COMPRESSORS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

A simple definition of compressor is a device used to pressurize a fluid including liquids

and gases. There are many different kinds of compressors, but the main purpose of using a
compressor is to raise the pressure of a gas.

A compressor converts shaft power to raise the enthalpy of the gas. The gas enters the
compressor at a low pressure and exits at a high pressure. The rotating shaft is attached to a blade
assembly; the rotating blades push on the gas and increase the pressure and thereby increasing
the enthalpy. Compressors can be either Positive displacement type or Dynamic type.

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

COMPRESSORS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT DYNAMIC TYPE

(COMPRESSING FLUID BY REDUCING (ACCELERATION AND
VOLUME OF COMPRESSION CHAMBER) DECLERATION OF FLUID)

CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL
RECIPROCATING ROTARY TYPE
COMPRESSORS COMPRESSORS

HELICAL SPIRAL STRAIGHT SLIDE

SCREW AXIAL LOBE VANE
1
 Not too many years ago, it was common practice to use reciprocating compressors when
high pressures were required. Dynamic-type machines were used only where larger volumes and
lower pressures were involved. Dynamic compressors were usually called blowers when air or
gas was compressed to about 40 psig. The term compressor was applied to any such machine
where air or gas was compressed to a final pressure over 50 psig. In recent years, this
differentiation has become meaningless. Industry now uses the term compressor for all types of
machines compressing air or gas.

1.3. BASIC TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

Dynamic type and Positive displacement type.

1.3.1. Dynamic-Type Compressors

Dynamic type compressors are machines in which air or gas is compressed by the
dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and pressure to the flowing gas.
Two general variations, centrifugal and axial compressors, are available.

1. Centrifugal compressors are machines in which velocity and pressure are given to the air or
gas in a radial direction by one or more impeller-diffuser combinations

2. Axial compressors are the machines in which velocity and pressure are given to the air or
gas in an axial direction by one or more sets of moving and stationary rows of blades

1.3.2. Positive Displacement Type Compressors

Positive-displacement types of Compressors are machines in which successive volumes

of air or gas are confined within a closed space. The pressure is increased as the volume of the
closed space is decreased. Four general types, broken down according to the constructional
method used to carry out compression, are available.

2
1. Reciprocating compressors are machines in which the compressing element is a piston
following a reciprocating motion in a cylinder.

2. Rotary sliding-vane compressors are machines in which longitudinal vanes slide radially in
a rotor mounted eccentrically in cylinder

3. Rotary lobe compressors are machines in which two mating lobed impellers revolve within
a cylinder and are prevented from making a contact with each other by timing gears
mounted outside the cylinder

4. Rotary liquid-piston compressors are machines in which water or other liquids are used,
usually in a single rotating element, to displace the air or gas handled.

Although each of the positive-displacement types will vary from the other somewhat,
they can be grouped together as single class of machines for the purpose of comparison with
dynamic-type compressors. Figure shows the basic pressure-capacity constant-speed
characteristics of positive displacement, dynamic-type and centrifugal compressors. The
centrifugal compressor is essentially a variable-capacity, constant-pressure machine, the axial
compressor and the positive-displacement compressors are essentially constant-capacity,
variable-pressure machines.

These basic characteristics, however, represent only part of the problem of choosing the
type of compressor best suited to a specific application. Equally important is the capacity range
that can be built into a single machine. As a general rule, positive-displacement machines are for
small capacities, centrifugals are for medium capacities and axial machines are for large
capacities. As in all other general statements, however, it must be realized that there is
considerable overlap of capacity range between these different types of compressors.

Although flow limits for centrifugal are dictated somewhat by the specific conditions
involved and design philosophy of different manufacturers, general range of compressor
selection goes as below

Positive displacement machines below 3000 m / hr.

3
 Centrifugal
105
Axial compressors above 30,000 m / hr.
Flow regions between 3000 - 12,000 m / hr. can be considered over-lapping between positive
displacement and centrifugal compressors
Flow regions between 30,000 - 1, 20,000 m / hr. can be considered over-lapping between
104
centrifugal and axial compressors.

103

102

101

102 103 104 105 106

Axial

Reciprocating
Discharge Pressure (Psiabs)

Inlet Flow (m3/hr)

Fig 1.1: Application Range of Compressor

4
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Centrifugal Compressor is one of the most critical equipment in process industry. As
these machines are highly power intensive, efforts towards improving their efficiencies and
reliabilities has been the goal of the designer. Considerable improvement in efficiencies of these
machines has been possible by incorporating new design concepts and state-of-art technologies
in the product and the associated systems. Following are the developments in the centrifugal
compressors field

1. Optimal design of impeller geometry adapted for low flow conditions

2. Standard Stage Concept
3. Design of three dimensional impellers
4. Use of dry flexible couplings
5. Use of dry gas seals
6. Use of Low solidity diffuser vanes

Optimal design of impeller geometry adapted for low flow conditions: Considering the
requirement of impellers handling low flows especially for high pressure compressors a new
chapter in manufacturing is thus opened. This has incidentally helped in extending the range
operation of impellers. The basic fact in the design of impellers is that higher the outlet vane
angle higher the head coefficient and higher flow handling capacity. This means we have to
employ low outlet angles for impeller vanes handling low flows. Generally for vane angles less
than 37.5 degrees, we require long channel passages. It is difficult to manufacture these impellers
by any traditional methods. The efficiency and head realized in this case are definitely low.
External welded impeller manufacturing technology has over come the above difficulties. In this
the design of impeller geometry can be aimed for low flows with low vane angles without any
sacrifice in efficiency. The operating range with these impellers is more than the impeller
employed with a compromise due to manufacturing constraint. Impellers calling for the design

5
with outlet vane angles in the range of 15-18 degree, result in long channel passages, hence
appreciably better guidance for the flow.

Standard Stage Concept: Centrifugal compressors belong to the tailor made category
product. However keeping in view of short delivery requirement cycles for the product and
availability of powerful computer systems led to possibility of standardization of a no of
components. In this effort the main focus is on the basic element of the compressor i.e. the
impeller with diaphragm known as stage. The standard impellers are based on the inlet capacity
coefficient. The inlet capacity coefficient has been split into different ranges. For each range of
capacity coefficient a family of impeller geometry is developed with different outlet angles
yielding different levels of head coefficient. Acceptable geometry of the impeller is arrived at
observing the basic necessities of relative velocity ratios and minimum disturbance of the flow
angle with respect to the vane angle. Advantage of standard stage concept is the Engineering
cycle time is reduced to a great extent and advanced planning of raw materials like forgings and
casings with minimum allowances for final finishing.

Design of Three Dimensional Impellers: Large plant capacities call for higher sizes of
compressor models and hence increase the project costs. To make the models more competitive a
careful study has been made in evolving three dimensional impellers with aerodynamic flow
channels. Especially where the Mach number is more than 0.85 e.g. for gases having high
molecular weight or when operated at low temperatures (say -30C) it is necessary to design the
flow channel more aerodynamically. Any mismatch between the vane orientation and the flow
direction results in higher incidence losses and thus affecting the overall efficiency of the
machine, resulting in narrow operating range. By analytical study the flow channel can be made
more smooth which however results in three dimensional shape of impeller vane profile. A
computer program (Compel and Axcent) is used for the design of three dimensional impellers.
This program gives an optimum set of three dimensional co-ordinates for the impeller vane
geometry. Acceptable geometry can be arrived by observing the velocity distributions in the
passage. Efficiency of three dimensional impellers is high compared to two dimensional
impellers. Because of higher efficiency power consumption will be low for three dimensional
impellers. The aspect of higher polytrophic head combining with higher tip speeds result in less
number of impellers for a given compression ratio. Hence the design of the machine becomes

6
more compact. With the twisted blade geometry at the inducer portion conventional methods are
not suitable for manufacturing three dimensional impellers. These impellers are manufactured by
using five axis NC machining facility. Another method to produce impellers is by precision
casting. Though the cost of these impellers are high, the difference in the cost between two
dimensional impeller and three dimensional impeller design gets compensated with in a year
because low operational cost and compactness of the machine in case of three dimensional
impellers.

