ways at different stages in their types. In doing so, she appears to endorse the Cham-
growth according to their own physi- berlain and Zika (1992) position.
cal and mental development. Infancy, Helves types are scientific, metaphysi-
childhood, and adolescence involve Worldview is implicit cal, and religious.
distinct stages in behaving, learning, and symbolically The scientific worldview is based
and thinking. The shaping of their implied but not on the rules laid down by the exact
needs, desires, beliefs, and values sciences. It is open and self-
vary from stage to stage and so too
explicitly expressed. correcting in accordance with new sys-
does their worldview undergo change tematic and methodological findings.
as they grow and mature. Helve (1991) found it to appear most clearly among
Emerson (1996) places stress on religion in the scientific scholars. A quasi-scientific worldview results
development of worldview. By outlining what ought to from television, newspaper, and magazine influences,
be and by creating and reinforcing social group norms she notes, and it is more information based as a
through interaction, religion has a substantial influence worldview than scientific. Those with a scientific
on a persons worldview. Religion not only shapes rea- bent do not harbor this quasi-scientific worldview.
soning but also provides the meaning, importance, and A metaphysical worldview tends to be based on
properness of different social arrangements and institu- abstract general reasoning without an empirical base.
tions. Religion thus infuses all of these with universal, For example, the metaphysical worldview of young
if not transcendent, significance. children may contain beliefs in imaginary beings
Religious beliefs and practices greatly differ, of such as Santa Claus, ghosts, monsters, witches, and
course: that is why, as Emerson (1996) contends, peo- fairies. Older children may include elements of magic
ple hold different worldviews. Those with conservative and superstition. Teenagers might construct their
worldviews base their moral and ethical authority in worldview around horoscopes and behave in accor-
the transcendent. Those holding more liberal world- dance with the advice they give. The metaphysical
views participate in the religious and secular cultures worldview is apt to consist of certain types of unnat-
that root their moral and ethical norms in humans. ural beings, their characteristics, and their relation-
They generally stress reason and logical thinking. ships. These beings originate partly in religious
Even though Emerson (1996) emphasizes reli- traditions and partly in folklore, some of which is
gions role in worldview development, he recognizes created by the mass media.

The third type of worldview is religious. For increase an understanding of the impact that religion
most people, religion serves as the foundation of their has on the content and development of a persons
worldview. The content of their beliefs will vary from worldview. Eastern and Western religious traditions
person to person depending upon their religious per- may account for some 80 percent of the worlds popu-
spectives. A Catholics worldview undoubtedly will lation. The remaining 20 percent will consist of ani-
differ from that of a Jew, a Protestants from a Bud- mists, atheists, shamanists, and the like.
dhists, a Muslims from a Hindus, and a Confucia-
nists from a Shintoists.
Religious Similarities
THE RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE Although the two major divisions, Eastern and West-
ern, have few common teachings, they do possess
Religion, as has been repeatedly stressed, is a deep and
similarities typical of all religions. Samovar, Porter,
pervasive determinant of worldview. Even the most
and McDaniel (2007, p. 78) identify five such simi-
secular of people feel religions influences. Those who
larities, the most important being sacred writings. All
reject religious faith still follow much of the religious
of the worlds major religions have sacred writings,
heritage that influences their culture.
such as the Holy Bible, the Quran, and Buddhist su-
tras, commonly revered by believers. These writings
Dimensions of Religion function as the means and vehicles for the propaga-
Religion, Emerson (1996) attests, is multidimen- tion of the religions knowledge and wisdom.
sional. He conceptualizes it along two representative Another similarity is an authority figure. God, Allah,
dimensions, religiosity and ortho- the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad are
doxy, each with two subdivisions, all representative authority figures who
public and private. Religiosity refers Religion is a deep and are believed to be far greater and more
to the intensity and consistency of pervasive determinant powerful than the religions members.
religious practices. Orthodoxy is the of worldview. Rituals are the third similarity.
degree to which a persons beliefs They are religious practices required of
center on a guiding authority, for ex- the membership or acts that are for-
ample, the scriptures of the church. bidden to the members. For example, believers must
Public religiosity describes the religious activities meditate regularly or be baptized. They must pray at
practiced with other people. It is manifest in frequent special times and fast on designated days. They may not
church attendance and participation in membership eat pork or beef. These acts embody humility, restraint,
functions. Private religiosity is a persons personal and and behaviors of great religious significance.
undisclosed religious practice. Examples include the Speculation, as another similarity, typifies all re-
frequency of prayer and holy scripture reading as well ligions. Humans commonly seek answers to mysteries
as a doubt-free faith. of lifewhat is life, death, suffering, or origins of the
Public orthodoxy refers to the sharing of reli- universeand religions are believed to supply an-
gious beliefs in the company of others. Private ortho- swers to such mysteries, speculative at best.
doxy is the held beliefs that rely on a transcendent Religion also commonly includes ethics, a set of
authority, a god, or a supernatural being. moral principles for the membership to observe. For
most religions, the set contains moral items such as
prohibiting killing, stealing, and lying, observing mar-
EASTERN AND WESTERN ital fidelity, paying honor to parents, and the like.
RELIGIO-COSMOLOGICAL
WORLDVIEWS Eastern Religio-Cosmological
As a more manageable thinking about the worlds di- Worldview
verse faiths, Smart (1988) groups them into two major Eastern (Chinese, Indian, Japanese, Korean, and other)
divisions: Eastern and Western. Each division can help cultures commonly embrace religious traditions that
uni uni
World/ verse World/ verse
Gods/ God
buddhas/
spirits
Human
beings
Human Natural
beings beings
Natural
beings
Model of Eastern poly-pantheistic Model of Western monotheistic

worldview worldview
FIGURE 1.1 Contrastive Models of Eastern Poly-Pantheistic and Western Monotheistic Worldviews
feature relational harmony as the ultimate good relative, dynamic, and interchangeable according to
(Smart, 1988). Relational harmony has been consis- contextual and situational changes. The brokenness
tently believed to be the major tenet recognized in of each circle indicates that the sovereignty of each
Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism, existential realm is not decisively predetermined and
Hinduism, Shintoism, and Taoism. Further, although closed to [the others] but is relative, flexibly open,
these religions differ considerably, their theological and dynamically interchangeable.
foundations are similar in that gods and deities are in These characteristics of Eastern religio-cosmological
every place and in every form, rather than a single worldview have traditionally given extensive influences
place or form. to Eastern peoples cognitive, affective, and behavioral
In Figure 1.1, Ishii (2001) has developed Con- activities in not simply human-to-human but also
trastive Models of Eastern Poly-Pantheistic and Western human-to-supernatural and human-to-nature commu-
Monotheistic Worldviews from religio-cosmological nication contexts.
perspectives to graphically illustrate the respective posi-
tions and correlations of supernatural beings, human Western Religio-Cosmological
beings, and natural beings. The outer broken circle of
the left model of Eastern poly-pantheistic worldview Worldview
signifies that the world/universe in which supernatural The Western capsulation of religion, and hence
beings (e.g., buddhas, deities, gods, goddesses, spirits, worldview, is in sharp contrast to the Eastern one.
etc.), human beings, and natural beings (e.g., animals, Western religions [as] represented by Judaism, Chris-
astronomical objects, mountains, plants, rivers, etc.) are tianity, and Islam perceive the ultimate good as trans-
believed to exist is a cosmologically open system, spa- formation and salvation, stressing that divine grace is
tially and/or temporally limited or unlimited. the desired end, whether in this life or the next.
The three triangularly arranged broken circles, Differences among these religions are obvious,
respectively, imply various supernatural beings yet they have a common religio-cosmological foun-
realm, human beings realm, and natural beings dation. The three religions are monotheistic, believ-
realm. Their triangular arrangement is not hierar- ing in one Almighty God, who is out there;
chically predetermined and rigidly fixed but is everything else is here, with a great gulf in between.

