CURRENT ELECTRICITY

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ISBN : 9789386320094
Product Name : Current Electricity for JEE Main & Advanced
(Study Package for Physics)
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 Contents
3. DC and DC Circuits 217-306
3.1 Introduction 218
3.2 Ohms law 221
3.3 Electricity from chemicals : cell 226
3.4 Electromotive force (emf) 227
3.5 Circuit analysis 229
3.6 Electrical instruments 250
Review of formulae and
important points 256
Exercise 3.1- 3.6 258-286
Hints & solutions 287-306
Contents
4. Thermal & Chemical Effects of Current
307-338
4.1 Thermal effect of current :
joules law 308
4.2 Electrical appliances 310
4.3 Seebeck effect 315
4.4 Peltier effect 317
4.5 Thomson effect 318
4.6 Chemical effect of current 318
4.7 Faradays law of electrolysis 319
Review of formulae and
important points 320
Exercise 4.1-4.6 322-332
Hints & solutions 333-338
 Chapter 3
DC and DC Circuits
221
3.2 OHM'S LAW
If the physical conditions of conductor (temperature, length etc.) do not change, then
the current in the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the
conductor.
Resistivity ( r )
It can be defined as the ratio of electric field applied to current density.Thus
E
r = .
J
Resistivity is the property of material which does not depend on size and shape of the
conductor. SI unit of resistivity is Ohm-meter ( W -m). A perfect conductor would have
zero resistivity and a perfect insulator have infinite resistivity. Metals and alloys have
the lowest resistivities and hence they are the best conductors. It is a familiar fact that
good electrical conductors, such as metals, are good conductors of heat, while poor
electrical conductors such as plastics are also poor thermal conductor.
Variation of resistivity with temperature
The resistivity of metallic conductors increases with increasing temperature as

rt = r0 [ 1 + at + bt 2 ]

where r0 = resistivity of conductor at 0o C

rt = resistivity of conductor at t o C

t = the temperature difference between t and 0o C,

and a & b are temperature coefficients of resistance
(a)
a > b , and positive for metals and negative for non-metals.

Note: The resistivity of the alloy manganin is practically independent of the

temperature.
Resistance
uur ur uur ur
In the relation E = rJ , it is difficult to measure E and J directly. It is, therefore very (b)
Fig. 3.10
convenient to put this relation in macro parameters like current and potential difference.
To do this let us consider a conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A as shown
in fig. 3.11.
uur ur
We can write E = rJ

V i
As E = and J =
l A
Fig. 3.11
V i
\ = r
l A
222 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

rl
or V = i = iR
A

This relation is often referred to as Ohm's law.

rl
where R is called resistance of the specimen and is equal to R = .
A
The SI unit of R is ohm ( W ). Its symbol is .
The material obeying Ohm's law is called ohmic conductor or a linear conductor. If ohm's
law is not obeyed, then the conductor is non-ohmic or non linear.
Fig 3.12 (a) is a curve for metalic conductor. The straight line shows that the resistance
of conductor is the same no matter what applied voltage is used to measure it. fig.3.12
(b) is not straight line and the resistance depends on voltage applied, the resistance is
called dynamic resistance and the conductor is called non-ohmic conductor.
Thermistor
Thermistor is the heat sensitive resistor. It is usually made by semiconducting material
for which V i plot is not linear. The temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative and
Fig. 3.12
usually large. It is of the order of -0.04 / o C.
Thermistors are used for making resistance thermometers which can measure very low
temperature.

Note:
1. Resistance depends on length of wire not on the shape of the wire.
All the wires have same resistance between A & B. l is the straight length of wire
between its ends.
Fig. 3.13 2. V = i R is the general relation between i and V which is applicable to both type of
conductors, ohmic as well as non-ohmic.
Variation of resistance with temperature
As the resistance of any specimen is proportional to its resistivity, which varies with
temperature, and also resistance varies with temperature. Therefore we have
2
Rt = R0 (1+ at + bt )
Fig. 3.14
for small t, Rt ; R0 (1+ at )
Temperature coefficient of resistance ( a )
If R1 and R2 are the values of resistance at temperature t1 and t2 respectively, then
R 1 = R0 ( 1 + at1 ) and R2 = R0 ( 1 + at2 )
R1 1 + at1
\ R2 = 1 + at
2

R2 - R1
or a = .
R1t2 - R2 t1

Note:
We have assumed a to be constant for all temperature. But actually it varies with temp.
If Rt is the resistance at any temperature, then Rt = R0 ( 1 + at ), differentiating above
equation w.r.t. temp, we get
1 dRt
a =
R0 dt .
 DC AND DC CIRCUITS 223
Resistance of conductor of non-uniform cross-section
Consider a conductor of length l and radius at its ends are r1 and r2. The resistance of
element under consideration
r dx
dR =
pr 2

r -r
where, r = r1 + 2 1 x
l Fig. 3.15

r dx
\ dR = 2
r -r
p r1 + 2 1 x
l
Resistance of whole conductor
l l
r dx
R = dR = 2
0 0 r -r
p r1 + 2 1 x
l

rl
or R = .
p r1r2

Why conductor offers resistance?