2.2. TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Table 2.1: The centrifugal compressors used are of the following types namely:-

HORIZONTALLY VERTICALLY VERTICALLY

SPLIT SPLIT SPLIT
(PROCESS) (PIPE LINE)
MCL BCL PCL
2MCL 2BCL SRL
3MCL DBCL
DMCL

2.2.1. MCL Compressor

These are multistage compressors with horizontally split casing, for pressure up to
40kg/cm2 and capacities up to 3, 60,000m3/hr at suction condition. These are mainly used in

- Ethylene plants
- Refrigerating services
- Gasification plants for fertilizer industry
- Drug and food processing plants

2.2.2. 2MCL Compressor

These are multi-stage compressors which group two compression stages in series in the
same machine with inter stage cooling.

7
2.2.3. 3MCL Compressors

These are multistage compressors which generally in corporate more than these
compression stages in a single casing. As a rule they are used in series where different gas flows
have to be compressed the various pressure levels i.e. by injecting and/or extracting gas during
compression.

2.2.4. DMCL Compressors

2 compressor stages are arranged in parallel in a single casing. The fact both stages are
identical and the delivery nozzle is positioned in the centre of the casing makes this solution the
more balanced possible.

Fig 2.1: MCL Compressor

8
 Fig 2.2: 2MCL Compressor

Fig 2.3: 3MCL Compressor

9
 Fig 2.4: 2MCL Compressor with outer casing

2.2.5. BCL

They are multi stage compressors with vertical split casing for pressure up to 350Kg/cm 2 and
capacities of 50,000m3/hr at suction conditions. They are mainly used in:-

- Ammonia synthesis plants

- Urea synthesis plants
- Natural gas compression stations

2.2.6. 2BCL compressor

These are barrel type compressor with two compression stages in series in a single
casing.

2.2.7. DBCL compressor

Like DMCL compressor these compressors incorporate two compression stages in

parallel in a single casing.

10
Fig 2.5: BCL Compressor

11
 FIG 2.6: BCL compressor with outer casing

2.2.8. PCL compressors

For compression of very high volumes, casings having double flow arrangement are used.
This reduces the casing size and permits the compressors rotating speed to be maintained within
the speed range of steam turbines. So that turbines can be directs coupled to the compressor,
eliminating gear boxes. This compressor having two suction and one discharge nozzle.

2.7:Vertical split PCL compressor

2.2.9. SRL compressors

The integrally geared and packaged SRL compressors are popularly known as API 672
compressor. Single and multistage SRL compressors for low and medium pressures, are mainly
used as blowers or boosters in industries, refineries and petrochemical plants. When large
volumes of gases have to be handled at low pressure, a packed integrally geared design provides
compactness and economy.

Main features of SRL compressors:

High compression ratio with limited number of stages.

12
 High poly-tropic efficiency.

Wide operational range.

Compact packaged arrangement.

Low noise.

Capacity-pressure control be adjustable guide vanes.

High rigidity boxed base incorporating the lube oil tank and gearbox.

Easy installation, accessibility and maintainance.

2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS

The major components of the compressor are selected based on the mechanical,physical
& chemical properties which are amenable to some form of reasonably satisfactory quantitative
measurement. The material should consider the following properties

Tensile properties

Modulus of elasticity

Thermal expansion

Fracture toughness

Damping

Fatigue strength

Thermal conductivity

13
 Specific heat

Hardenability

Weldability

Corrosion resistance

Thermal stability

The major components of centrifugal compressor is

1. Rotor
2. Casing
3. Diaphragms
4. Seals
5. End covers
6. Capacity control systems
7. Journal bearings
8. Thrust bearings

2.3.1 ROTOR
Rotor is the part of the centrifugal compressor, which has been subjected to technical
design developments. The constituent elements of rotor are shaft, impellers, and spacers,
balancing drum. Seal brushes, locking rings and thrust collar.

14
2.3.1(a) Rotor Shaft
Generally ,
shafts are
manufactured from either
rolled bars or forgings. The
forging or roller bars
should be dependent on
cost and availability
as there is little difference in the end result. They are manufactured to relevant American society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM). In the size range both are acceptable by API 617 in the year
2002. Currently less than or 8 inches are finished machined. Mostly for 8 inches diameter shafts
are manufactured from forging on entire length or entire heat. The shaft materials are heat treated
to give the required mechanical strength and toughness value

2.3.1(b) Impeller

Impeller is the vital rotary part in the functioning of the compressor. The fluid (gas or
air) enters the impeller axially at the eye of the impeller and then flows radially out of the
impeller. The gas goes through the diffuser to the return channel and further goes into the next
impeller. It is one of the most stressed components of the compressor, demanding highly precise
manufacturing methods. Each impeller is dynamically balanced and subjected to over speed test.

15
They are mounted, shrink fitted and keyed on the shaft, which is coupled to an external source
(generally electric motor). This source imparts the required energy and makes it to rotate.

In an impeller, the energy transferred is in the form of kinetic energy, which is then
converted into pressure energy in the diffuser. The pressure ratio of any compressor depends
mainly on the impeller diameter, rotational speed and volume flow.

Types of Impellers

There are three types of impellers:

Open type: These are used for high heads and for small to large flow, in single
compressors only. In this type of impeller, the flow of gas is least controlled.
Semi-enclosed type: These are used for large flow usually in single stage compressors
or first stage in multi stage compressors.

Closed type: These are made of special forged steels and these are used mainly in
multistage compressor. It consists of a disc and counter disc. The grooves are milled on
the disc and vanes on counter disc.

The vanes are radial or backward curved depending on the head required. The disc and
counter disc are clamped and welded together along the vanes. The impellers are the most
stressed components; in fact there is a tendency to exploit them to a maximum so as to reduce the
number of stages. The number of impellers on the rotor shaft mounted can be 3, 5, 7. With the
maximum 3000 R.P.M of the rotor shaft speed the impeller can with stand. The impellers rotor
can be driven through steam, gas, motor. In the areas where the discharge should be more there
will be a 3-D impeller which helps in more suction and the rest of the impellers will be of 2-D
impellers

Material of Impellers

They are made of low alloy steel or stainless steel which give high mechanical
characteristics such as yield, tensile properties, corrosion resistance, hydrogen sulphide

16
resistance, weldability, machinability but with low carbon content to ensure satisfactory welding.
The impeller raw materials are selected according to AISI standards with numbering
19377,19391, 19395. Previously 19377 material is used but the material have more corrosive
property in salty areas or subjected to cold region and has less life span when corroded. AISI
proposed 19391 material which when compared to 19377 material is less corrosive and costly
material. AISI 19395 material which is mostly used in present by every manufacturing
companies because of its less corrosive property nature and had a more life time when compared
to 19377,19391 materials. The cost of the material is high according to its properties. This
material has (also good for low temperature) having 2% chrome 1% molybdenum and 0.13 to
0.17% carbon. Mostly 19391, 19395 have identical requirements for common impeller materials.
Impellers should meet a maximum hardness of 22 HRC and Low carbon stainless steel in the
base metal, weld metal, and heat-affected zone (HAZ).