Smart (1988) states that in the Western religions Eastern Worldview Western Worldview
everything is ultimately headed to one endto the
Kingdom of God or to heaven. At the end of a per- Humans should accept Humans have to
sons life will be an accounting or payoff, either eter- their basic oneness manipulate and
nal death or resurrection of his or her body. Further, with nature rather control nature to
the things that belong to Almighty God are highly than try to control it. survive.
sacred, to be treated with special awe and reverence. Humans are one with Humans should reward
What is of particular importance in the Western re- nature; they should actions competitive
ligions is felicityhappiness and blissbeyond this feel comfortable with in spirit.
earthly life. anyone.
In Figure 1.1, like the outer broken circle of the Science and technology Science and technology
left model, the right model of Western monotheistic create an illusion of provide the good life.
worldview is hypothetically believed to have an outer progress.
broken circle of the world/universe in which one
Enlightenment causes No such belief.
Almighty Gods realm, human beings realm, and nat-
differences to disappear
ural beings realm exist. Their hierarchical positions
and brings oneness with
and interrelations are absolute, rigidly predetermined,
the universe, coming
and unchangeable. Almighty Gods realm is always
about through meditation.
placed at the top of the hierarchy, human beings
realm in the middle, and natural beings realm at
the bottom. The three solid circles respectively imply In order to improve interreligious issues repeat-
that the three realms are fixed and closed to each edly breaking out in the contemporary world, intercul-
other, and not interchangeable. tural communication scholars and educators are
In promoting the study of worldview in this age widely urged to conduct systematic studies of different
of interreligious conflicts, it is growingly essential to religio-cosmological worldviews from ethnocentrism-
investigate the potential influences of Western mono- free perspectives.
theistic religious cosmology on Westerners cognitive,
affective, and behavioral activities in intercultural
Colliding Worldviews and
communication contexts.
Environmental Communication
Unfortunately, fruitful intercultural encounters
Contrastive Summary of Eastern
and relations are not always the norm even when
and Western Worldviews highly educated men and women meet together.
Psychologists Gilgen and Cho (1979) perceive religio- Misunderstandings, conflicts, and serious conse-
cosmological worldview in an East-West dichotomy quences occasionally result in their encounters and
the East based on Eastern poly-pantheistic religions relations.
and the West on European and North American No less contentious are the frequent encounters
monotheistic beliefs. They are contrastively summa- and relations between developers and environmental-
rized as follows: ists, those who want to conquer and exploit nature
and those who try to maintain that humans are one
Eastern Worldview Western Worldview with nature and that destroying nature will lead to
Humans are one with nature Humans are separate destroying humans. These conflicts and collisions
and perceive the spiritual from nature and are being fought at various levels: local, national, and
and personal physical as overshadowed by a international.
one. God. Clark (1998) warns us that environmental destruc-
tion is speedily accelerating in many parts of the world.
Mind and body are one. Humans consist of At the local level, the loss of forests, soil erosion, and
mind, body, and soul. overdrafts of ground water are common occurrences.
At the national level, increased yields of timber and food All worldviews require some degree of adjust-
crops are now unsustainable. At the international level, ment if the species is to survive. Tracing the beliefs
people worldwide are mining natural resources, particu- and assumptions underlying them is the first step in
larly fossil fuels. Human-induced global warming, over- making social change possible. This first step is one
grazing, and deforestation are compounding large-scale that students of intercultural communication can un-
droughts, famines, storms, and floods. Pollution issues dertake, learning to understand the differences in
are multiplying as waters are poisoned, as forests, rivers, worldview globally, and to comprehend the beliefs
and lakes are decimated by acid rain, and as cities world- and assumptions on which they are based.
wide suffer from foul air. Clark (1989) cautions that imposing a new
Dodd (1987) reminds us about the appropriate- worldview certainly will fail unless it comes from
ness of humans relations with natureeither hu- within the cultural context. People of a culture must
mans are subject to nature, in harmony with it, or actively participate in the change making. For a new
should control it. Todays environmental state sug- worldview to evolve, everyone must participate in the
gests that harmony is absent, control is not working, change process.
and consequently humans will soon be subject to to- In her 1998 article in Zygon, Clark (1998) ex-
tal natural disaster. Worldviews are thus colliding as pounds on her new worldview in detail. Her plan
we communicate [more and more closely] about en- may appear too esoteric for students of intercultural
vironmental issues with our fellow humans through- communication to consider. Pennington (1985) be-
out the world. lieves, however, that reasonable preciseness can be
Clark (1989) points a finger at the Western reached in predicting behaviors and motivations in
worldview, placing blame for contemporary environ- the social, economic, and political lives of cultures
mental conditions directly on the West. Although ma- of the globe. As Smart (1988) prompts us, we tend
jor polluters, soil eroders, and deforesters are prevalent to ignore at our peril the worldview dimensions of
in the East as well, Clark believes it is the Western our communication across cultures.
nature-controlling worldview that is destroying the en-
vironment. She suggests that the Western worldview SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
lacks proper values and goals, and has grown obsolete.
This study has attempted to define worldview, de-
All worldviews, she claims, require adjustment if hu- scribe its conceptual elements and structure, illus-
mans are to survive. However, the most in need of trate its hypothetical connection with religious
critically rethinking and redoing is that of Western
cosmology, and finally make possible suggestions to
civilization, whose enormous military, science- improve, if not solve, contemporary worldview and
technological, and economic power and hegemony in- environmental conflicts emerging in various parts of
creasingly impinge upon the entire globe.
the world. The religio-cosmological approach to the
study of worldview will serve as a new groundbreak-
Untying the Gordian Knot ing signpost for intercultural communication scho-
lars and educators by providing new imminent
Clark (1989) gives us a thread with which we might
scholarly tasks from a variety of interdisciplinary
find our way out of the labyrinth created by colliding
perspectives.
worldviews. Her way may help untie the Gordian knot
Tehranian and Chappell (2002), scholars of in-
in which disparate worldviews are enmeshed as they
terreligious and intercivilizational studies, contend
attempt to exist together in the twenty-first century.
In ages past, Clark (1989) argues, worldviews The way to resolve these conflicts is not to pit
evolved gradually, often imperceptibly. With todays one camp against another ; for the human
enormous powers unleashed by science and technol- race to survive, it is necessary to open up all
ogy from the Western worldview creating excessive channels of communication for dialogue, ne-
environmental change, humankind can no longer gotiation, and creation of values commensu-
rely on the old, indiscernible thinking. Human goals rate with the challenges of our own times.
need to be reordered. (p. xxix)