Resistance means the hinderance offered to the flow of charge. Electrons in their motion
collide with the positive ions and themselves, due to which resistance in motion occurs.
The resistance mainly occurs due to collisions of electrons with the positive ions.
Super conductors
Kamerlingh found that mercury offers zero resistance at 4.2 K. This phenomenon is
called super conductivity and the metal is called superconductor. Certain alloys become
superconductors at rather high temperature. The resistance of material in the
superconducting state is zero and the currents once established in closed
superconducting circuits persist for weeks, even though there is no battery in the circuit.
Stretching a wire
Consider a wire of length l, radius of cross-section r and is of resistance R. It is stretched
to length l'. Let its resistance becomes R '. Assuming volume of material remains constant
after stretching or compression, and so
Fig. 3.16 Resistance-temperature graph
pr 2 l = pr ' 2 l '
for superconductor

l' r2
or =
l r '2

rl rl '
We have, R = 2
and R ' =
pr pr '2

l ' r2
\ R' = R
l r '2

l' l'
= R
l l
224 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

2
or = l '
R' R
l

r2 r2
Also R' = R
r '2 r '2

4
r
or R' = R
r '

% change in resistance, if there is small change in length

DR Dl
100 = 2 100
R l
Resistors in series and parallel
Series : The resistors are said to be in series, if they provide a single path between the
points. The current is same in each resistor in series, but p.d. across resistor is proportional
to its resistance. Let us consider two resistances R1 and R2 connected in series. For
series connection
V = V1 + V2
(a) Since i is same in both the resistors,
\ iR = iR1 + iR2

or R = R1 + R2
(b) The above equation is true for any number of resistors in series. Thus for n-resistors
Fig. 3.17 R = R1 + R2 + ......+Rn
Parallel : The resistors are said to be in parallel between the points, if each provides an
alternative path between the points. The potential difference is the same across each
resistor, but current divide in inverse ratio of their resistances. For parallel connection of
resistors
i = i1 + i2

V V V
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
or = +
R R1 R2

1 1 1 1
Fig. 3.18 For n-resistors in parallel = + + ..... +
R R1 R2 Rn
Effective value of a
(i) In series : Suppose a1 and a 2 are the temperature coefficient of resistance of
Fig. 3.19 the resistors R1 and R2 respectively. Let a be their effective value.

=
At 0C R01 R02 R0 = R01+ R02
At tC R01 (1 + a1t ) R02 (1 + a 2t ) R0 (1 + at )
Their equivalent resistance at any temperature in series is
R t = R1t + R2t
 DC AND DC CIRCUITS 225
or R0 ( 1 + at ) = R01 ( 1 + a1t ) + R02 ( 1 + a 2t )
or (R01 + R02) ( 1 + at ) = (R01 + R02) + ( R01 a1 + R02 a 2 ) t
or (R01 + R02) + (R01 + R02) at = (R01 + R02) + (R01 a1 + R02 a ) t
2
R01 a1 + R02 a 2
After solving, we get a =
R01 + R02
(ii) In parallel :

At any temperature t o C Fig. 3.20

1 1 1
= +
Rt R1t R2t

1 1 1
or = +
R0 (1 + at ) R01 (1 + a1t ) R02 (1 + a 2 t )

1 1 1
+
or
R01 R02
= R01 (1 + a1t ) R02 (1 + a 2 t )
R + R (1 + at )
01 02

R01 + R02 1 1
or = +
R01 R02 (1 + at ) R01 (1 + a1t ) R02 (1 + a 2 t )

( R01 + R02 ) (1 + at )-1 1

( -1
1 + a1t ) +
1
(1 + a 2t )
-1
= R01 R02
R01 R02
Solving by Binomial theorem, we have
1 1 1 1
R01
(1 - at ) + R (1 - at ) = R01
(1 - a1t ) + R (1 - a2t )
02 02

1 1 a1 a 2
or at + = R + R t
01
R R02 01 02

a1 R02 + a 2 R01
or a = R + R
01 02