The process of welding for impellers based on the number of vanes and the dimensions
required. Mostly impeller consists of 13, 15,17,19,21 vanes based on the suction required. The
type of welding is selected. The external welding is used when there are more number of vanes
which has more radius by which the electrode reaches the welding point accurately without any
destruction to any other parts or other vanes and internal welding is preferred and when there are
more number of vanes internal welding process is used due to the low radius of the blades. The
minimum thickness is 1.5mm. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), shielded metal arc welding are the process used for
joining the sections of impellers, whether it would be milled blades to cover/hub to the unmilled
section or joining preformed blades to machined hub and cover. All these process were used to
simple two dimensional (2D) configuration impellers with 2D curved blades. Special torches
were designed for both open bladed and closed configuration welding. Due to technology
advances in five axis miling, two-piece three-dimensional (3D) impellers are being designed to
increase performance of the wheel. Brazing of impellers are ancient techniques which are now
popularly used. The impellers are done in vacuum furnace where dry hydrogen in atmosphere.
weld and surround zone are the same, a phenomenon of inter angular corrosion would appear to
occur with higher carbon content. It is for this reason that there is a need to limit the carbon
content. The intergranular corrosion weakens the metallurgical bond between grains, which leads

17
to the mechanical degeneration of the material. The presence of carbon in the steel greater than
that soluble in the austenitic matrix determines the potential sensitivity of the material to
intergranular corrosion. This is prominent because carbon is principally responsible for the
precipitation of the carbides and impoverishment in chromium renders the material sensitive to
corrosion. When the impellers are to be used in corrosive fluids, steel with higher chromium
content is used such as X12Cr13 (13% of Cr), in particular corrosive conditions requiring very
high strength, steels with still high percentage of chromium as high as 15 - 19% may be required.
Where high degree of corrosion and higher stresses are present, recourse can be made to steel of
17-4 PH grade, with 17% of Chromium, and 4% of Nickel (precipitation hardened at lower
temperature). The steel with 9% Ni (N9 COGNE) is used for impellers required to operate at
very low temperatures up to -196 C.

2-D Impeller

18
 3-D Impeller

Axis CNC Machine

19
Spacers

Spacers were used to maintain the tip clearance accurately. Tip clearance is varied by moving
the front shroud axially. Thereby the distance between the front and rear cover would alter.
Provisions are made on front cover to fix the spacers in position. Four spacers are used to
maintain each tip clearance accurately spacers are fixed at 90. Hence four set of spacers were
made. Spacers are normally forged steel, SAE 4330, with stainless steel available for corrosive
gas applications. Spacers are typically machined from 400 series stainless steel.

20
Balance drum/piston

21
Balance drum/piston are compensated on the rotor shaft when a Multistage centrifugal
compressors are subjected to an axial thrust on the rotor caused by the differential pressure
across the stages and the change of momentum of the gas turning from the horizontal to the
vertical direction. This axial thrust is normally compensated by a balance piston and an axial
thrust bearing. The axial thrust bearing cannot be loaded by the entire thrust of the rotor, a
balance piston is designed to compensate for most of the thrust, leaving the bearing to handle any
remaining, residual thrust. The balance piston is normally implemented as a rotating disc or drum
which is fitted onto the compressor shaft, such that each side of the balance disc or drum is
subjected to different pressures during operation. The diameter of the balance piston is chosen to
have a desired axial load to avoid its residual load from overloading the axial bearing.

Seal brushes

22
 A brush seal is an air-to-air seal that provides an alternative to labyrinth, dry seals. The
seal is comprised of thousands of densely packed wire filaments fused between two metallic
plates. Brush seals offer many advantages when compared with traditional seals. Unlike the
labyrinth seal, a brush seal is designed to come in contact with the rotor to provide a positive
seal. The flexibility of the hair-like wires enables the seal to automatically adjust to
accommodate rotor excursions typically encountered during start-up, shutdown or even passing
through critical vibrations during normal operation. As early as the first start-up, the labyrinth
seal could be compromised if it contacts the rotor. The brush seal will maintain its sealing
capabilities with no significant loss in performance

Shaft seals are required to seal the gas inside the compressor at the point where the
compressor rotor shaft penetrates the case. This vital sealing function is necessary to prevent
escape of process gas to the environment surrounding the compressor. Dry gas seals are the most
commonly used type of shaft seal. Liquid film seals are sometimes used. Designed to increase
airflow efficiency in engines and compressors. Brush seals work by absorbing the radial
deflections between the shaft and rotor during transient operation. The seal then follows the rotor
back to the steady state operating position to maintain minimum leakage. The brush pack is
composed of thousands of finely packed 70 to 150 micron diameter wire bristles. The bristle
material, a cobalt or nickel alloy, is selected to provide an optimal combination of wear
properties and oxidation resistance. The back plates and side plates are typically fabricated from
stainless steel or nickel alloys. The primary consideration is thermal expansion and contraction
of the case material.

23
Locking rings

The locking rocks consisted of several stationary arc segments facing a thrust collar on the
rotating shaft. Each segment would have a boss on the side away from the thrust collar, allowing
it to tilt and form an oil wedge that would carry the thrust

Thrust collars

Thrust collars are specially grooved shaft fitted with a split set collar to transfer the trust
load through a bronze washer to the conveyor end bearing.

24
Casing

Casing is main pressure containing part of compressor. There are two kinds of casing
constructions. One is horizontally split type and the other is vertically split type. Based on the
pressure and the gas handled, the construction is determined. In terms of material used, there are
three types such as cast steel casing, fabricated casing and forged steel casing. The case houses
the stationary internal components and the compressor rotor. Bearings are attached to the case to
provide both radial and axial support of the rotor. The case also contains nozzles with inlet and
discharge flange connections to introduce flow into and extract flow from the compressor. The
flange connections must be properly sized to limit the gas velocity as necessary. Nearly all
multistage centrifugal compressor casings are made from carbon or low alloy material that is
either cast of fabricated from castings, forgings, plate, or a combination of these occasionally
higher alloy steels are required for aggressive corrosion conditions or to achieve the desired
toughness for extreme low temperature (-320F) operating conditions, such as those for boil off
gas compressors in liquefied natural gas service. For low temperature application down to (-
175F) low alloy steels. Compressor casing are typically manufactured from carbon steel casings
or carbon steel plate that is formed and welded. According to NACE MR0103 limits and
hardness of carbon steel casting and plate to 200 HBW maximum and NACE MR0175 limits the
hardness to 22HRC (237 HBW). Under both specifications, carbon steel castings are acceptable
in the normalized and tempered conditions, and carbon steel plate is acceptable in the hot-rolled
condition as long as the material meets the maximum hardness requirement. The hardness of the
carbon steel is largely controlled by the carbon content, so keeping the carbon content low is
essential to meeting the maximum hardness requirement. Welding of the carbon steel plates
under NACE MR0103 is controlled by NACE MR0472 which also limits the maximum hardness
in the base metal and the weld to 200 HBW while limiting the hardness of the HAZ to 248 HV
10. The maximum hardness of 22 HRC is required in the base metal, weld metal, and HAZ under
MR0175. The chemical composition of the filler metal used during welding must be similar or
identical to the base metal composition. The hardness may be verified by the welding procedure
qualification when all of the welding parameters and filler metal composition defined by the
procedure qualification are controlled and followed. A post weld heat treatment (PWHT) may be
performed to ensure that the hardness values meet the required specifications. NACE MR0103

25
has a lower hardness limit than MR0175 to compensate for non homogeneity of some weld
deposits and normal variations in production hardness testing using a portable Brinell tester.

Depending on the compressor family the casings can be

- Horizontally split

- Vertically split

Horizontally-split casings

This casing consist of two half casings joined along the horizontal center-line. All
connections such as suction and discharge nozzles, side stream nozzles (if any) and oil piping are
normally fitted to the lower half so that the upper half becomes an easily removable cover. The
casings may be cast or fabricated steel depending on the compressor duty, service temperatures,
gas handled and compressor size. A horizontally split case is split parallel to the axis of the rotor.
The upper half of the case is bolted and doweled to the lower half. Access to the internals of the
compressor for inspection and maintenance is facilitated with this case design (especially when
the process piping connections are located on the bottom half of the case). The horizontally split
design is inherently pressure-limited to prevent gas leakage at the case split joint.