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Concepts and Questions
Dodd, C. H. (1987). Dynamics of intercultural communica-
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Emerson, M. O. (1996). Through tinted glasses: Religion, worldview shape and represent culture?
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Helve, H. (1991). The formation of religious attitudes and 4. What are religiosity and orthodoxy? How do they con-
worldviews: A longitudinal study of young Finns. tribute to shaping worldviews?
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Ishii, S. (2001). An emerging rationale for triworld commu- typical of all religions?
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6. How does worldview generally differ between Eastern
Communication, 4(1), 110.
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nature? How do they represent Eastern and Western
Nurius, P. S. (1994). Assumptive worlds, self-definition,
worldviews?
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ern worldview lacks proper values and goals, and has
Paige, R. M., & Martin, J. N. (1996). Ethics in intercultural train-
grown obsolete. What does this imply? Do you agree
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or disagree? Why?
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tion. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Harmony without Uniformity: An Asiacentric

Worldview and Its Communicative Implications
YOSHITAKA MIIKE
Harmony without Uniformity: An Asiacentric World- globalization have increased the requirement not just to
view and Its Communicative Implications continues our learn about other cultures but also to find ways that
study of worldview but brings a different cultural per- promote and facilitate intercultural learning.
spective into consideration. Yoshitaka Miike proposes
We may speak of many civilizations in human
that conflict arises not from cultural difference itself
history, some dead, others living. But human civ-
but from the ignorance of that difference. Moreover, as
ilization should also be viewed as a grand old tree
global citizens, not only must we appreciate cultural
with many branches, flowers, and fruits, nurtured
diversity, we must learn from that diversity. According
by the same earth, water, air, and human ingenu-
to Miike, all too often cultural difference is viewed
ity. There is a clear unity in diversity.
through the lens of ones own worldview, but to under-
Majid Tehranian (2007, p. 46)
stand and learn from another culture, we must under-
stand the worldview of the culture and its impact on the In response to Samuel Huntingtons (1993,
forms and functions of communication. 1996) proposition that the world would be divided
The essay contends that many intercultural studies by the clash of civilizations, Tu Weiming (2006)
have imposed a European worldview on tersely states, Civilizations do not
other cultures, resulting in a critical ex- clash. Only ignorance does (p. 12).
Conflict arises not from
amination rather than an investigation Indeed, ignorance of cultural diversity,
designed to gain insight and cultural difference itself not cultural diversity itself, is a source
inspiration. To begin the process of but from the ignorance of disharmony and conflict in the
learning from, rather than merely of that difference. global village. To be sure, as Chesebro
about, other cultures, the author sug- (1996) notes, multiculturalism is a
gests that you need to (1) understand symbolic issue, a question of how we
your own worldview, (2) understand other cultures understand ourselves, how we understand our heri-
worldviews, and (3) understand how other cultures tages, and how we understand our futures to be
perceive your culture. This latter recommendation is par- (p. 13). Hence, it does sometimes radically challenge
ticularly relevant on the stage of contemporary interna- our basic sense of identity, community, and human-
tional relations. ity. And yet, we must learn to appreciate all cultural
In the second half of his essay, Miike discusses an traditions as valuable resources for humanity because
Asiacentric worldview and its communicative implica- diversity is vital to human survival and flourishing
tions in local and global contexts. He proposes five Asia- (Tu, 2001a). It is counterproductive to see difference
centric communication propositions, which reflect his as an obstacle to progress in the age of intercultural
interpretation of the Asian worldview. These include (1) encounters. Our task as global citizens is not to lib-
circularity, (2) harmony, (3) other-directedness, (4) reci- erate different people from their primitive and un-
procity, and (5) relationality. Awareness and understand- civilized traditions, but to learn from different people
ing of these propositions offers greater insight into Asian with their respective traditions about alternative vi-
cultures and presents an alternative to the Eurocentric sions of humanity and communication.
worldview. The essay concludes that the processes of
author and the publisher. Dr. Yoshitaka Miike is an Associate Professor in the Department of Communication at the University
of Hawaii at Hilo, Hawaii.
Miike Harmony without Uniformity: An Asiacentric Worldview and Its Communicative Implications 65
In this essay, I will share my thoughts on the what we will have a truly global knowledge about people in
and the how of culture learning to achieve mutual under- the world and move toward a truly transcultural un-
standing and dialogue, and discuss, as an illustrative ex- derstanding of humanity, diversity, and communica-
ample, how Asians and non-Asians alike may be able to tion. In this section, using Satoshi Ishiis (1997)
benefit from an Asiacentric worldview and its implica- conceptualization of culture, I will envision the ideal
tions for communication. I will re-interpret Molefi Kete of culture learning that enhances multiculturalism
Asantes (1993) idea of multiculturalism without hierar- without hierarchy. My premise here is that, in order
chy (i.e., the co-existence of many cultures alongside) in to appreciate any culture, we must understand the
the global context and apply the Confucian ideal of har- worldview of the culture and its impact on the forms
mony without uniformity (i.e., the balanced integration and functions of communication.
of different elements) to the contemporary world. Wis-
dom is a precious gift to humanity. Every continent, ev-
Worldview as the Mental Layer
ery community, and every culture has accumulated
indigenous wisdom, from which we can learn a great of Culture
deal about how we should relate to one another, nature, Ishii (1997) proposes a three-layer-structure model of
and the sprits in the universe (Miike, 2004). It is my culture (see Figure 1.1). According to him, culture
argument in the succeeding discussion, therefore, that, consists of three layersmaterial, behavioral, and
if we are to remain hopeful for a prosperous and peace- mental. The most external, overt, and visible layer
ful world and to realize unity in diversity in the global of culture is the material one, which is represented
society, we ought to reflect earnestly on the question of by various artifacts (e.g., food and clothing) pro-
humanity and the way of communica- duced, operated, and controlled by
tion from different local knowledges in the behavioral layer. The semi-overt
different cultures. Cultures alongside is layer of culture is the behavioral one,
the form of cultural co- which is [composed] of verbal and
CULTURES IN HIERARCHY existence in which we nonverbal behaviors as symbols (e.g.,
words and gestures) and reflects the
AND CULTURES see all cultures equal. mental layer. The most internal, co-
ALONGSIDE vert, and invisible layer of culture is
Asante (2003b) claims that difference alone does not the mental one, which functions in the form of va-
create a problem, and that it is the assigning of hierar- lues, beliefs, and attitudes. Ishii (1997) is of the opin-
chical value to difference that creates a problem. His ion that understanding the mental layer is the most
idea of multiculturalism without hierarchy thus pin-
points how cultures should relate to one another in the
3
context of diversity. He implies that, if multicultural-
ism is defined as the co-existence of many cultures, 2
there are two ways of cultural co-existence: (1) cultures
in hierarchy and (2) cultures alongside. Cultures in hi-
erarchy is the form of cultural co-existence in which we 1
see one culture above others so that we learn a frame
of reference from one culture and view others through
the single cultural standpoint. Cultures alongside is the
form of cultural co-existence in which we see all cul-
tures equal so that we learn different outlooks from
different cultures and view all cultures through their
1 = Mental layer
respective cultural lenses. Asante (1993) refers to the 2 = Behavioral layer
second form of cultural co-existence as pluralism with- 3 = Material layer
out hierarchy and hegemony. He believes that, when
we bring together local knowledges from all cultures, FIGURE 1.1 Satoshi Ishiis Model of Culture
important in intercultural communication situations Learning About and From Cultures

because it is the core of culture which operates and
controls the two outer behavioral and material layers Learning about cultures is one thing. Learning from cul-
(p. 321). The mental layer of a culture is, in a nut- tures is another. We can be very arrogant and ethnocen-
shell, a cultural worldview that answers ultimate tric, but we can still learn about other cultures. Learning
questions about humanity and the universethe tri- from cultures, on the other hand, requires us to be hum-
world of humans, nature, and the supernatural (Ishii, ble and modest to understand and appreciate other cul-
2001)and their relationships (e.g., Who are we? tures (Miike, 2008a). The former approach is an
Where have we been before birth? Where will we attempt to describe, interpret, and evaluate a different
go after death? For what do we live? What should culture through the worldview that is not derived from
we do in this secular world? How should we relate the culture. In other words, we use the mental layer of
to other humans, nature, and the spirits?) our own culture to analyze the material, behavioral, and
Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2010) define a mental layers of other cultures. In this approach, cultural
worldview as a cultures orientation toward God, critique, rather than culture learning, is prone to take
humanity, nature, the universe, life, death, sickness, place because we tend to treat other cultures like texts
and other philosophical issues concerning existence for criticism and their members like objects for analysis.
(p. 150). A worldview should be regarded [as] neither I call such an approach centrism. For example, if we
completely static nor completely fluid. It is always evolv- use the mental layer of European cultures to understand
ing and transforming and yet maintains the contours of African cultures, our Eurocentrism (not Eurocentricity)
the culture. Different portions of the worldview are in- will most likely distort the cultural realities of the African
stilled in the minds of different members of the culture. world from an outsiders point of view (see Figure 1.2).
Given that it is the deep structure of communication (i.e., When we consciously or unconsciously presume that
the mental layer), we may or may not be aware of its independence, individualism, and freedom are better
profound impact on the surface structure of communi- than interdependence, communalism, and obligation
cation (i.e., the behavioral and material layers). Because without reference to the African worldview, we are
the mental layer of a culture is the most internal and tempted to view African and European cultures in hier-
invisible, we can only guess what it is like by comprehen- archy, not alongside, and fail to acknowledge the ubuntu
sively interpreting the linguistic, religious, philosophical, -based humanity in the African context (see Kamwanga-
and historical foundations of the culture. As Ishii, Klopf, malu, 2008). Indeed, we relate only to African cultures
and Cooke (2009) comment, a worldview is, more often in a hierarchical way.
than not, implicit and symbolically implied but not ex- The latter approach is an attempt to describe,
plicitly expressed. How it is formed, therefore, is a interpret, and evaluate a different culture through
significant matter of speculation (p. 30). the worldview that is derived from the culture. To
3 3
2 2
1 1
African Cultures European Cultures
FIGURE 1.2 Eurocentrism
2
3
2
1
African Cultures Asian Cultures
FIGURE 1.3 Afrocentricity and Asiacentricity
put it in another way, we use the mental layer of the the mental layer of non-European cultures (Miike,
culture to understand its material and behavioral 2003a, 2010b). Because it is the mental layer of culture
layers. In this approach, culture learning and cross- that explains why these symbolic behaviors and mate-
cultural self-reflection are likely to take place because rial artifacts are of immense value, such analyses will
we tend to view other cultures as resources for insight not result in the deeper appreciation and better under-
and inspiration, and their members as willful agents. I standing of behavioral and material layers of non-
call such an approach centricity. For instance, if we European cultures. Consequently, those descriptions,
use the mental layers of African and Asian cultures to interpretations, and evaluations present them as exo-
understand the material and behavioral layers of Afri- teric, irrational, and backward and, hence, ultimately
can and Asian cultures, our Afrocentricity and Asia- create the image of the Other. In other words, they
centricity (not Afrocentrism and Asiacentrism) will impose the Eurocentric vision of humanity on other
more accurately capture the cultural realities of the versions of humanity. I contend that we should begin
African and Asian worlds from an insiders point of to rethink the role of non-Western worldviews in com-
view (see Figure 1.3). It goes without saying that it is prehending non-Western behaviors and in redefining
often difficult but critically important for us to engage and reconceptualizing humanity and communication. I
in learning from, not about, cultures if we wish to reiterate that we must see all cultures as central re-
broaden and deepen the understanding of culture- sources for humanistic insight and inspiration, not pe-
specific thought and action, and to expand the notion ripheral targets for ethnocentric analysis and critique.
of humanity in cultural context. This ideal form of The nature and ideal of humanity have often
culture learning undoubtedly helps us achieve multi- been delimited by the Eurocentric worldview. The
culturalism without hierarchy and facilitate dialogue Enlightenment mentality of the modern West is un-
among civilizations (Miike, 2008a). doubtedly the most powerful ideology that dominates
the Eurocentric worldview. Its core values are instru-
mental rationality, individual liberty, calculated self-
HUMANITY AS AN EXPRESSION interest, material progress, and rights consciousness
OF EUROCENTRISM (Tu, 2002, 2007). Although aggressive individualism,
What is problematic in many intercultural studies is excessive scientism, and self-destructive anthropocen-
that the mental layer of European cultures is trism may result in the isolated self, the fragmented
frequently used to analyze the behavioral and material community, and the over-exploited earth, these va-
layers of non-European cultures, which de- lues have served as Eurocentric criteria from which
contextualizes them and obscures their nexus with to scrutinize and judge non-European versions and
visions of humanity. They have shaped false dichoto- In spite of criticisms of the aforementioned in-
mies such as the civilized and the primitive, the mod- valid binaries, Eurocentric constructions of humanity
ern and the traditional, the progressive and the have led to Eurocentric critiques of other non-
backward, the developed and the developing, and Western views of humanity. They have also made
the humane and the inhumane. [us] oblivious to the past and potential contribu-
tions of non-European cultures to human civilization.
Rethinking Civilization and As Rogers (1976) cautions, therefore, it is very easy
for us to forget that India, China, Persia, and Egypt
Development were old, old centers of civilization, that their rich
Tehranian (2007) persuasively argues that, if civiliza- cultures had in fact provided the basis for contempo-
tion is defined not as modernization but as the pur- rary Western cultures (p. 216). In retrospect, Rogers
suit of peace with peaceful means, it is an (1978) goes on to say that, even if their family life
unfinished journey. All nations and regions are civ- displayed a warmer intimacy and their artistic tri-
ilized in some ways and uncivilized in other respects. umphs were greater, that was not development. It
Tehranian (1990, 1999) also convincingly demon- could not be measured in dollars (p. 65). Looking
strates that, if we rethink development not in terms at the non-Western world only with a Eurocentric
of the living standard (e.g., economic growth) but in critical eye and looking at the West only with a Euro-
terms of the quality of life (e.g., human warmth), all centric uncritical eye, nonetheless, poses a serious
societies and communities are both developed and problem in approximating and appreciating the full-
underdeveloped. In his communitarian eyes, each est potentials of humanity, civilization, and commu-
country and every culture is strug- nication. This is especially so when the
gling to achieve a sustainable balance Eurocentric vision of humanity,
among the contradictory themes of All nations and regions heavily influenced by the Enlighten-
individual freedom, social equality, are civilized in some ment in the West, is undermining
civil order, benevolent community, ways and uncivilized in the human condition (Tu, 2002).
and sacred nature in the conflict-
ridden waves of globalism, regional-
other respects.
ism, nationalism, localism, and spiri-
Being a Teacher and Being
tualism (Tehranian, 1993). These themes are a Student
perennial concerns and yet intractable issues facing Asante (1998) posits Any interpretation of African
both the local community and the global society. culture must begin at once to dispense with the notion
The indigenous Sarvodaya movement in Sri that, in all things, Europe is teacher and Africa is pupil
Lanka, for instance, is based on this holistic philoso- (p. 71). There is a persistent and pervasive tendency to
phy and practice of development (see Dissanayake, approach European cultures from a students perspec-
1984, 1991). According to Tu (2007), Chinas major tive and non-European cultures from a teachers per-
challenge today is to embrace the market economy spective in the study of culture and communication.
without turning the whole country into a market soci- As discussed earlier, much cross-cultural and intercul-
ety. It would be disastrous if academic institutions, tural research deals with non-European cultures as tar-
mass media, city organizations and even families gets for analysis and critique, but not as resources for
were eventually to be totally marketized (p. 12). The insight and inspiration. Therefore, it promotes a tea-
painful realization of many well-informed citizens in chers perspective on non-European cultures, which
materially over-developed environments is that mod- decenters and dislocates non-European people. It
ernization can liberate us from material poverty, but it should be kept in mind, however, that we do not ap-
can also enslave us to spiritual poverty. Without the preciate cultures when we always analyze and critique
bonds of fellowship and community, we can be easily them. We appreciate cultures when we learn from
driven to the world of psychological alienation, status them. We must be diligent students of non-Western
anxiety, social envy, relentless acquisition, and con- learning and abandon the role of being teachers from
spicuous consumption (Tehranian, 1990, 1993). the West all of the time. (Miike, 2006). Tu (2008), for
example, duly insists on the value of seeing African from different countries and cultures from becoming
cultures from a students point of view: a mere imposition-imitation encounter. This point
should be well taken, especially by non-Westerners
If we consider ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and
who wish to have sincere and serious conversations
religious diversity as a global asset, Africa should
about intercultural cooperation and collaboration
not be characterized by the HIV epidemic, pov-
with Westerners on an equal footing. As Asante
erty, unemployment and social disintegration
(2009) elucidates, centricity urges us, first and fore-
alone. It should also be recognized as a rich res-
most, to inquire about our own identities, cultures,
ervoir for human spirituality and the wisdom of
and histories as a way of contributing to the grand
elders. The African Renaissance, symbolized by
flow of the entire humanity without being imitators
the geological and biological diversity of the tiny
who blindly follow others. Paradoxically, in this soul-
area around Capetown (said to be comparable in
searching process, we may discover that the develop-
richness to the vast area of Canada) ought to be
ment of our own culture is, in fact, indebted to other
a source of inspiration for a changed mindset
cultures, and that the nature of human civilization is
that addresses social development as a global
truly multicultural and synergic. In any case, imita-
joint venture. (p. 331)
tion is not intercultural (Miike, 2008a).
Three Steps to Cross-Cultural