Vertically split casings

26
 This casing have different shapes and thickness depending on the pressure rating.
Casings up to 350 bars are steel cylinders with end covers either bolted or secured by shear rings.
Nozzles can be welded to the casing or machined directly. By removing the end cover it is
possible to remove the rotor diaphragm bundle assembly and gain access to the internal
components without removing the outer casing which remains connected to the plant piping
package. This case is split perpendicular to the axis of the rotor. Heads (end covers) are installed
at both ends for pressure containment. The vertically split case configuration is capable of
handling higher pressures than the horizontally split type. The rotor and stationary internals are
assembled as a cylindrical inner bundle that is inserted axially through one end of the case.
Inspection and maintenance of a radially split centrifugal compressor require that the inner
bundle be removed for disassembly. Removal of the inner bundle requires that sufficient space be
provided in the layout of the compressor installation.

Diaphragms

27
Diaphragms are in two halves split along the horizontal centerline. Depending upon the
characteristics of the machine and depending on the pressure and gases to be handled the raw
material its quality is selected. In a machine, diaphragms are

Suction diaphragm

Intermediate diaphragm

Discharge diaphragm

Depending upon the type of construction, diaphragms are:

Cast diaphragms for low-pressure difference.

Milled vanes diaphragms for high pressure.

In a BCL type of compressor, suction and discharge diaphragms are generally cast ones and
the intermediate diaphragms are fabricated ones, whereas in low pressure i.e. in MCL type of
compressors, all the diaphragms are cast types.

Diaphragms are located in the casing to efciently convert the dynamic energy of the gas at
the impeller outlet to static pressure. Also, return vanes are provided which direct the gas ow to

28
the impeller eye. Diaphragms are of welded or casting construction, and the return vanes consist
of NACA prole wings. In the case of welded construction diaphragm, the return vane wings are
precision N/C-machined. Pressure across the diaphragm differs slightly, but a particularly large
differential pressure may occur across the intermediate diaphragms in back-to-back arrangement.
In the computer design system, diaphragm deformation calculations are made by FEM with the
emphasis places on preventing contract between the diaphragm and the rotor, and the labyrinth
and the rotor.
Suction, intermediate and discharge diaphragms create the gas flow path within the
stationary components. The suction diaphragm conveys the gas into the eye of the first impeller.
Intermediate diaphragms perform the dual function of forming the diffuser passage (where gas
velocity is transformed into pressure) and the return passage to channel gas to the eye of the next
impeller. The discharge diaphragm forms the diffuser for the last impeller as well as the
discharge volute. The diaphragms are usually horizontally-split. In the small to medium sizes of
the MCL series, the upper half of the diaphragms is fixed to the upper half casing to facilitate
inspection, and for the large sizes, it is fixed to the lower half of the diaphragms, while the barrel
family internals are assembled into a bundle which can be easily extracted from the casing. The
diaphragms are made of cast, steel or stainless steel and machined. Easily removable labyrinth
seals are installed on the diaphragms at impeller shrouds, to prevent return flow from discharge
to suction and on the shaft sleeves to eliminate inter- stage leakage. Diaphragms were generally
constructed from grey cast-iron materials. When higher strength is required, ductile irons or
fabricated mild steel is applied. In all cases, the casting or fabrications are heat treated to produce
low levels of internal stress and difficulty with instability in service is virtually unknown. In the
last 10 years, the choice of diaphragm material has been mild steel with blades either milled
integral or welded and the two-piece construction bolted together. One of the main reasons for
the change is that the mild steel materials can be repaired by welding more readily as compared
to grey cast-iron. The use of ductile iron that has improved weldability over grey cast-iron. The
use of also be selected as a material choice for diaphragms.
These separate the stages (wheels) of the rotor. Between each stage and the shaft, the
diaphragms are fitted with labyrinth seals in order to minimize leakage between the stages, of HP
gas to the LP side of the wheel. The diaphragms also hold the 'DIFFUSERS'. In the diffusers, the
velocity of the gas is decreased causing the molecules of gas to 'crowd' together which causes a
pressure increase - (Bernoulli's Principle - Velocity Decrease , Pressure Increase). Following the
diffusers within the diaphragms, are the 'RETURN PASSAGES' where the gas, as it leaves the

29
diffuser, is directed into the eye of the next impeller. After the final stage, the gas, at the required
pressure, as it passed into the discharge nozzle and piping. Note the larger size of the suction
inlet nozzle as compared to the discharge nozzle. Also note the successive narrowing of the
impellers from the suction end to the discharge end. This is to allow for the increase in pressure
and therefore the decrease in volume of the gas as it passes through the compressor. The balance
drum and line bleed any leakage back to the compressor suction line. The HP end seal will
therefore stay at the same pressure as the LP end seal (suction pressure) and the sealing medium
will help prevent gas leakage into the bearings.
It should be at this point that-liquids and solids must never be allowed to enter the
compressor. Even tiny droplets of liquid and very fine particles of solids, due to their high
velocity, will cause serious erosion of the machine internals-rotor, impeller blades and shrouds,
diaphragm parts
SEALS
Seals are provided in the clearance between the moving and stationary parts of the
compressor. It helps in avoiding the wear of the rotating part. It also stops the leakage of the
gas.Shaft end seals eliminate or minimize the leakage of compressed gas or the entry of air into
the compressor casing. Depending on the nature of the gas to be compressed and on the degree
of sealing to be achieved, different types of seals may be used.
Clearance seals(labyrinth and restrictive ring seals)
Oil seals (mechanical/contact and liquid film seals)
Dry gas seals
Labyrinth seals
They are used when the properties and pressure of a gas permit a minimal leakage.
The labyrinths are made of light alloy or other corrosion-resistant material and are easily
replaceable. The number of teeth and clearance depend on the operating conditions, as well as
the geometry (plain, step, ring type, honey-comb, etc.). To minimize leakage, abradable seals are
used. In this case the labyrinth teeth are fitted to the rotor and are in contact with an abradable
material on the stator. When no leakage whatsoever is permissible (poisonous or explosive gases,
etc.) labyrinth seals are combined with extraction and/or injection systems. Labyrinth-type seals
are used to minimize recirculation losses within the compressor. A labyrinth seal consists of a
number of teeth (knife-edges) that can be either stationary or rotating. Stationary labyrinth teeth
are fitted to the compressor stationary components very close to the compressor rotor (see Fig.
7). Sealing action is the result of flow resistance caused by repeated throttling across the
labyrinth teeth. Labyrinth seals are designed so that one of the two adjacent parts (labyrinth teeth
and rotor) is relatively soft. The softer material yields on contact without damage to the harder
material. Compressor manufacturers select labyrinth seal clearances that are as tight as practical
to minimize leakage while avoiding heavy rubbing with the rotor.

30
Restrictive-ring seals

Supplication of restrictive-ring seals to centrifugal compressors is desirable when

minimizing leakage (compared to a labyrinth seal) is important. The seal rings are typically made
of carbon or another suitable material. These rings are mounted in retainers or spacers and may
operate dry or with a sealing liquid. However, they are typically used with buffer gas. Rings seals
have an excellent operating history for chlorine service compressors. These rings can be
designed with closer clearances than labyrinth seals since the rings can float with the shaft.
Operating hot clearances may be made smaller than bearing clearances. Since the carbon ring
material has a lower co efficient of thermal expansion than steel, initial clearances must be made
large enough so that the shaft does not grow into the rings. The rings used are of two types
according to few considerations buffer gas may be supplied between a specific group of rings. In

31
first case with buffer closest to the outside of the seal has been used for low and sub atmospheric
pressure inlet conditions. In second case with the buffer inboard is normally used for units with
higher inlet pressure. The pressure maintained is about 3 to 5 psi above the highest downstream
pressure either the chamber behind the balance piston or atmosphere.