Dialogue ASIACENTRIC WORLDVIEW
With a global mindset by which we try to see things AND COMMUNICATION
through the eyes of others and add their knowledge to In this section, I will draw on my previous writings
our personal repertories (Chen & Starosta, 2000, (Miike, 2003a, 2004, 2007) based on the principle of
p. 1), we can perhaps take three steps to cross- Asiacentricity (see Miike, 2006, 2008b, 2010a,
cultural dialogue. The first step is to understand the 2010b) and outline an Asiacentric worldview and its
mental layer of our own culture and its impact on communicative implications in local and global con-
the behavioral and material layers. The second step is texts. More specifically, I will discuss five Asiacentric
to understand the mental layer of other cultures and its propositions on human communication. They are
impact on the behavioral and material layers. The third propositions, not truths, in the sense that they reflect
step is to listen to others perspectives on our culture my interpretation of the invisible mental layer of Asian
and share our perspectives on other cultures in order cultures and my intent to tap into Asian cultural wis-
to reflect on what it means to be human in both local dom both for an Asiacentric understanding of Asian
and global contexts and how humans should relate to communication and for dialogue among civilizations.
one another, nature, and the spirits. In this step, we Hence, they do not capture the whole profile of the
must engage in intercultural dialogue with Asantes Asian communicator and the entire picture of Asian
(2006) spirit of mutual respect and learning: As crea- communication. Every scholarly investigation must
tors of our own societies, we have valuable experiences make certain simplifying assumptions about com-
to share, not to impose, which might be examined and plex realities that it studies (Rogers, 1990, p. 261).
adapted in a spirit of sharing and dialogue. This is the The present inquiry of Asiacentricity is no exception
real meaning of intercultural interaction (p. 154). Tu in this regard. My discussion here is based on the five
(2008) echoes Asantes position by saying that the elements of an Asiacentric worldview that I have
celebration of cultural diversity, without falling into identified from the existing literature on the psychol-
the trap of pernicious relativism, is profoundly mean- ogy and practices of Asian cultures and communica-
ingful for global stewardship (p. 331). tion (e.g., Chen & Miike, 2003; Dissanayake, 1988;
Centricity in the first step of cross-cultural dia- Kincaid, 1987; Miike, 2009a, 2009b; Miike & Chen,
logue is the beginning and basis of equality and mu- 2006, 2007; Nordstrom, 1983): (1) circularity, (2)
tuality in intercultural communication (Miike, harmony, (3) other-directedness, (4) reciprocity, and
2008a). It prevents our interactions with people (5) relationality. These recurring themes collectively
paint an Asiacentric picture of humanity and illusion that we are independent individuals in a par-
communication. ticular place at a particular time (Miike, 2007). For
humans are prone to engage in a present-oriented and
Communication as a Reminder lifeworld-centered way of thinking. It comes as no
surprise, then, that Asian patterns of small group
of Non-Separateness and organizational communication correspond espe-
The first Asiacentric proposition is that communication cially to this ideal of communication as a reminder of
is a process in which we remind ourselves of the interde- non-separateness with a view to strengthening
pendence and interrelatedness of the universe. This group or organizational unity, loyalty, and harmony.
proposition can complement the Western dominant The Indonesian musyawarah-mufakat performance
thinking that communication is a process in which and the Japanese nemawashi practice, for instance, al-
we demonstrate our independence and express our low group members not only to exchange ideas but
individuality. The two Asian themes of relationality also to increase the sense of interdependence and in-
and circularity have much to do with the ontological terrelatedness (Saito, 1982).
belief that the universe is a great whole in which ev- The Asian worldview essentially defines com-
eryone and everything are interrelated across space munication as an endless process in which we
and time. No one and nothing in the universe exists continuously locate and relocate ourselves in an
in isolation (Chen, 2006; Jung, 2009; Miike, 2003a). ever-expanding network of relationships across
Asian religions and philosophies illuminate the inter- space and time. This ancient yet radical Eastern
penetrated nature of the self, family, idea of communication must be taken
community, society, nation, world, seriously now that the global village
and cosmos. The Asian worldview has never been so divided by wealth,
Confucius (551479 BCE) re- demands that we power, technology, and influence in
marks in the Analects (6: 30) that if constantly world history, and [now] that we
you wish to establish yourself, you have polluted the air we breathe and
communicate with
have to help others to establish them- poisoned the water we drink to the
selves; if you wish to complete your- fellow humans, nature, extent that we risk our own lives
self, you have to help others to and the world of spirits. (Tu, 1998, 2002). Social disintegra-
complete themselves. Similarly, in tion is also becoming a worldwide
the words of Suzuki (2006), Buddhism teaches: So phenomenon in modern societies. As Asante
to save oneself we have to save others. By helping (2005) observes, The lack of connectedness creates
others, I may be able to save myself. My salvation and insensitivity to others, harshness, abrasiveness, and
others salvation are so intimately involved, connected arrogance (p. 135). Yum (2000) further points out
together, that we can never save ourselves just by that [a]lthough individualism has its own strength
ourselves. We must always be saved together as a value, individualism that is not accompanied by
(p. 19). More interestingly, the Hindu notion of Virat commitments to large entities eventually forces peo-
Purusha [Cosmic Person] views each individual as the ple into a state of isolation, where life itself becomes
manifestation of the cosmos itself. The universe is a meaningless (p. 71). We must learn about commu-
single body where each element lives for all and all nication as a way to realize that our well-being is
live for one [T]he weal and woe of one individual inextricably and inescapably intertwined with [the
affect another (Saral, 1983, p. 54). It is the teaching well-being] of other members of the human family,
of Hinduism that the world of distinct and separate nature, and even the supernatural.
objects and processes is a manifestation of a more
fundamental reality that is undivided and uncondi-
Communication as Ego-Reduction
tioned (Jain, 1991, p. 80).
The Asian worldview demands that we con- and Self-Cultivation
stantly communicate with fellow humans, nature, The second Asiacentric proposition is that communi-
and the world of spirits in order to escape from the cation is a process in which we reduce our selfishness and
egocentrism. This Eastern viewpoint makes a sharp development, and self-realization. In such a line of
contrast to the Western presumption that communi- thinking, the Asian way of knowing is grounded on
cation is a process in which we enhance our self- the elimination of excessive and aggressive ego as a
esteem and protect our self-interest (Yin, 2009; Yin primary source of mental suffering and perceptual
& Miike, 2008). Dogen (12001253), the founder of barriers (Ishii, 2004).
the Soto Zen school in Japan, writes at the very be- Asian daily experiences appear to concertedly
ginning of his 13th-century book Shobogenzo [Trea- indicate that interacting with other humans, nature,
sury of the Eye of the True Dharma]: To study the and the spirits facilitates the process of disciplining
Way is to study the self. To study the self is to forget and cultivating ourselves. Asians may be truly
the self. To forget the self is to be enlightened by ten touched and highly motivated to discipline them-
thousand things. What he meant was that removing selves and work harder when they listen to, or simply
all the divisions and distinctions of self and other observe, individuals who possess sophisticated skills
renders it possible to form an ultimate unity with through their years of practice or people who are
everything. According to Dogen, intrapersonal com- struggling against all odds in their lives. Moreover,
munication, in which we reduce selfishness and ego- reducing selfishness and egocentrism means increas-
centrism, can lead to ultimate communication with the ing connection and cooperation not only at the inter-
whole universe (Saito, 1970). Likewise, the Confucian personal level but also at other levels. From the
way of learning to be human is to engage in ceaseless perspective of Zen Buddhism, An awareness of one-
self-cultivation and creative self-transformation by ness develops from emptying oneself and accepting
crafting the self as a center of myriad relationships, the other (Saito, 1970, p. 17). Encountering fellow
not the center of all things. The point of departure in humans, nature, and the spirits in a way that we re-
quest of our authentic identity is, paradoxically, to duce our selfishness and egocentrism enables us to
overcome selfishness and egocentrism (Tu, 2002). rise above nepotism, parochialism, ethnocentrism,
What is intriguing about Buddhist and Confucian epis- and anthropocentrism as well as egocentrism.
temologies is that we need to reduce our selfishness In such a sense, this second communicative
and egocentrism through communication and then proposition is, once again, in consonance with the
become better communicators as a result of self- two Asian themes of relationality and circularity. In
discipline and self-cultivation. this increasing ego-driven world, the time is right to
It should not be misunderstood, however, that turn our attention to the role of interpersonal commu-
Asian traditions of thought discourage the values of nication as an ego-reduction and self-decentering prac-
autonomy and agency. Confucian thought, for ex- tice. For, as Chen (2005) understands, in order for us
ample, enunciates the view that the reciprocal inter- to fully unfold our potential as co-creators of the whole
play between self as center and self for others universe with heaven and earth, our self must be
enables the self to become a center of relationships. ceaselessly edified, constantly liberated, and perpetu-
As a center, personal dignity can never be marginal- ally purified (p. 7) in intercultural encounters with
ized and, as relationships, the spirit of consideration the other.
is never suppressed (Tu, 2001b, p. 26). While they
recognize the importance of individuality in collec- Communication as Sensing
tivity and independence in interdependence, Asian
religious-philosophers, especially Buddhist thinkers, and Feeling
are critically aware that humans are by nature self- The third Asiacentric proposition is that communica-
centered and egocentric. Therefore, their teachings tion is a process in which we feel the joy and suffering of
impel humans to discipline and cultivate themselves all sentient beings. This proposition is linked particu-
so that they can experience the oneness of the uni- larly with the Asian theme of other-directedness. As
verse and harmoniously coexist with fellow humans, the Chinese concept of renqing, the Japanese concept
nature and the world of spirits. In the Asian world- of ninjo, and the Korean concept of jung imply, emo-
view, communication is conceptualized as central to tional sensitivity, not instrumental rationality, occu-
this process of self-discipline, self-cultivation, self- pies a central place in being and becoming fully
human in the Asian worldview. To feel through sen- It is important to note that the Asian worldview
sitivity, rather than to analyze through rationality, does not encourage speaker-centered affective com-
is one of the habits of the heart in Asian communi- munication where individuals explicitly disclose
cation (Chen & Starosta, 2003). Such a feature man- their emotions to one another. According to the
ifests in many trans-Asian premises and practices of Asian experience, because [r]elational emotions
communication. The Filipino pahiwatig-pakikiramdam that bind and bond individuals together, not the
dynamics (Maggay, 1999; Mansukhani, 2005; Matar- private and narcissistic emotions, are emphasized
agnon, 1988), the Japanese enryo-sasshi style (Ishii & (Kim, 2001, p. 67), emotional convergence in com-
Bruneau, 1994; Miike, 2003, 2010c), and the Korean munication is often possible when the ego-
saryo-nunchi anticipation (Choi & Choi, 1992; Robin- decentered and other-directed listener attempts to
son, 2003), for example, underscore and underline sense and read the speakers emotional dynamics.
the importance of communicative sensitivity to the Thus, to be communicatively active in the Asian
joy and suffering of fellow human beings. This prepon- sense is to be perceptive, receptive, and introspective
derance toward affection instead of cognition does to feel together with fellow humans, nature, and the
not mean that Asians are not rational and do not rely spirits (Miike, 2007). The desirable profile of such a
on reason (Chen, 2006), but feelings and emotions sensitive Asian communicator is close to what Gor-
are equally, or even more, valued as essential qualities don (2009) has in mind as an attuned communica-
in the Asian version of humanity and tor: To develop sensitivity to the
communication. importance of fine-turning to the
Asian religions and philosophies The Asian worldview other, to sensing who they are, where
also endorse this communicative does not encourage theyve been, what they believe and
proposition. Confucianism delimits speaker-centered value, and feel what they need, what
the cardinal concept of ren [human- their style is, what their rhythms are,
heartedness] in light of sympathy and
affective this is the work of an attuned com-
empathy. Buddhism likewise empha- communication where municator (p. 13).
sizes the development of compassion, individuals explicitly Buddhist theories postulate that
which literally means feelings in disclose their emotions the development of compassion par-
common. Tu (2001a) accounts for allels the increased degrees of the
the centrality of emotional sensitivity
to one another. awareness of interdependent interre-
in Buddhist and Confucian visions of latedness and egoless altruism. As the
humanity: first and second Asiacentric propositions suggest,
then, communication can augment such an aware-
[B]oth Confucianism and Buddhism maintain
ness and egolessness, which, in turn, helps us de-
that sympathy, empathy and compassion are at
velop empathic sensitivity to communicate and feel
the same time the minimum requirement and
togetherness and interdependence. This Asian por-
the maximum realization of the human way. Ac-
trait of communication may be pressed into service
cording to Confucian and Buddhist modes of
so as to extend the affective and altruistic aspect of
thinking, human beings are sentient beings.
humanity in the global community.
Sensitivity, rather than rationality, is the distinc-
tive feature of humanity. We feel; therefore we
are. Through feeling, we realize our own exis-
Communication as Reciprocal Duty
tence and the coexistence of other human and Responsibility
beings, indeed birds, animals, plants and all The fourth Asiacentric proposition is that communica-
the myriad things in the universe. Since this tion is a process in which we receive and return our
feeling of interconnectedness is not merely a pri- debts to all sentient beings. Many Asian religious-
vate emotion but a sense of fellowship that is philosophical teachings as well as everyday practices