Mechanical (contact) face seals

These seals are typically provided with

labyrinth seals inboard of the sealing surfaces for use
with optional buffer gas. The mechanical seals are
designed to minimum leakage of process gas,
while the compressor is pressurized and in the
process of being shut down. They are also
capable of sealing in the event of sealant failure.
This seal is based on the concept of several components, a stationary seat, rotating seat. The seal
surfaces are held together by a combination of hydraulic and mechanical forces. The hydraulic
forces are produced by the seal liquid, while the mechanical forces are normally produced by
some type of spring. The mechanical face seal uses a liquid as oil, to lubricate, cool, and create a
positive sealing action to the sealing components during normal operation. The lubricant
pressures and flows may vary from compressor to compressor depending upon the speed and
size. A differential pressure is supplied at 35 to 50psi above the compressor suction pressure.
Thus a slight flow of seal oil takes place across the faces toward the process gas which prevents
outward flow of gas to atmosphere.

32
Liquified film seals
Liquid film seals may be specified where the process to be sealed is too high a pressure
for that of a mechanical seal this can be of the bushing type or mechanical contact type. Liquid
film seals can be of the bushing type or mechanical contact type. The bushing type is a very
simple and rugged design that incorporates two adjacent seal rings (bushings) at each end of the
compressor. A sealing fluid is introduced into the space between the seal rings at a pressure
slightly above the process gas pressure inboard from the inner ring. The pressure differential
across the inner ring is assured by an overhead seal oil tank pressurized by compressor suction
pressure. The elevation above the compressor of the oil level in the tank assures the required seal
ring pressure differential. For almost all centrifugal compressors equipped with liquid film seals,
the sealing fluid is the same light turbine oil as that used to lubricate the bearings. Therefore, the
auxiliary seal oil system needed to supply the seal oil can be combined with (or separate from)
the auxiliary lube oil system.
The inner seal ring is designed to minimize oil leakage into the process side. Inner seal leakage
(also called sour oil leakage) mixes with the process gas and is drained from the compressor as
an oil/gas mixture. A labyrinth seal inboard of the sour oil drain is installed to prevent seal oil
from contaminating the process gas. The oil/gas mixture drains into a degassing tank where the
gas is removed so that the oil can be sent to a seal oil reservoir for reuse.
The outer seal ring breaks serve to inhibit flow as pressure is reduced to an atmospheric drain.
This drain is common with the bearing oil drain when a combined oil system is used. When the
lube and seal oil systems are separate, a buffered labyrinth seal is placed between the lube and
seal oil drains to ensure that there is no oil carryover from one system to the other.
Mechanical contact seals employ a stationary carbon ring against a rotating seal face. Oil is also
used as the sealing medium in mechanical contact seals. The sealing oil is introduced by a
pressure-regulating valve that is maintained at 25 to 40 psi above the seal reference pressure.
One advantage of mechanical contact seals is a significantly reduced sour oil leakage compared
with the bushing design. Unlike oil film seals, mechanical contact seals can be supplied with a
feature that allows the compressor to maintain case pressure during shutdown without requiring
that the auxiliary seal oil system be operating. Mechanical contact seals, however, are relatively
complex

Dry gas seals

Sealing is ensured by a gas lock created by the grooves machined into a rotating seal fitted on

33
the rotor. Depending on the application it is possible to use gas taken off the compressor at
different levels: first impeller diffuser, intermediate or discharge nozzles or an insert gas.
Hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces balance to maintain a clearance of a few microns between
the rotating seals and the stationary face. This very small clearance reduces gas leakage to a
negligible amount. Different patented solutions are available through technology transfer from
GENP to temper the seals to prevent liquid or hydrate formation or for controlling the
temperature of the seal. Extensive experience has been accumulated on dry gas seal systems that
have been developed to meet specific process requirements. The compressor industry began to
embrace the application of dry gas seal technology to the critical function of shaft sealing. The
seal consists of a rotating disc running very close to a stationary ring. The rotating disc face
contains special grooves that generate an axial (lift) force during rotation. The stationary ring
is backed by a quantity of coil springs that force it tightly against the rotating disc when the
compressor is at rest. The lift force compresses the coil springs slightly, resulting in the very
small running clearance between the two faces. This small clearance effectively limits gas
leakage from the compressor seals. The small amount of gas leakage exits the compressor
through auxiliary seal piping, where it is then either sent to a flare system or to some other
recovery system. Usually the two compressor seals (inlet and discharge ends of the compressor)
are subjected to the gas suction pressure. A thrust balance line (see further discussion in the
section on bearings below) subjects the discharge end dry gas seal to inlet pressure, thereby
avoiding the need to seal the higher discharge pressure. Dry gas seals require clean and dry gas
for reliable operation. Seal gas is normally taken from the compressor discharge and then cooled
and filtered as part of an external seal gas processing system. A seal reference pressure is
measured just inboard of the dry gas seal, and a pressure regulating valve supplies the seal gas to
the sealing faces at a pressure slightly above the reference pressure. This system ensures that the
seals are not exposed to untreated process gas containing liquids or particulate matter that could
damage the seals. Although dry gas seals are relatively expensive, their auxiliary system is less
complex, physically smaller, and less expensive than the auxiliary system required by the
predecessor liquid film design.

34
End Covers
End covers are usually used in vertically or radially split case compressors the both end
covers are fitted on both sides of the compressors to maintain pressure containment. The end
covers are used to maintain high pressure these are used to cover the rotor and stationary
internals these end covers contain lube oil collecting tank which is used to collect lubed oil. They
are made of the similar material which is used in manufacturing cases either carbon steel or
carbon iron. End covers are mounted to the casing through bolts.

BCL type compressors have end covers with integral bearing housing.

MCL TYPE BCL TYPE

CASINGS Horizontally split Vertically split

END COVERS No Yes

DIAPHRAGMS Generally cast type Cast and fabricated type

35
BEARINGS

Force-fed plain type bearings are used throughout. They are externally mounted
and can therefore be inspected without releasing the pressure inside the compressor. Depending
on the elastic behavior of the rotor, elliptical or tilting pad type main bearings are used; they are
highly effective in dampening vibrations. The thrust bearing is of the tilting pad type, to ensure
equal thrust distribution and has collar to minimize the frictional losses due to oil entrainment.
The radial bearings most often used in centrifugal compressors are the tilting pad type and are
continuously lubricated with light turbine oil. Before tilting pad designs, sleeve type bearings
were commonly used. The tilting pad bearing design provides rotor-dynamic characteristics that

36
help assure smooth and reliable mechanical operation. Radial bearings are sized to be large
enough to support the rotor weight, yet small enough to operate at sufficiently low peripheral
speeds required to limit operating temperature to acceptable levels. Some centrifugal
compressors are equipped with magnetic radial bearings. These bearings suspend the rotor by
electromagnetic force to center the rotor within an air gap at the bearing. Use of magnetic
bearings eliminates the need for an auxiliary lube oil system; however, the magnetic bearing
control system also requires cooling. The pressure rise in each of the stages of a centrifugal
compressor creates an axial thrust force that acts toward the inlet end of the compressor.
Depending on the overall pressure rise in the compressor, these thrust forces can be significant.
An inline configuration employs a thrust balance drum (balance piston) to generate a thrust force
to oppose (balance) the sum of the impeller thrust forces. Located at the discharge end of the
compressor, the balance piston is a simple disc-shaped element installed on the compressor shaft
and equipped with a seal around its outer diameter. The space adjacent to the outboard face of the
balance piston is subjected to compressor suction pressure as created by an auxiliary thrust
balance line. The inboard surface of the balance piston is subjected to what is essentially the
compressor discharge pressure. The resulting pressure differential across the balance piston
creates an axial force toward the discharge end, thus opposing the impeller thrust forces. Proper
selection of the balance piston diameter results in small net thrust force and allows use of a
reasonably small thrust bearing to absorb the residual thrust forces and maintain proper rotor
axial positioning. Like the radial bearing, the thrust bearing is usually a tilting-pad design
lubricated with light turbine oil. Some thrust bearing designs employ a system of leveling blocks
behind each tilting pad to ensure uniform load distribution. As with the radial bearings, magnetic
thrust bearings also are available.

Journal bearings

Tilting pad type bearings are generally used for journal bearings. For every bearing, rotor
dynamics calculations are performed, including those for rotor critical speed, stability, and
response due to unbalanced mass distribution, with due consideration paid to bearing stiffness
and damping caused by oil lm. Tilting pad type bearings are particularly effective against oil
whirling and have outstanding stability. Hitachis pads are constructed to allow for adjustment of
the oil clearance.

37
Magnetic bearings

Since the active magnetic bearings provide contact-free rotor support, parts and
components do not wear. In addition, there is no need for a lubricating system, which improves
compressor reliability. With oil-less operation, the bearings suffer no mechanical loss. Without a
lubricating system and related components, the utility power required by the compressor is
signicantly reduced.

Thrust bearing

The thrust bearings are of the double Kingsbury tilting pad type for equal distribution of the
thrust load and minimization of mechanical loss. The operating principle of a thrust bearing is
basically the same as that of a radial bearing. However, the electromagnets in a thrust bearing are
arranged in the radial direction, so the magnetic field between a thrust collar is always constant,
so eddy currents are not generated.
Therefore, high-strength steel alloys are used for the thrust collar, the same as for oil bearings.
The thrust bearings are designed for equal thrust capacity in both directions, and are sized for
continuous operation under all specified conditions including all external forces transmitted by

38
the couplings or by the gear mesh. The thrust bearings of high speed shafts can be the thrust
collar type (standard for multi-stage compressors) or the tilting pad type for single impeller
shafts with high axial thrust. Thrust bearings of low speed shafts are generally the hydrodynamic
tapered land type (a tilting pad arrangement can be supplied on request).

Damper bearings

Damper bearing is used to dampen the rotor and thus stable operation is secured. Due to
the oil squeeze lm outside of the cage-type spring, the Amplication Factor of critical speed is
well suppressed.

39
Capacity Control System

The following methods are available for maintaining the capacity, the suction and
discharge pressure content under varying process conditions:

Variation of compressor speed

Discharge throttling

Suction throttling

Adjustable inlet guide vanes (IV)

In multistage machine, IGV can only be fitted before the first stage and are controlled
manually or through a servomotor.

40
Assembly of rotor
Debarring of shaft

Construction of provisional keys, mounting them and dynamic balancing the shaft.

Shrinking of impellers.

Checking concentricity and dynamic balancing after assembly of each impeller

ASSEMBLY OF THE COMPRESSOR

Assembly of rotor

41
 Preparation of top and bottom pack of diaphragms, each concentrically assembled.

Pinning the upper pack of the diaphragm to the lower pack, to ensure the correct relative
position of each to one another.

Dismantle the upper half diaphragm from lower and position them on a concentrically
inspection fixture.

Assemble the seals at individual diaphragm with suitable adjustments.

Mount the rotor on concentricity inspection fixture.

Determine the correct position of rotor axially, at which the passage of all impellers and
diaphragms will be ideally located with respect to one another.

Mount the one-ring seals and oil seals at the respective position on the rotor.

Assemble the upper half of the diaphragm over the lower, with rotor inside.

Gradually guide the entire diaphragm pack with rotor into the casing using assembly
fixture

Assemble the journal bearing

Assemble the thrust bearing.

Speed control
Centrifugal compressor drivers are either of the fixed or variable speed type. Most steam or gas
turbines and those electric motors equipped with a variable frequency drive system are all
available as variable speed drivers. For a given discharge pressure, compressor capacity may be
increased by merely increasing the speed of rotation. Conversely, capacity may be decreased by
reducing compressor speed. Capacity control by speed variation is the most effective way to
maximize the operating flexibility of a centrifugal compressor.
Suction throttle valves
A fixed-speed motor is often the least expensive driver for a centrifugal compressor. When
designing a centrifugal compressor driven by a fixed-speed motor, it is necessary to establish the
speed based on the operating condition that requires the largest capacity for the required

42
discharge pressure. When operating at lower capacities, the compressor inherently delivers a
greater discharge pressure (for a given process suction pressure) than desired. The solution to this
problem is to install a throttle valve at the inlet of the compressor. Suction pressure reduction by
throttling increases the pressure ratio required to deliver a given discharge pressure. The
economic trade-off for this method of capacity control is additional compressor power vs.
additional capital expenditure for a variable speed driver.

Variable inlet guide vanes

As discussed in the section on Stationary Components above, the compressor performance
characteristic curve can be adjusted by changing the direction of the flow of gas into the
impeller. When a system of variable inlet guide vanes is employed, it is possible to adjust the
inlet guide vane angles to maintain a desired discharge pressure over a range of capacity.
Practical design limitations make it difficult to install variable vanes at all stages other than the
first stage. For single stage compressors, this method of control is sometimes quite effective.
However, for multistage compressors, the range of control is less effective and becomes even
less so with increasing numbers of stages.

Antisurge valves
As discussed in the section on Surge above, avoiding surge is extremely important. The
installation of an antisurge (recycle) valve and its associated control devices is required. The
antisurge valve is located in a recycle line connecting the compressor discharge to the inlet. For
multisection compressors, it is good practice to install a separate recycle line with an antisurge
valve for each of the compressor sections. Instrumentation is required to measure the flow to
each section, and a surge controller must initiate the opening of the recycle valve when reduced
capacity approaches the surge limit. The capacity at which the antisurge valve begins to open is
usually set to be about 10% larger than the actual surge limit.
For variable speed compressors, the surge limit curve (see Fig. 8) defines the relationship
between the surge limit and the operating speed. The logic programmed into the antisurge
controller maintains the 10% safety margin, regardless of speed. This can be depicted graphically
by a line parallel to the surge limit curve and is typically called the control line.
The gas recycled through the antisurge valve also must be cooled because its source is the
compressor discharge. If uncooled, the suction temperature will increase by mixing the hotter
recycled gas with the main process inlet gas.

Flare valve
The flare valve protects upstream equipment from overpressurization that may occur because of
a flow increase and prevents overloading of the compressor driver. For a constant discharge
pressure system, an increase in flow results in an increase in suction pressure. Higher suction
pressures deliver more mass flow and, therefore, increase the power required to operate the
compressor. The presence of a suction throttle valve also can contribute to an increase in pressure
upstream from the compressor. Thus, flare valves are particularly important in installations with
inlet throttling.

43
Shutdown valve
Shutdown valves are installed at both the suction and discharge to enable the compressor to be
isolated during shutdown periods. To satisfy safety concerns, the shutdown valves should be
located outside any building or enclosure. Automatic control of the shutdown valves is usually
employed.

Blowdown valve
At shutdown, after the shutdown valves have isolated the compressor, the pressure in the
compressor settles out to a level determined by a variety of factors. A blowdown valve is used to
depressurize the compressor upon shutdown. Automatic control of the blowdown valve is
recommended for high-risk locations and for compressors that are fitted with liquid film seals.
When liquid film seals are employed, the compressor must be depressurized before the overhead
seal tanks have been drained.

Discharge check valve

Placement of a check valve at the discharge of each section of compression can minimize or
eliminate backflow through the compressor. Should backflow occur, it is possible for the
compressor to experience potentially damaging reverse rotation. The presence of discharge check
valves also provides the benefit of isolating each of the antisurge recycle loops (see the
subsection on Antisurge Valves above).

Relief valve
The compressor develops its maximum pressure ratio when operating at both its maximum
continuous speed and the surge control capacity. If the suction pressure increases for any reason,
the discharge pressure correspondingly increases to the value given by the performance map for
the speed and capacity in question. A pressure relief valve is installed to protect against
overpressurization of downstream equipment by the compressor.

Purge valve
Before startup, it is necessary to purge air from the compressor and piping system. A purge valve
is installed as a bypass to the suction shutdown valve for this purpose. Purging must be done
with a low flow rate to prevent the purge gas from initiating compressor rotation. For this reason,
the purge valve is small.