intersubjectively confirmable, it is a commonly highlight the fact that our existence is dependent on
shareable value. (pp. 8384) all other beings. The Buddhist doctrine of pratitya
samutpada [dependent co-arising] is a case in point helping each other. Okage-sama means literally
(see Chang & Holt, 1991; Dissanayake, 1983; Ishii, appreciation of the protection of the tree
1998). It is the idea that the existence of every being under its shade, but the implication can be ex-
in the universe is made possible only by Buddhist engi tended to our existence on the earth in the solar
or predetermined cooriginations and corelationships system, in this Universe. Indeed, true meaning
with all other beings (Ishii, 2001, p. 7). Implicit in of human existence lies in realizing this relation-
this Asian worldview is that we must be grateful to our ship. (p. 244)
fellow humans, natural environments, and ancestral
Other Asian concepts in Asian languages such as
spirits for our blessings and have ethical obligations
the Filipino concept of utang na loob and the Thai
to return something to them. We owe our debts of
concept of bhunkun also allude to communication as
gratitude to our ancestors, parents, siblings, neighbors,
the process of reciprocating love and kindness. These
teachers, friends, animals, oceans, rivers, mountains,
cultural practices ideally enhance our deep affection
and plants. Confucianism and Hinduism similarly ac-
and thoughtful consideration toward others. It is
centuate the primacy of obligatory reciprocity in em-
noteworthy that this communication process of re-
bodying supportive and cooperative interdependence
ceiving and returning debts of gratitude often goes
and in nurturing loyal and long-term relationships
beyond here-and-now reciprocity. As Ho (1993) at-
(Chen & Chung, 2000; Saral, 1983; Yum, 2000).
tests, the Asian worldview stresses an extended and
The Asian theme of reciprocity comes into play here.
circular perspective on space and time in the need to
Daisetsu Suzuki (1870-1966), perhaps the most
repay our debt of gratitude. That is, if we are unable
renowned scholar of Zen Buddhism in the West, once
to pay in our present life, the debt may be passed on
advocated the importance of shujo-no-on [the debt of
to the next and future generations. Or it may also be
gratitude that we owe to the universe for our existence]
assumed in our next life. In a sense, Yum (2000)
for humanity (Sato, 1959). In traditional Japanese cul-
writes, a person is forever indebted to others, who in
ture, people ought to feel obligated to remember and
turn are constrained by other debts (p. 66). Such an
repay the on [debt of gratitude] that they had received
Asian perspective on communication as assuming re-
from all contacts in the course of their life. In particular,
sponsibilities, not as asserting rights, may be per-
four types of on were emphasized: on from parents as
ceived as a challenge to individual freedom, but it
life givers, on from teachers and mentors, on from lords,
can project duty-centered character building and eth-
and shujo-no-on. From a Buddhist viewpoint, shujo-
ical intelligence in the age of global exploitation (Yin,
no-on is the ultimate on of interdependence based on
2009; Yin & Miike, 2008).
our awareness and appreciation of the support of the
universe with which we are living on the earth. It is age-
old wisdom similar to the emerging and evolving phi- Communication as Moralizing
losophy of ecopiety about the self-defeating humanity and Harmonizing
and the endangered earth (see Jung, 2009). Suzuki in
The fifth Asiacentric proposition is that communica-
Sato (1959) explicates this concept as follows:
tion is a process in which we moralize and harmonize
It rains and the ground becomes wet. It is the on the universe. This proposition concerns itself with
of rain; it is the virtue of rain. The earth absorbs the Asian axiological emphasis on the social order
the rain, and sends it to the roots of trees and and, ultimately, the order of the universe. It is also
grasses, and then to their buds. This is the on of pertinent to an Asian criterion by which to evaluate
the great earth. They are helping each other, communicative conduct. In Asian cultures, gener-
loving each other; it is on. I receive on from ally speaking, communication is positively evalu-
others, at the same time I extend on to others. ated when it attempts to actualize the moral
It is love and the action of love we feel as on for integrity and harmony of the universe, while it is
each other. To understand shujo-no-on means to negatively evaluated when it aims to pursue our
get rid of the world of power-domination, to own individual self-interest. Like the African world-
enter into the area of loving each other and view, humaneness is characterized by how well
people live in harmony with each other and nature. sameness. Tu in UNESCO (2006) articulates the crit-
To be inhumane is to live poorly in relationship to ical relationship between harmony and diversity:
your fellow human beings and nature (Asante,
Harmony is predicated on diversity and differ-
2005, p. 135). Hence, ethics and morality revolve
ence. The opposite of harmony is sameness. The
around harmony from the intrapersonal level to
great unity is diametrically opposed to homog-
the cosmological level. In the Asian worldview, har-
enized unity. The greatness of the great unity
mony is the end rather than the means of commu-
lies in its convergence, confluence, integration
nication (Chen, 2004, 2006). As Chen and Starosta
and harmonization of different colors, sounds,
(2003) clarify, harmony in Asian communication
tastes and experiences. Harmony embraces dif-
processes represents a kind of ethical appeal that
ference. Without difference, harmony is impos-
can induce a sense of duty for cooperation with
sible. If we do not mix spices, we cannot make
the other party, not by the communicators strategic
tasty soup. Without different sounds, there is no
words but by the sincere display of whole-hearted
music. Without different colors, there are no
concern with the other (p. 6).
paintings. Geodiversity and biodiversity are pre-
The Asian de-emphasis on speech has been ste-
conditions for human survival, and linguistic
reotypically exaggerated in the culture and communi-
and cultural diversity is congenial to human
cation literature to the extent that it gives the
flourishing. (p. 181)
impression that Asians traditionally have not valued
the act of speaking at all. But speaking for the benefit
of others, not for the sake of self-interest, is much
cherished in Asian traditions of thought. Dissanayake Asiacentric Communication Ethics
(2003), for instance, explores the Buddhist teaching and Competence
of samma vaca [right speech] and its moral implica-
Asia is diverse and dynamic. It is a region of cultural
tions in human communication. There are four pri-
complexity, continuity, and change, although the
mary guidelines for right speech: (1) right speech
term signifies a certain geographical location in the
should be de-linked with falsehoods of any sort; (2)
world, designates a common historical and political
right speech discourages slander and calumny leading
struggle against Western imperialism and colonialism,
to friction and hostility among people; (3) right
and implies shared religious-philosophical founda-
speech presupposes the absence of, and refraining
tions and cultural heritage (Miike, 2003a). Asian na-
from, harsh language; and (4) right speech en-
tions are plural societies. They have a dominant
courages speakers to desist from frivolous and idle
community and a number of minority communities
chatter and to embrace purposeful and productive
divided on the basis of language, religion, caste, and
speech. There is also much to learn from Confuciuss
ethnicity living together under a single polity
teaching of humble talk and moral action (see
(Goonasekera, 2003, p. 368). Chen and Starosta
Chang, 2008) and Gandhis nonviolent philosophy