Discharge coolers
A discharge cooler (after cooler) is required if the temperature of the gas at the compressor
discharge exceeds that required for the next step in the process.
Suction scrubbers
Erosion of compressor components can be caused by ingestion of excessive liquid. To prevent
erosion damage, suction scrubbers are installed to remove liquids that condense in the gas

44
suction line because of cooling or that result from an upstream-process upset resulting in liquid
carryover to the gas suction line.

Vent valve
A manual vent valve is installed between the compressor discharge and the discharge check
valve to allow the compressor to be isolated from the vent header for maintenance. Once the
compressor is shut down and blown down to the vent header, the blowdown valve can be closed
and the vent valve opened. If the blowdown valve were kept open, there is a possibility that gas
in the vent header would flow into the compressor system, endangering the maintenance
operation.

Safety and monitoring devices

Centrifugal compressors are equipped with instrumentation to monitor mechanical health.
Vibration monitoring is accomplished by eddy current probes installed at each of the compressor
bearings. Vibration amplitude is measured at each radial bearing, and the axial position of the
rotor is measured at the thrust disc or shaft end. The trend of radial vibration amplitude provides
insight into the condition of the compressor regarding rotor balance and alignment. When a
problem arises, the vibration frequency spectrum can also be analyzed to provide useful
diagnostic information. The axial position probe monitors the state of thrust bearing wear. Each
of the bearings is also fitted with temperature-sensing devices. By trending the thrust bearing pad
temperatures, it is possible to discern the condition of the internal seals because changes in seal
condition affect thrust loads and, therefore, bearing temperature. Alarm and shutdown settings
for high bearing vibration and temperature are established in the compressor control system.
External to the compressor are numerous other alarm and shutdown safeguards. As a minimum,
low lube oil pressure, low seal gas pressure differential, overspeed, high discharge gas
temperature, high and low suction and discharge pressures, and high liquid level in the suction
scrubber are monitored and will initiate a shutdown when necessary.

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

The centrifugal compressor impeller imparts pressure energy and delivers a quantity of
fluid depending on its size blade geometry and thermodynamic characteristics of the gas.

In general, the fluid is directed to the inlet flange of compressor with a velocity of about
30m/s, after an initial expansion (to about 60m/s), enters the eye of the first impeller.

Let the initial conditions of gas at the nozzle inlet are indicated by V 0, P0 and T0
Volume, pressure and temperatures respectively.

The following equation gives the reduction in enthalpy

45
 C12 C 02 h
H andT
2 g 427 Cp

C1 = Velocity at inlet eye of 1st impeller

C0 = Velocity at suction flange
g = 9.81 m/s2

At this point the fluid enters the first impeller, which transfers a certain quantity of energy
to it, bringing it to the final condition V1, P1, and T1 Volume, pressure, and temperature at inlet.

According to the Eulers theory, the energy given to a unit weight of fluid passing
through the channel between the two vanes of the impeller is equal to the change of its
momentum.

1
hu u 2 C 2 cos 2 u1C1Cos 1
g

46
 DIFFUSER
RETURN CHANNEL

LSD VANE

IMPELLER

ON IMPELLER SEAL

INTER STAGE SEAL

STANDARD COMPRESSOR STAGE

Velocity Triangles in Impeller

47
The three velocity vectors C1, U1, W1 forms the inlet triangle.
Since in general 1= 90 (radial inlet) the expression becomes:
1
C 2 u 2 Cos 2
hu g
=
For convenience the coefficient of head may be defined:
c 2 Cos 2 c2 u
u2 u2
2 = =
Therefore
1 nd e
2 u 22
hu g u2 60
= Where =

The polytrophic head takes account of the thermodynamic properties of the gas. It can be
seen that the thermodynamic characteristics of the gas gets changed at the outlet as a function of
the inlet conditions:

From the head equation it is observed that with constant volumetric capacity and speed,
the polytrophic head increases with molecular weight. For given head, increase in molecular
weight reduces the constant R and hence increases the pressure ratio. It follows from the
equation that denser gases are easier to compress.

If instead, when the suction temperature is increased the pressure ratio is reduced, in
order to maintain the head. Conversely, for a given fluid, with the same volumetric capacity and
the same speed (RPM), the pressure ratio increases with reduction in the suction temperature and
vice versa.

48
 On the contrary, change in suction pressure does not affect the pressure ratio as the
product Po *Vo = R * To remains constant. The variation in the average compressibility of gas
(Zm) influences the compression ratio more in particular, as an increase of Zm corresponds to a
decrease of pressure ratio and vice versa.

Dimensionless Coefficients
a) Head coefficient( ):
It is defined as the ratio between tangential compressors of C2u and u2 hence,
= C2u / u2

According to Eulerian equation,

Heff = u2/g

b) Flow coefficient at the impeller outlet (2)

Depends on 2 value and on flow rate Q1 explicit, it is expedient to introduce the ratio
between C2r and u2.
2 = C2r / u2 = Q1/b2D2u2

This second parameter is called flow coefficient at the impeller outlet.

Two are particularly important for sizing and characterizing the impeller.
The two dimensionless coefficients and 2 allow to completely identifying the velocity triangle
at outlet both is dimensionless form and dimensional form, u2 being known.
and 2 are not independent to each other.
C2u=u2- C2r /tg2

=1- 2 /tg2 = 1- 2 cot g2

Thus depends on 2 by angle 2.

STAGE DESIGN CRITERIA

49
The purpose of this calculation is:
-Verify that the machine is able to give the required head at the envisaged speed (to define the
impeller diameters, vane outlet angle and rotating speed).
-Calculate the outlet impeller width as a function of specific volumes
-Verify the absorbed power.
-Calculate the adiabatic and polytrophic efficiencies.

Evaluation of velocities at nozzle C0 and at 1st impeller eye C1

Calculation of the enthalpy reduction corresponding to the kinetic energy increment:
h = (C12- C02)/(2g*427) (cal/kg)

The temperature reduction then is: T= h/CP (C)

The actual temperature in the first impeller section is T1- T

The following expression gives the pressure decrement:

dh= vdp
Valid for isentropic transformations and in finite differential equation form:
h=vm* p
Considering an average specific volume vm (m3/kg) between the known conditions at nozzle v0
and the conditions still unknown v1 at impeller section.
The vm value is established by sequence approximations, starting from vm =v0.
Then the initial expansion efficiency is introduced. This factor takes into account that the
pressure decreases more than the kinetic energy increment due to losses. Normal value for this is:
= 0.94
The pressure loss is:
p = (427* h)/ (* vm) (kg/cm2)
And the new pressure:
p1=p0- p (kg/cm2)
We have the corresponding:
v1=(ZmR T1)/p1

50
Zm mean compressibility at initial/final expansion condition.
We can assume
vm=(v0+v1)/2
Possibly a second approximation can be performed taking as starting point v m= vm and
proceed as above.
We now have p1, T1,v1 values at the impeller eye and we can start the stage by stage calculation.
w relative velocity
u impeller tip speed
C absolute velocity
actual angle
The wheel energy is:
1
C 2 u 2 Cos 2
hu g
=
the angle 1= 90 (radial inlet)
Now define for head coefficient:
2=C2u/u2
Flow coefficient or capacity coefficient is defined as
2= C2r/u2
The relation between head and flow coefficient is given by
2theoritical=1- 2 cot 2
In reality due to slippage
2< 2theoritical

The slip factor: = 2/ 2theoritical

Usually: =0.86

Then 2=0.86(1- 2 cot 2)

The choice of flow coefficient is made in relation to the 2
(e.g. 2=90 then 2=.4 to .38)

51
Defining the head and flow coefficients and knowing the inlet velocity we can calculate the inlet
kinetic energy
h1= C12/2g
And the outlet K.E.
h2= C22/2g
Then the available energy of the impeller is total energy absorbed less the kinetic energy
h= hu-( h2- h1)
Taking the impeller efficiency i
h= i hu-( h2- h1)
The impeller efficiency is a function of width/external diameter
Assuming a value for impeller efficiency as a starting point we can calculate T 2,p2,v2 and the
theoretic outlet width
B2t=(G r2)/(d2 2 u2)

G= weight flow kg/s

Then the actual width B2 = B2t /fc
Where fc is the correction factor taking the vane thickness
fc is fuction of n,d2, 2
Where n is the number of vanes and the number of vanes is chosen according to the outlet
angle.The thickness is function of the outer diameter.
At the end of last stage final recovery is calculated taking the efficiency 0.35.

As the final conditions are obtained pf,Tf,vf we calculate

= pf/p0
te=Tf-T0

tA=T0((k-1/k)-1)

Head effective Heff =hu

Adiabatic head Ha=Z0RT0(k/k-1) ((k-1/k)-1)
The we can calculate adiabatic efficiency in two different ways

52
 A = tA/ te A= Ha/ Heff
The power for compression
P=(G*Heff)/102 (kw)
The mechanical losses and the thrust bearing losses must be added.
Finally politropic efficiency is calculated
p =(k-1/k)/(n-1/n)
A = ((k-1/k)-1)/ ((n-1/n)-1)

APPLICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Industry Application Service or process Typical gas

handled
Gas turbine Power Compression Air
Drive Compression Air
Iron and steel Blast furnace Combustion Air
off gas blast furnace gas
Bessemer converter Oxidation Air
Cupola Combustion Air
Coke oven Compression Coke oven gas
Mining and Power For tools and machinery Air
metallurgy Copper and nickel
Furnace purification Air
Pelletizing (iron ore
concentration) Air
Natural gas Production Re-pressuring oil wells Natural gas
Transmission
Distribution Natural gasoline Natural gas
Processing separation Natural gas
Separation refrigeration
Propane and methane

Refrigeration Chemical Various processes Butane, Propane,

Ethylene, ammonia,
special refrigerants
Industrial and Air conditioning Special refrigerants
commercial
Utilities Steam generators Soot blowing Air
Combustion Air
Cyclone furnace Air
City gas Manufacturing Fuel gas
Distribution Fuel gas

53
Miscellaneous Sewage treatment Agitation Air
Industrial power Power for tools and Air
machines
Paper making fourdrinier vacuum Air and water vapour

Material handling Conveying Air

Gas engines Supercharging

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR TESTING

Every centrifugal compressor after assembly is subjected to several stringent tests to
assess the mechanical performance. Thermodynamic performance test is also conducted
whenever specified.
BHEL is manufacturing centrifugal compressor with technique from Nuovo pignone,
Italy. So far more than 260 compressors had been successfully manufactured, tested and supplied
to cater for various applications for several petrochemical, fertilizer and refinery plants.
As compressors are critical equipment a high quality of testing is required. This is
ensured by quality testing methods and practices and modern state of are test facilities. BHEL is
equipped with test facilities for carrying out the following tests for compressors and turbines as
per international standards API 617, API 612, PTC 10 and custom specification.
1. No load Mechanical run test.
2. Rotor Insensitivity test.
3. String Mechanical run test.
4. Completed unit test.
5. Thermodynamics performance test.
6. Static Seal/Gas leak test.
7. Full load, Full Speed, Full pressure test.
No load Mechanical Run Test

54
 No load mechanical run test is carried out to verify the overall conditions of the unit
assembly and helps in maintaining a high quality of the product. They generally reveal the
manufacturing defects, if any and demonstrate the mechanical performance of the machine.
The following are verified during Mechanical run test
Rotor balance
Bearing alignment, clearances and adequacy of lubrication.

Clearance at interstage labyrinth seals and liquid film shaft seals.

Freedom from internal rubs.

Absence of oil leakage and restriction in the lube and seal oil channels in the
compressor casing.

Trouble free and smooth running of the unit, at maximum continuous speed for a
period of 4 hours.

Avoidance of abnormal conditions at over speed or trip speed (110% of MCS)

Location of first critical speed of the machine, in respect of flexible shaft units.

Shaft relative vibrations and casing absolute vibrations.

Run outs on the shaft at low speeds.

Noise level.

Rotor response to unbalance.

MRT testing procedure

The compressor can be directly driven by a variable speed steam turbine, or alternatively
by a driven arrangement consisting of an electric motor, hydraulic coupling and gear box. By
varying the oil let into the hydraulic coupling, it is possible to vary the speed of the secondary

55
shaft from about 500 to 1000 to 3000 rpm. Further speed increase is obtained form the step-up
gearbox, which in turn is connected to the compressor through a flexible coupling.
The compressor is tested under vacuum with the help of high capacity vacuum pumps.
This will reduce the friction and windage losses and hence the power consumption and
temperature rise during the test run. The compressor discharge hood temperature will shoot up, if
discharge pipe of the compressor is connected to atmosphere instead of the vacuum line.
During the test rum, the bearings are supplied with oil form a centralized lube oil console.
Which will pump oil at the required pressure and temperature. The system consists of twin
coolers, high-grade duplex filters and control valves.
The compressor is started from stand still and the speed is increased in 10% increments
till the maximum continuous speed is reached. The compressor is kept at this speed for 4 hours.
After this period, the compressor is made to over speed at 110% of maximum continuous speed
for 15 minutes. During the deceleration, the first critical speed is located and vibrations due to
shaft run-outs are recorded.

Rotor insensitivity test

This test is used to ensure the sensitivity and capability of the rotor to bear the heavy load
at high speed and other field conditions.

String mechanical test

In this test compressor is driven by its own job driver. The whole job is held on the frame
and all the pipes and instruments are assembled to the job. Then the compressor is run at
maximum continuous speed for 4 hours. After the duration, while running the compressor all the
control devices and instruments are checked for proper operation and also they check the
reliability of the frame.

Complete unit test

In this type of test, the actual job turbine or motor is used for the test. Generally, all the
active components, such as couplings, base plate, oil piping are used during the test.

56
Thermodynamic performance test

This is carried out to predict the thermodynamic performance of the machine with a
specified gas of known properties and under specified conditions.A compressor can be tested
with a suitable test gas, whose physical and thermodynamic properties are well known and the
results are converted into expected performance of the compressor for its design specified gas
under its design operating conditions.This test is conducted in two classes. Class I test is
conducted on specified gas at specific operating conditions. Class II test is conducted on the gas
which cannot be used in the compressorfor specified conditions. In class II tests, the test results
are to be converted to performance data expected on the specified gas undr specified conditions,
using the perfect gas laws.

Thermodynamic test Procedure

The prescribed test gas is admitted at low parameters and purged for 3 times. After the
gas analysis is satisfactory, the compressor is started at low running after obtaining their test
parameters, such as inlet pressure, temperature, gas flow, speed, discharge pressure, discharge
temperature etc. are recorded.

From the recorded values, the computations of results are made. During the test run,
every effort is made to locate the incipient surge. The performance characteristics such as
pressure vs flow, power vs flow, polytropic vs flow etc are plotted.

Static seals/Gas leak test

After completing the mechanical run test, liquid film shaft end seals are assembled in
position. The compressor is pressurized to the operating pressure by an inert gas such as
nitrogen. A differential pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2 is maintained between the seal oil inlet and the gas
from inside. Since the seal oil is at higher pressure. It will prevent the gas from leakage from the
compressor. The shaft is turned slowly and leakage seal oil across the HP seals is measured. With
this, ir is possible to judge the fitness of the seals.

57
 Gas leak test is conducted after assembling of end seals to the casing. Then compressor
casing is pressurized for 30minutes upto rated discharge pressure is obtained. After acquiring the
rated discharge pressure total casing and all casing joints are checked for leakages with soap
solution/leak detector.

Full speed, Full pressure and Full load test

This test is conducted is used to known the capability, mechanical performance of the
compressor at full load, full speed and full pressure condition. Many times full load tests are
prescribed for certain critical applications like hydrogen recycle compressors for Hydro-cracker
where the compressors are required to be run by creating operating conditions close to the site.
This is achieved by using a mixture of helium and nitrogen.

58