(2003) vividly depict such a place of remarkable vari-
of Satyagraha (see Pandikattu, 2001; Starosta & Shi,
ety and vitality:
2007) about moralizing and harmonizing styles and
strategies of communication. Indonesia is largely Muslim, yet it contains a
An exemplary person seeks harmony but not large Hindu enclave in Bali. Indians were also
uniformity, Confucius opines in the Analects imported to parts of Malaysia, and Buddhism,
(13:23). This ideal of harmony without uniformity started in India, [but] can hardly be found there
can be an ultimate goal of communication both in now, except [as] a political reaction to casteism.
Asian societies and in the global village. In Confu- Instead, it has taken root in China, Sri Lanka,
ciuss mind, a global citizen is a person who can fully and elsewhere. Shintoism thrives in Japan, but
recognize diversity as the basis for harmony and take maybe nowhere else. Asia has some massive cit-
the moral responsibility to make the best out of it. To ies, but 80% of some Asian countries are rural.
such a citizen, intercultural communication is a India and China have 800 language varieties or
means of integrating differences without creating the dialects. (p. 1)
Obviously, therefore, all Asian communicators view, such a truly human civilization is not an exten-
do not subscribe to the above-discussed five propo- sion of any one culture; rather it would be the essence
sitions. These propositions do not necessarily reflect of all cultures of the entire humanity (p. 13). Hence,
the way Asians actually communicate in real-life there is room for Asiacentric, as well as Afrocentric and
situations. Nevertheless, they serve as theoretical other non-Western, contributions. As Asante (1993)
lenses from which to see an Asian version of human- avers, there is also space for Eurocentricity in a mul-
ity and to view Asian thought and action. They are ticultural enterprise so long as it does not parade as
designed to provide much food for thought in re- universal. No one wants to banish the Eurocentric
thinking the nature and ideal of human communica- view. It is a valid view of reality where it does not force
tion in Asia and beyond from an alternative vantage its way (p. 188).
point.
For example, the advent of the global village and
the crisis of the human condition have made it com- CHERISHING THE OLD
pelling to ruminate on communication ethics and
competence in intercultural contexts (Chen, 2005; TO KNOW THE NEW
Miike, 2009b; Tehranian, 2007). There have been ex- It was my intention in this essay to argue that learning
tensive discussions on Eurocentric biases in the defi- from, not about, cultures for self-reflexivity is a sine
nitions and components of these key qua non for cross-cultural dialogue
concepts (e.g., Chen & Starosta, and to illustrate how Asians and
2008; Ishii, 2009; Shuter, 2003; Xiao
The advent of the global non-Asians can benefit from an Asia-
& Chen, 2009). We can reexamine village and the crisis of centric worldview and its implications
current conceptualizations of com- the human condition for communication in local and global
munication ethics and competence have made it contexts. Tu (2001a) propounds two
from the five Asiacentric proposi- propositions on globalization. First,
tions. They suggest that an ethical
compelling to ruminate globalization can be hegemonic ho-
communicator can (1) remind herself on communication mogenization without cultural diver-
or himself and others of interrelated- ethics and competence sity and sensitivity, but through
ness and interdependence through in intercultural dialogue it may lead to a genuine
communication, (2) discipline and sense of global community. Second,
cultivate herself or himself without
contexts. the search for identity can degenerate
being overly self-centered through into extreme ethnocentrism and ex-
communication, (3) develop her or his altruistic sen- clusion, but through dialogue it may lead to an au-
sitivity to the sufferings of others, (4) feel her or his thentic way of intercultural communication and to a
obligation to remember the debts that she or he has real respect for diversity. It is then up to us whether
received and to try to return them in one way or we will further risk our lifeboat by imposing the
another, and (5) speak up for greater harmony and ethnocentric version of humanity on others and di-
morality. viding the world with the clash of ignorance, or we
Just like many proponents of Asian values who will engage in mutual dialogue with the principle
are often misunderstood by Western conservative of multiculturalism without hierarchy toward har-
intellectuals (Mahbubani, 2002), I am not asserting mony without uniformity. In either case, Mahatma
that these Asiacentric viewpoints on humans com- Gandhis statement that this world has enough for all
municating are superior to Eurocentric ones, but I of us but not enough for the greed of a single person
am protesting that they are not inferior to them. (Tehranian, 1999, p. 191) now sounds soberer than
They are rooted in the Asian worldview and yet ever before.
may be sharable along with those rooted in, say, Asante (2003a) asseverates that innovation and
the African worldview toward what Tu (2006, tradition are key to humanizing the world. He con-
2007) calls a dialogical civilization or what Sitaram tends that The generation of the new, the novel, is
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Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 2012, 2009, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

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2 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication 3

Using Intercultural Communication:

4 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 5

6 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 7

8 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 9

10 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 11

12 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

homelandfor example, Vietnamese noodle shops in An inability to understand or accept different

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 13

14 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 15

16 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

beliefs, worldviews, values, and behaviors of people Selected Societal Sources of

McDaniel Samovar Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 17

18 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 19

INTRODUCTION facts of cultural relativity. All cultures constitute

20 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 21

22 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 23

Small Power Distance Large Power Distance

24 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 25

TABLE 1.3 Ten Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Societies

26 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

TABLE 1.4 Ten Differences Between Feminine and Masculine Societies

TABLE 1.5 Ten Differences Between Short- and Long-Term-Oriented Societies

Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation

Immediate need gratification expected Need gratification deferred until later

28 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 29

30 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

manager. A units position on this dimension DIMENSIONALITY OF CULTURES

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 31

32 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Geert Hofstede Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 33

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Harry C. Triandis Culture and Conflict 35

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Harry C. Triandis Culture and Conflict 37

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Harry C. Triandis Culture and Conflict 39

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40 CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication