ME6703 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

IV year Mechanical Engg

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Brief introduction to CAD and CAM
CAD
Computer-aided design (CAD) is defined as any design activity that involves the effective use
of the computer to create, modify, analyze, or document an engineering design. CAD is most
commonly associated with the use of an interactive computer graphics system, referred to as a
CAD system.
Reasons for using CAD system:
To increase the productivity of the designer: This is accomplished by helping the designer
to conceptualize the product and its components. In term, this helps reduce the time required
by the designer to synthesize, analyze, and document the design.
To improve the quality of the design: The use of a CAD system with appropriate hardware
and software capabilities permits the designer to do a more complete engineering analysis and
to consider a larger number and variety of design alternatives. The quality of the resulting
design is thereby improved.
To improve design documentation: The graphical output of a CAD system results in better
documentation of the design than what is practical with manual drafting. The engineering
drawings are superior, and there is more standardization among the drawings, fewer drafting
errors, and greater legibility.
To create a manufacturing data base: In the process of creating the documentation for the
product design (geometric specification of the product, dimensions of the components,
materials specifications, bill of materials, etc.), much of the required data base to manufacture
the product is also created.

Computer-Aided Design Applied to Four of the Shirley

Design Phase CAD Function
1. Synthesis Geometric modeling
2. Analysis and optimization Engineering analysis
3. Evaluation Design review and evaluation
4. Presentation Automated drafting
Geometric Modeling
Geometric modeling involves the use of a CAD system to develop a mathematical
description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical description, called a geometric
model, is contained in computer memory. There are venous types of geometric models used in
CAD. One classification distinguishes between two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
(3-D) models.
Geometric models in CAD can also be classified as being either wire-frame models or solid
models. A wire-frame model uses inter connecting lines (straight line segments) to depict the
object as illustrated in Figure 1(a).Wire-frame models of complicated geometries can become
somewhat confusing because all of the lines depicting the shape of the object are usually
shown, even the lines representing the other side of the object.

Figure (a) Wire-frame model. (b) Solid model of the same object.

This Figure an object is modeled in solid three dimensions, providing the user with a
vision of the object very much like it would be seen in real life. More important for
engineering purposes, the geometric model is stored in the CAD system as a 3-D solid model
thus providing a more accurate representation of the object.
Analysis
Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other number crunching
engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model is first created and then the model is
analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.
Visualization
Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a model, creation
of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.
Design Analysis
Visualization
Most commercial CAD packages (software) consist of only a single component design
or analysis or visualization. However, a few of the vendors have developed an integrated
package that includes not only these three areas, but also includes the manufacturing software
(CAM). Due to the large storage requirement, integrated packages use either an UNIX
workstation or a mainframe platform, and not the popular PC platform. With the improvement
in PC computing speed, its only a matter of time before we see an integrated package run on a
PC. CAD has revolutionized the modern engineering practice; small and large companies use
it alike, spending several billion dollars for the initial purchase or lease alone. CAD related
jobs are high in demand and the new graduates have advantage over their senior colleagues, as
they are more up to date and more productive.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
CAM is the next stage of CAD. A part created in CAD can be downloaded and
manufactured, without a human hand touching the part. The process is called CAM, and
involves CAD, Networking, and NC programming, as shown below. CAD, Networking, NC
programming, Process planning, Inspection and simulation are the components of Computer
Aided Manufacturing.
Manufacturing planning
The applications of CAM in manufacturing planning are those in which computers are
used directly to support the production function, but there is no direct connection between the
computer and the process. The computer is used offline to provide information for the
effective planning and management of the production activities. The following list surveys the
application of CAM in this category:

Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

The route sheets listing the operation sequences and workstations required for
manufacturing the products and its components are prepared in process planning. These route
sheets are prepared now a days using CAPP.
Computer Assisted NC Part Programming
Computer assisted part programming represents a method to generate the control
instructions for the machine tools for complex geometries rather than manual part
programming. Part Programming for NC machines is step by step instructions according to
which tool movements on the part for metal removal is carried out.
Computerized Machinability Data System
Determination of speed and feed in metal cutting for the given machine tools is a
major problem. Computer program is written to propose the suitable condition to use for
different materials. Estimation of tool life needs information about material of tools and
workpiece, speed, feed and depth of cut etc. As per the cutting conditions, such calculations
are to be repeated. Therefore, application of computers for such purposes may assist process
planner to a great extent.
Development of Work Standard
Responsibility for setting time standards on direct labour jobs performed in the factory
is taken by time study department. It is a very tedious and time consuming task to establish
standards by direct time study. There are several computer packages also available in market
for setting up the work standards. These computer programs use standard time data that have
been developed for basic work element that comprise any manual task. By summing the times
for the individual elements required to perform a new job, the program calculates the standard
time for the job.

Cost Estimating
In many industries, cost estimation of a new product is being simplified by
computerizing several key steps needed to prepare the estimate. Suitable labour and overhead
rates are applied with the help of the computer programs to the sequence of planned
operations involved in the components of new products. Individual components cost which
range from the engineering bill of the materials to determine the overall product cost is
summed up by the program.
Production and Inventory Planning
Extensive application in many of the functions in inventory planning and production
control is being executed by the computer. The aforementioned functions are maintenance of
inventory records, automatic recording of stock items in the case when inventory is depleted,
production scheduling, maintaining current priorities for the different production orders
material requirements planning, and capacity planning etc.
Computer Aided Line Balancing
It is a very tough job to find the best allocation of work elements among stations on an
assembly line if the line is of significant size. The problems are solved with the help of
computer program.
Manufacturing control

Another category of CAM application is development of computer supported system

for implementing the manufacturing control functions. These control functions manage and
control the physical operation in the factory. These functions are as follows:

Process Monitoring and Control

Process monitoring and control concerned with observing and regulating the
production equipment of manufacturing processes in the plant. The applications of the
process control are absorbed in automated production system. Which includes the example
cases like transfer line assembly system, NC, robotics, material handling and flexible
manufacturing systems. All these will be discussed later on. Process monitoring and the
control functions are deployed to regulate the actions of various production equipments.
Some of the well known control systems used in the industry are as follows.
Quality Control
There are varieties of approaches that insure highest possible quality level in the
manufacturing system and products and these are included in quality control.
Shop Floor Control
Production management techniques for collecting data from factory operations and
using these data to help control production and inventory in the factory comes under shop
floor control. Shop floor control and computerized factory data collection systems are
discussed in detail later on.
Inventory Control
The important thing about inventory control is that it maintains the most appropriate
level of inventory in the face of two opposing objectives: minimizing the investment and
storage cost of holding inventory and maximizing service to customer.
Just in Time Production System
A production system that is planned to deliver exactly the right number of each
component to downstream workstations in the manufacturing sequence just at the time
when that component is needed is known as just in time production system. This term is
applicable to production operation and supplier delivery operation.
Introduction to CAD/CAM
All the engineering functions in design and manufacturing are included in
CAD/CAM. During 1970s and early 1980s, CAD/CAM came into the picture. Engineering
activities in design include product design, engineering analysis and drafting whereas the
process planning and NC part programming come in the manufacturing functions. The
literal meaning of CAM is the manufacturing of the products with the aid of computers.

Manufacturing is defined as a chain of interrelated activities that comprises

designing, material selection, planning, production, quality assurance, management and
marketing of discrete consumer and durable goods. CAM includes these aforementioned
manufacturing functions.

Scope
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Initially, Computers act as a subordinate to the technologies. Computers help,

organize, and restore information in order to achieve high accuracy and speed. Their basic
aim is to achieve the goals of the objectives within limited available capital. Traditionally, all
the efforts were focused on achieving single goal to improve the effectiveness and
competitiveness of the organization. But they failed because they didnt satisfy the overall
objectives of the manufacturing companies. Hence, a multiple goal selection or mult- criteria
optimization is proposed to make the CIM an effective tool to improve the economy of the
company. The new approach should be developed for improving the existing multi-criteria
optimization mechanism, so that CIM can be realized globally. In addition, global
integration approach should be applied to make globally distributed company as a single
entity. This concept is applied to make virtual CIM more effective and hence helps in
meeting the present global economic circumstances using intelligent manufacturing.
Therefore, manufacturing technology should be blended with intelligence. This will help
manufacturing enterprise to produce better quality. It will also facilitate the manufacturing
equipments to solve problems posed during normal course of the operations.

Some computer system performs the CAD and CAM, and so the term CAD/CAM is
used to indicate the integration of the two systems into one. In addition to CAD/CAM, CIM
also includes the firm business function that are related to manufacturing.

At first we define what do we mean by a manufacturing plant? Here, we are

considering a several categories of manufacturing (or production) for the various
manufacturing plants. Manufacturing can be considered in three broad areas:

(i) continuous process production,

(ii) mass production, and
(iii) job-shop production.

Among these three, mass production and job-shop production can be categorized as discrete-
item production.

Continuous Process Production

Such type of product flows continuously in the manufacturing system, e.g. petroleum,
cement, steel rolling, petrochemical and paper production etc. Equipment used here are only
applicable for small group of similar products.

Mass Production

It includes the production of discrete unit at very high rate of speed. Discrete item
production is used for goods such as automobiles, refrigerators, televisions, electronic
component and so on. Mass production contains the character of continuous process
production for discrete products. Thats why; mass production has realized enormous benefits
from automation and mechanization.

Job Shop Production

A manufacturing facility that produces a large number of different discrete items and
requires different sequences among the production equipments is called job shop. Scheduling
and routine problems are the essential features of job shop. As a result automation has at best
been restricted to individual component of job shop. But there have been few attempts in the
field of total automation.

Concurrent Engineering

Concurrent Engineering is another powerful CAD concept that has evolved in the 90s.
According to this concept, there is an instantaneous communication between the designer,
analyst, and manufacturing. Changes made at any of these work centers are immediately passed
on to the others and the product is modified without delay. Often, the customer, management,
and the marketing people join in and become part of the process. Concurrent engineering saves
the valuable time and helps get the product out in the market quicker. Products that use to take
years from the date of its concept to the actual production now take only a few weeks, and the
final product is better and cost-effective.
Some large organizations have invested in Rapid Prototyping process. In this process,
the part is created by a CAD package and downloaded into the rapid prototyping machine; the
machine immediately manufactures the part, using a plastic material. This is a good example of
concurrent engineering, sometimes referred as Art to Part concept.

CIM Concepts

Computer integrated manufacturing(CIM) is a broad term covering all technologies

and soft automation used to manage the resources for cost effective production of tangible
goods.Integration capital, human, technology and equipment
CIM consist of following groups
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

CIM is not applying computers to the design of the products of the company. That is
computer aided design (CAD)! It is not using them as tools for part and assembly analysis.
That is computer aided engineering (CAE)! It is not using computers to aid the development
of part programs to drive machine tools. That is computer aided manufacturing (CAM)! It is
not materials requirement planning (MRP) or just-in-time (JIT) or any other method of
developing the production schedule. It is not automated identification, data collection, or data
acquisition. It is not simulation or modeling of any materials handling or robots or anything
else like that. Taken by themselves, they are the application of computer technology to the
process of manufacturing. But taken by themselves they only crate the islands of
automation.
- Leo Roth Klein, Manufacturing Control systems, Inc.

Definition of CIM
It describes integrated applications of computers in manufacturing. A number of
observers have attempted to refine its meaning:
One needs to think of CIM as a computer system in which the peripherals, instead of being
printers, plotters, terminals and memory disks are robots, machine tools and other processing
equipment. It is a little noisier and a little messier, but its basically a computer system.
- Joel Goldhar, Dean, Illinois Institute of Technology
-
CIM is a management philosophy, not a turnkey computer product. It is a philosophy crucial
to the survival of most manufacturers because it provides the levels of product design and
production control and shop flexibility to compete in future domestic and international
markets. - Dan Appleton, President, DACOM, Inc.

CIM is an opportunity for realigning your two most fundamental resources: people and
technology. CIM is a lot more than the integration of mechanical, electrical, and even
informational systems. Its an understanding of the new way to manage.
- Charles Savage, president, Savage Associates
The preceding comments on CIM have different emphases (as highlighted).
An attempt to define CIM is analogous to a group of blind persons trying to describe
an elephant by touching it.
CIM is the integration of the total manufacturing enterprise through the use of
integrated systems and data communications coupled with new managerial philosophies
that improve organizational and personnel efficiency.
- Shrensker, Computer Automated Systems Association of the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers (CASA/SME)
Concept or Technology
Some people view CIM as a concept, while others merely as a technology. It is
actually both. A good analogy of CIM is man, for what we mean by the word man presupposes
both the mind and the body. Similarly, CIM represents both the concept and the technology.
The concept leads to the technology which, in turn, broadens the concept.

Benefits of CIM

(i) Products quality improvement.

(ii) Shorter time in launching new product in the market.
(iii) Flow time minimized.
(iv) Inventory level reduced.
(v) Competitiveness increases.
(vi) Improved scheduling performance.
(vii) Shorter vendor lead time.
(viii) Improved customer service.
 (ix) Increase in flexibility and responsiveness.
(x) Total cost minimized.
(xi) Long term profitability increases.
(xii) Customers lead time minimized.
(xiii) Manufacturing productivity increases.
(xiv) Work in process inventory decreases.
Objectives
describe the fundamental concepts of CIM,
explain enterprisewide integration of CIM and concept of CIM wheel,
differentiate between CAM, CAD/CAM, and CIM,
know the scope of CIM,
discuss operations flow within CAD/CAM, and
know the different approaches for integration of CAD/CAM.

Computerized Elements of CIM system

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CIM sums up all of the manufacturing tfunctions of CAD/CAM along with firms
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process planning, tool design, and similar activities are supported by the CIM system. CAPP
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output into production planning and control, where or material requirements planning and
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so on. The aggregate planning function d,determines what product quantities should be
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activity is called the master productionuIaschedule or master schedule. It is a schedule
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trouble in the shop floor, analysis that reveals demands cannot be satisfied due to
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lead time information (obtained from design n and process planning data) and evolves
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component master schedules for all components
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according to the demand requirements
agreed upon. MRP does not take into accounti whether manufacturing has sufficient
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capacity to handle the job releases, therefore capacity planning (6a) evaluates shop
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loading in terms of the requirements and feedback to the master schedule for
corrective actions if any problems occur. A further function of MRP based on such
analysis is determining whether components should be produced in-house (6b) or
subcontracted to outside vendors (6c).
Computer aided design is the function that must be completed after a demand for a
product has been determined. Thus, the sequence in which it is discussed in this
section is not the same as that of sequence or cycle starting from customer to inception
through design, manufacturing, assembly and testing, and back to the customer. The
design engineer cannot talk in the same terms as the manufacturing engineer. For
example, lines, splines, circles, and arcs come under geometrical design whereas
pockets chamfers, holes and so on come under manufacturing design. Process
planning function is to accomplish the language transition from design to
manufacturing.
Types of production
In any manufacturing system, the job of an Operations Manager is to manage the process of
converting inputs into the desired outputs. Therefore, Operations Management can be defined as the
management of the conversion process, which converts land, labor, capital, and management inputs
into desired outputs of goods and services. It is also concerned with the design and the operation of
systems for manufacture, transport, supply or service.

There are eight types of production which may be classified in three or four broad
groups according to the quantities of production involved [Samuel Eilon]. They are in
terms of product variety and production volumethe figure is self explanatory.
Job Shop Production system which has the following features
(a) A small number of items produced only once,
(b) A small number of items produced intermittently when the need is felt,
(c) A small number of items produced periodically at known time interval
Batch Production which has the following characteristics
(a) A batch of items produced only once,
(b) A batch of items produced at irregular intervals when a need is felt,
(c) A batch of items produced periodically at known intervals to satisfy the continuous
demand.
Continuous Production which consists of
(d) Mass production
(e) Flow production

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Job Production
This is the oldest method of production on a very small scale. It is also popularly
known as job-shop or Unit production. With this method individual requirements of
consumers can be met. Each job order stands alone and may not be repeated. Some of the
examples include manufacturing of aircrafts, ships, space vehicle, bridge and dam
construction, ship building, boilers, turbines, machine tools, things of artistic nature, die
work, etc. Some of the features of this system are as follows:

This system has a lot of flexibility of operation, and hence general purpose
machines are required.
Generally no automation is used in this system, but computer-aided-design
(CAD) is used.

It deals with low volume and large variety production. It can cater to
specific customer order, or job of one kind at a time.
 It is known for rapid value addition
Advantages
Low risk of loss to the factory adopting this type of production. Due to
flexibility, there is no chance of failure of factory due to reduction in demand.
It can always get one or the other job orders to keep it going.
Requires less money and is easy to start.
Less or no management problem because of very small work force.
Disadvantages
For handling different types of jobs, only workers with multiple skills are needed. This
increases the labor cost
Low equipment utilization.
As the raw materials are purchased in less quantity, the cost of material procurement is
more.
Batch Production
The batch production system is generally adopted in medium size enterprises. Batch
production is a stage in between mass production and job-shop production. As in this
system, two or more than two types of products are manufactured in lots or batches at
regular interval, which justifies its name the batch production system. It has the following
features:
A batch production turns into flow production when the rest period vanishes. In
flow produc- tion, the processing of materials is continuous and progressive.
Batch production is bigger in scale than job production, but smaller than that of
mass produc- tion.
Material handling may be automated by robots as in case of CNC machining
centers.
A medium size lots (5 to 50) of same items is produced in this system. Lot may be
produced once in a while or on regular interval generally to meet the continuous
customer demands.
Plant capacity generally is higher than demand.
Advantages
It is flexible in the sense that it can go from one job to another with almost zero
cost. It needs general purpose machine having high production rate.
If demand for one product decreases then production rate for another product may
be increased, thus the risk of loss is very less.
Most suitable for computer-aided-manufacturing (CAM).
Disadvantages
As the raw materials to be purchased are in smaller quantity than in case of mass
production, the benefits of discount due to large lot purchasing is not possible.
It needs specially designed jigs and fixtures.

Continuous Production
In this, the production activity continues for 24 hours or on three shifts a day basis.
A steel plant, for example, belongs to this type. It is impossible to stop the production process
on a short notice without causing a great damage to its blast furnace and related equipment.
Other examples include bottling plant, soft drink industry, fertilizer plant, power plant, etc).
Mass production and Flow production belong to continuous type only. They are explained
below:
Mass production: In this type, a large number of identical items is produced, however, the
equip- ment need not be designed to produce only this type of items. Both plant and
equipment are flexible enough to deal with other products needing the same production
processes. For example, a highly mechanized press shop that can be utilized to produce
different types of components or products of steel metal without the need of major changes.
Flow production: In this type, the plant, its equipment, and layout have been chiefly designed
to produce a particular type of product. Flexibility is limited to minor modifications in layout
or design of models. Some famous examples are automobiles, engines, house-hold machinery,
chemical plants, etc. If the management decides to switch over to a different type of
product, it will result in extensive change in tooling, layout, and equipment.
Continuous production, in general, has the following features:
It is very highly automated (process automation), and highly capital intensive.
Items move from one stage to another automatically in a continuous manner.
It has a fixed or hard automation which means there is very less or no flexibility at
all. Layout of the plant is such that it can be used for only one type of product.
Each machine in the system is assigned a definite nature of work.
To avoid problem of material handling, use of cranes, conveyors etc. are made.
Work-in-process (WIP) inventory in this system is zero.

Advantages
It gives better quality, large volume but less variety of products.
Wastage is minimum.
As the raw materials are purchased on a large scale, higher margin of profit can be
made on purchase.
Only a few skilled, and many semi-skilled workers are required. This reduces the
labor cost substantially.
Disadvantages
During the period of less demand, heavy losses on invested capital may take place.
Because all the machines are dedicated and special purpose type, the system is not
change- able to other type of production.
Most of the workers handle only a particular operation repetitively, which can
make them feel monotonous.
As this type of production is on the large scale, it cannot fulfill individual taste..

Manufacturing models and metrics

It is classified in two sections

1. Mathematical Models of Production Performance
2. Manufacturing Costs
Production performance metrics:
Production rate Rp
Production capacity PC
Utilization U
Availability A
Manufacturing lead time MLT
Work-in-progress WIP
Operation cycle time
Typical cycle time for a production operation:
 Tc = To + Th + Tth
where
Tc = cycle time,
To = processing time for the operation,
Th = handling time (e.g., loading and unloading the production machine), and
Tth = tool handling time (e.g., time to change tools)

Production rate

1. Batch production:
batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb/Q Production rate Rp =
1/Tp
2. Job shop production:
For Q = 1, Tp = Tsu + Tc
3. For quantity high production:
Rp = Rc = 60/Tp since Tsu/Q 0
4. For flow line production:
Tc = Tr + Max To and Rc = 60/Tc

Production capacity

Plant capacity for facility in which parts are made in one operation (no = 1):
PCw = n Sw Hs Rp
where PCw = weekly plant capacity, units/wk
Plant capacity for facility in which parts require multiple
operations (no > 1):
nS H R
PCw = w s p no
where no = number of operations in the routing

Utilization
Utilization: U = PC
where Q = quantity actually produced, and
PC = plant capacity

Availability

Availability: A = MTBF MTTR

MTBF
where MTBF = mean time between failures, and MTTR = mean time
to repair

Manufacturing Lead Time

MLT = no (Tsu + QTc + Tno)

where
MLT = manufacturing lead time, no = number of operations,
Tsu = setup time, Q = batch quantity,
Tc = cycle time per part, and
Tno = non-operation time

Work-In-Process

AU ( PC ) (MLT )
WIP =
S H
w sh
where WIP = work-in-process, pc;
A = availability,
U = utilization,
PC = plant capacity, pc/wk;
MLT = manufacturing lead time, hr;
Sw = shifts per week,
Hsh = hours per shift, hr/shift

Costs of Manufacturing Operations

Two major categories of manufacturing costs:
1. Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level
2. Variable costs - vary in proportion to production output level
Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC(Q)
where TC = total costs, FC = fixed costs (e.g., building, equipment, taxes), VC =
variable costs (e.g., labor, materials, utilities), Q = output level.

Fixed and Variable Costs

Manufacturing Costs
Alternative classification of manufacturing costs:
 1. Direct labor - wages and benefits paid to workers
2. Materials - costs of raw materials
3. Overhead - all of the other expenses associated with running the
manufacturing firm Factory overhead ,Corporate overhead
Typical Manufacturing Costs

Overhead Rates
Factory overhead rate:
FOHC

FOHR = DLC
Corporate overhead rate:
COHC

COHR = DLC
where DLC = direct labor costs

Cost of Equipment Usage

Hourly cost of worker-machine system:
Co = CL(1 + FOHRL) + Cm(1 + FOHRm)

where
Co = hourly rate, $/hr;
CL = labor rate, $/hr;
FOHRL = labor factory overhead rate,
Cm = machine rate, $/hr;
FOHRm = machine factory overhead rate

Manufacturing control

The manufacturing planning and control (MPC) system is concerned with planning
and controlling all aspects of manufacturing, including managing materials, scheduling
machines and people, and coordinating suppliers and key customers. Because these activities
change over time and respond differently to different markets and company strategies, this
chapter provides a model for evaluating responses to changes in the competitive environment.
 We believe that the development of an effective manufacturing planning and control
system is key to the success of any goods producing company. Moreover, truly effective
MPC systems coordinate supply chainsjoint efforts across company boundaries. Finally,
MPC systems design is not a one-time effort; MPC systems need to continuously adapt and
respond to changes in the company environment, strategy, customer requirements, particu-
lar problems, and new supply chain opportunities. The critical question is not what one has
accomplished; it is What should the firm, together with its supply chain partners, do next?
To put these ideas in perspective, this chapter is organized around the following four man-
agerial concerns: build in the future. The MPS must support the sales and operations plan.
Resource plan- ning determines the capacity necessary to produce the required products
now and in the future. In the long run this means bricks and mortar, while in the short run
it means labor and machine hours. Resource planning provides the basis for matching
manufacturing plans and capacity.

The middle third, or engine, in Figure 1.1 encompasses the set of MPC systems for de-
tailed material and capacity planning. The master production schedule feeds directly into
the detailed material planning module.

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Firms with a limited product range can specify rates of production for developing these
plans. However, for firms producing a wide variety of products with many parts per
product, detailed material planning can involve calculating requirements for thousands of
parts and components, using a formal logic called material requirements planning (MRP).
MRP determines (explodes) the period-by-period (time- phased) plans for all component
parts and raw materials required to produce all the prod- ucts in the MPS. This material
plan can thereafter be utilized in the detailed capacity planning systems to compute labor
or machine center capacity required to manufacture all the component parts.

The MPC system defined: What are the typical tasks performed by the MPC system
and how do these tasks affect company operations?

An MPC system framework: What are the key MPC system components and how do they respond
to a companys needs?
Matching the MPC system with the needs of the firm: How do supply-chain product, and process
issues affect MPC system design?

Evolution of the MPC system: What forces drive changes in the MPC system and how do companies
respond to the forces?

Basic elements of an automated system

Levels of automation

Just in time

In my opinion, the primary goal for the company is customer's satisfaction and if
company can not reach perfection in this area then all the processes are worthless. All parts of
the value chain and everything in the enterprise must be healthy for realization of competitive
business processes. If the company wants strong and long-lasting value chain all the links
within the chain must be prepared to overpass all existing problems.

Just-In-Time (JIT) concept

What is the Just-In-Time concept? Since the emergence of this term it was difficult for
sciences and business people to define it. Even today many companies think that
they are using JIT concept, but actually, they are not realizing that JIT must be integrated in
company philosophy and no just dead letters.
 Just in Time (JIT) production is a manufacturing philosophy which eliminates waste
associated with time, labour, and storage space. Basics of the concept are that the company
produces only what is needed, when it is needed and in the quantity that is needed. The
company produces only what the customer requests, to actual orders, not to forecast. JIT can
also be defined as producing the necessary units, with the required quality, in the necessary
quantities, at the last safe moment. It means that company can manage with their own
resources and allocate them very easily. Figure shows a drawing of the JIT concept.

Benefits and problems

Benefits that JIT concept can provide to the company are huge and very diverse. The
main benefits of JIT are listed below:

- Reduced set up times in warehouse - the company in this case can focuses on other
processes that might need improvement;

- Improved flows of goods in/through/out warehouse - employees will be able to process

goods faster;

- Employees who possess multi-skills are utilized more efficiently - the company can use
workers in situations when they are needed, when there is a shortage of workers and a high
demand for a particular product;

- Better consistency of scheduling and consistency of employee work hours - if there is

no demand for a product at the time, workers dont have to be working. This can save the
company money by not having to pay workers for a job not completed or could have them
focus on other jobs around the warehouse that would not necessarily be done on a normal day;

- Increased emphasis on supplier relationships - having a trusting supplier relationship

is important for the company because it is possible to rely on goods being there when they are
needed;

Supplies continue around the clock keeping workers productive and businesses
focused on turnover - employees will work hard to meet the company goals.

Lean Manufacturing

Lean manufacturing or lean production are reasonably new terms that can be traced
to Jim Womack, Daniel Jones and Daniel Roos book, The Machine that changed the world
[1991]. In the book, the authors examined the manufacturing activities exemplified by the
Toyota Production System. Lean manufacturing is the systematic elimination of waste. As
the name implies, lean is focused at cutting fat from production activities. It has also been
successfully applied to administrative and engineering activities as well. Although lean
manufacturing is a relatively new term, many of the tools used in lean can be traced back to
Fredrick Taylor and the Gilbreaths at the turn of the 20th century. What Lean has done is to
package some well-respected industrial/manufacturing engineering practices into a system that
can work in virtually any environment.

Figure 18.1 provides a definition of lean as a function of the outcomes that one
realizes. The definition comes from Womack and it identifies the results rather than the
method of lean. In the following sections, the procedures and specifics of lean will be
introduced.
 Generally waste can be grouped into the following categories:

1.Excess production and early production

2.Delays
3.Movement and transport
4.Poor process design
5.Inventory
6.Inefficient performance of a process
7.Making defective items

Definition of Lean

- Half the hours of human effort in the factory

- Half the defects in the finished product

- One-third the hours of engineering effort

- Half the factory space for the same output

- A tenth or less of in-process inventories

A poorly designed process results in overuse of manufacturing resources (men and

machines). There are no perfect processes in manufacturing. Generally, process improvements
are made regularly with new efficiencies embedded within the process. Continuous process
improvement is a critical part of Lean Manufacturing.
 Excess inventory reduces profitability. Today, it is not uncommon for a manufacturer
to store a suppliers product at the production site. The supplier, right up until the time that
they are drawn from inventory, owns the materials. In many ways this is advantageous to both
the user and supplier. The supplier warehouses his material offsite, and the user does need to
commit capital to a large safety stock of material.

Insufficient (or poor) process performance always results in the over utilization of
manufacturing resources and a more costly product. There is no optimal process in that
improvements can always be made; however, many processes operate far below the desired
efficiency. Continuous process improvement is necessary for a manufacturing firm to remain
competitive. Excess movement or unnecessary part handling should be the first targets of
waste elimination.

Poor quality (making defects) is never desirable. Labor and material waste results from
producing any defect. Furthermore, the cost of mitigating poor quality (rework) can often
exceed the price of the product. A critical balance between processing speed and quality
exists. A process should be run as fast as possible without sacrificing acceptable quality.

From the above discussion, it should be obvious that waste is a constant enemy of
manufacturing. Waste elimination should be an on-going process that focuses on improving a
process regularly. Regular reviews and worker input should be conducted as often as
allowable.

UNIT III

6.1 Introduction

The amount of data that a persons mind can readily work with at one time is relatively small.
A computer can manipulate considerably more data than a human mind; however, even a
computer has limits on the amount of data that can be manipulated at one time. For this and
other reasons it is desirable to find ways to organize data so that only pertinent items need be
retrieved and analyzed at a given time. To accomplish this, methods of structuring data have
been devised. Some methods are very clever, such as data structures used in large computer
data bases; others are relatively simple, such as listing words alphabetically in a dictionary.
An example is the coding and classification of books in a library catalog. Using this catalog,
one can easily find all books written by an author, all books on a specific subject, or all books
with a particular title.
The basis for group technology is analogous to these situations. A company may make
thousands of different parts in an environment that is becoming more complex as lot sizes get smaller
and the variety of parts increases. When they are examined closely, however, many parts are similar in
some way. A design engineer faced with the task of designing a part would like to know if the same or
a similar part had been designed before. Likewise, a manufacturing engineer faced with the task of
determining how to manufacture a part would like to know if a similar process plan already exists. It
follows that there may be economies to be realized from grouping parts into families with similar
characteristics. The resulting data base would certainly be easier to manage; therefore, the
manufacturing enterprise should be easier to manage. In 1969 V. B. Soloa defined group technology as
the realization that many problems are similar, and that by grouping similar problems, a single
solution can be found to a set of problems thus saving time and effort. [This definition is very broad,
but it is valid because group technology concepts have been applied to many environments.

6.2 Key Definitions

Attribute (polycode) code Each part attribute is assigned to a fixed position in a code. The
meaning of each character in the code is independent of any other character value.
Average linkage clustering algorithm An algorithm for clustering things together based on
the average similarity of all pairs of things being clustered. The similarity of each pair is
measured by a similarity coefficient.
Bottleneck machine In this chapter, a machine in a group (cell) that is required by a large
number of parts in a different group.
Cell In this chapter, a group of machines arranged to produce similar families of parts.
Classification The process of categorizing parts into groups, sometimes called families,
according to a set of rules or principles.
Cluster analysis The process of sorting things into groups so the similarities are high among
members of the same group and low among members of different groups.
Coding The process of assigning symbols to a part to reflect attributes of the part. Computer-
aided process planning (CAPP) An interactive computer system that automates some of the
work involved in preparing a process plan.

Decision variables In a mathematical model, values must be assigned to these variables. The
objective is to select values that optimize the models performance, such as minimal cost.
Initially the best values for these variables are unknown.
Dendrogram A treelike graphical representation of cluster analysis results. The ordinate is in
some similarity coefficient scale, and the abscissa has no special meaning.
Function layout Layout of machines in a factory such that machines of a specific type are
grouped together.
Group layout Machines in a factory are arranged as cells.
Group technology An engineering and manufacturing philosophy that groups parts together
based on their similarities in order to achieve economies of scale in a small-scale environment
normally associated with large-scale production.
Group tooling Tooling designed such that a family or families of parts can be processed with
one master fixture and possibly some auxiliary adapters to accommodate differences in some
of the part attributes, such as number of holes and sizes of holes.
Hierarchical (monocode) code The meaning of each character is dependent on the meaning
of the previous character in the code.
Hybrid (mixed) code A combination of an attribute and a hierarchical code. It combines the
advantages of both code types.
Line layout Machines in a factory are arranged in the sequence in which they are used. The
work content at each location is balanced so that materials can flow through in a continuous
manner. Logic tree A treelike graph that represents the logic used to make a decision. This
differs from a decision tree in that the branches may contain logical expressions as well as
calculations, data elements, codes, and keys to other data.
Machine component chart A matrix that denotes what machines a group of components
(parts) visit.
Part family A group of parts having some similar attributes.
Process plan The detailed instructions for making a part. It includes such things as the
operations, machines, tools, feeds and speeds, tolerances, dimensions, stock removal, time
standards, and inspection procedures.
Production flow analysis A structured procedure for analyzing the sequence of operations
that parts go through during manufacturing. Parts that go through common operations are
grouped together as a family, and the associated machines are arranged as a cell.
Rotational part A part that can be made by rotating the work piece. It is usually symmetrical
along one axis, such as a gear.
Similarity coefficient In this chapter, a measure of how alike two machines are in
terms of the number of parts visiting both machines and the number of parts visiting each
machine Single-linkage clustering algorithm (SLCA) An algorithm for clustering together
things that have a high similarity coefficient.
Threshold value A similarity coefficient value at which clustering is to stop. That
is, no more clusters are to be formed if the largest remaining similarity coefficient value is
below this value.

6.3 The Role of Group Technology in CAD/CAM Integration

The preceding discussion pointed out that competitive world market conditions are encouraging more
and more batch-type manufacturing firms to consider adopt ing a group technology philosophy.
Another major contributing factor to this acceptance is an increasing emphasis on the
integration of CAD and CAM.
In this chapter it will become evident that group technology is an important element of CAD
and CAM. An essential aspect of the integration of CAD and CAM is the integration of information
used by engineering, manufacturing, and all the other departments in a firm. Group technology
provides a means to structure and save information about parts, such as design and manufacturing
attributes, processes, and manufacturing capabilities that is amenable to computerization and analysis.
It provides a common language for the users. Integration of many types of part-related information
would be virtually impossible without group technology; consequently, group technology is an
important element of CAD/CAM integration. Another important aspect of the integration of CAD and
CAM in automation. The next chapter, which discusses process planning, will explain how group
technology is key to automating this function. Also, many manufacturing firms are automating their
operations by arranging their machines into cells. The design of a cell is based on group technology.
These observations reinforce the importance of group technology.

Part Families

Figure 6.1: Parts grouped by geometric shape

 Group technology is begun by grouping parts into families based on their attributes. Usually,
these attributes are based on geometric and/or production process characteristics. Geometric
classification of families is normally based on size and shape, while production process classification is
based on the type, sequence , and number of operations. The type of operation is determined by such
things as the method of processing, the method of holding the part, the tooling, and the conditions of
processing. For example, Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show families of parts grouped by geometric shape and by
production process. The identification of a family of parts that has similarities permits the economies of
scale normally associated with mass production to be applied to small-lot, batch production. There fore,
successful grouping of related parts into families is a key to implementation of the group technology
philosophy.

Parts grouped by manufacturing processes

There are at least three basic methods that can be used to form part families:

- Manual visual search

- Production flow analysis
- Classification and coding

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a structured technique developed for analysis the sequence of operations
(routings) that parts go through during fabrication. Parts that go through common operations are grouped into
part families. Similarly, the machines used to perform these common operations may be grouped as a cell;
consequently, this technique can be used in facility layout. Initially, a machinecomponent chart must be
formed. This is an M x N matrix, where
M = number of machines

N = number of parts
x = 1 if part j has an operation on machine i; 0 otherwise.

If the machinecomponent chart is small, parts with similar operations might be grouped together by
manually sorting the rows and columns. However, a more appealing method is to use a computer
procedure to perform this work.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the use of PFA to form part families. For this technique to be successful, accurate
and efficient routings must exist for each part. In many companies these routings do not exist. If
routings exist, they are often inaccurate from lack of maintenance or they may be very inconsistent.
 The latter situation will occur if routings are established without using a coding and classification
system. Also, using PFA involves judgment, because some parts may not appear to fit into a family when
one or more unique operations are required. Furthermore, additional analysis is required to determine
when a particular machine should be duplicated in another group. In Figure 6.3, for example, machine D
is in groups 1 and 2. In this case, since machine D was visited by almost all of the parts, it was
duplicated to keep the groups small. Otherwise, groups 1 and 2 might have been combined into one
group having several parts with dissimilar routings. Likewise, you cannot determine how many
machines of type D are required without evaluating demands and machine capacities. In addition, PFA
does not consider part features and functional capabilities. Therefore, this technique should not be used
to form part families for design engineering. One advantage of using production flow analysis compared
to a coding and classification system is that part families can be formed with much less effort.
If the coding and classification technique is used, parts are examined and codes are assigned to each part
based on the attributes of the parts. These codes can then be sorted so that parts with similar codes are
grouped as a part family.
Because these codes are assigned in a manner that does not require much judgment, the part families
developed by this technique do not suffer from judgment inconsistencies. A disadvantage of using the coding
and classification technique is that a large amount of time may be required to develop and tailor a code to
meet the needs of a specific company. Afterwards, coding the parts will take an even larger amount of time.
However, when properly applied, the results are much better then when other techniques are used.
Consequently, coding and classification is the preferred approach and will be discussed in more detail than
the other approaches.

Classification and Coding

Classification of parts is the process of categorizing parts into groups, sometimes called families,
according to a set of rules or principles. The objectives are to group together similar parts and to
differentiate among dissimilar parts. Coding of a part is the process of assigning symbols to the part.
These symbols should have meanings that reflect the attributes of the part, thereby facilitating analysis
(information processing). Although this does not sound very difficult, classification and coding are very
complex problems.
Several classification and coding systems have been developed, and many people have tried to improve
them. No system has yet received universal acceptance; however, because the information that is to be
represented in the classification and coding system will vary from one company to another. This seems
reasonable if one understands that the two greatest uses of group technology are for design retrieval and
for group (cell) production, and that each company has some unique needs for these functions. Although
all of these needs are not unique, enough are to prohibit the development of a universal system.
Therefore, even though classification and coding systems can be purchased, a good rule of thumb is that
40% of a purchased system must be tailored to the specific needs of a particular company.

One reason that a design engineer classifies and codes parts is to reduce design effort by identifying similar parts
that already exist. Some of the most significant attributes on which identification can be made are shape, material
and size. If the coding and classification system is to be used successfully in manufacturing, it must be capable of
identifying some additional attributes, such as tolerances, machinability of materials, processes, and machine tool
requirements. In many companies the design
department does not exchange very much information with the manufacturing department. The
analogy of design engineering throwing the part design over the wall of manufacturing to make is
often used to describe the lack of communication between these departments. The classification and
coding system selected by a company should meet the needs of both design engineering and
manufacturing. A system that meets these combined needs will improve communication between
departments and facilitate computer-integrated manufacturing.

Although well over 100 classification and coding systems have been developed for group technology
applications, all of them can be grouped into three basic types:

1. Hierarchical or monocode
2. Attribute, or polycode
3. Hybrid, or mixed

6.5.1 Hierarchical Code

In this type of code, the meaning of each character is dependent on the meaning of the previous
character; that is, each character amplifies the information of the previous character. Such a coding
system can be depicted using a tree structure as shown in Figure 6.4-b, which represents a simple
scheme for coding the spur gear shown in Figure 6.4-a. Using these figures, we can assign a code,
A11B2, to the spur gear.
A hierarchical code provides a large amount of information in a relatively small number of digits.
This advantage will become more apparent when we look at an attribute coding system. Defining the meaning
for each digit in a hierarchical system can be difficult, although application of the defined system is relatively
simple. Starting at the main trunk of the tree, you need to answer a series of questions about the item being
coded. Continuing in this manner, you work your way through the tree to a termination branch. By recording
each choice as you answer each question, you will build the appropriate code number. However, determining
the meaning of each digit in the code is complicated, because each preceding digit must first be decoded. For
example, in the code developed in Figure 6.4-b for the spur gear A11B2, a 1 in the second position means
round with deviations because there is an A in the first position of the code. How ever, if there had been a
B in the first position, a 1 in the second position would have meant boxlike.
Design departments frequently use hierarchical coding systems for part retrieval because this type of system is
very effective for capturing shape, material, and size information. Manufacturing departments, on the other hand,
have different needs which are often based on process requirements. It is difficult to retrieve and analyze process-
related information when it is in a hierarchical structure that will be equally useful to both the design and
manufacturing organizations.
Opitz Coding System
This classification and coding system was initially proposed by Opitz (1970) at Aachen
Technology University in Germany. The basic code comprises of nine digits that can be extended by
additional four digits. The general interpretations of the nine digits are as indicated in Figure 1.
The interpretation of the first 9 digits is:
 Digit 1: General shape of workpiece, otherwise called part-class. This is further subdivided into
rotational and non-rotational classes and further divided by size (length/diameter ratio.)
Digit 2: External shapes and relevant form. Features are recognized as stepped, conical, straight
contours. Threads and grooves are also important.
Digit 3: Internal shapes. Features are solid, bored, straight or bored in stepped diameter. Threads
and grooves are integral part.
Digit 4: Surface plane machining, such as internal or external curved surfaces, slots, splines.
Digit 5: Auxiliary holes and gear teeth. Digit 6: Diameter or length of workpiece. Digit 7: Material Used.

Figure 1: Opitz part coding system.

 Digit 8: Shape of raw materials, such as round bar, sheet metal, casting, tubing etc. Digit 9:
Workpiece accuracy.
All the 9 digits are interpreted numerically (0-9). An example of square cast-iron flange is shown in
Figure 2 in this context. The Opitz codes of square cast-iron flange is 65443 6070 (Ham et al., 1985).
The attributes are denoted as a1-a9,
a1=6 (Non-rotational, flat component with A/B<= 3, A/C > 4.) a2=5
(Flat small deviations from casting.)
a3=4 (Main bores are parallel.) a4=4
(Plane stepped surface.)
a5=3 (Drilling pattern for holes, drilled in one direction.) a6=6
(400 mm. < length of edge <=600 mm.)
a7=0 (material is cast iron.) a8=7
(Internal form: Casting.) a9=0 (surface
finish none.)
Cellular manufacturing

The principle of group technology is to divide the manufacturing facility into small groups or cells of
machines. The term cellular manufacturing is often used in this regard. Each of these cells is dedicated to a
specified family or set of part types. Typically, a cell is a small group of machines (as a rule of thumb not
more than five). An example would be a machining center with inspection and monitoring devices, tool and
Part Storage, a robot for part handling, and the associated control hardware.

The idea of GT can also be used to build larger groups, such as for instance, a department, possibly
composed of several automated cells or several manned machines of various types. As mentioned in Chapter
1 (see also Figure 1.5) pure item flow lines are possible, if volumes are very large. If volumes are very small,
and parts are very different, a functional layout (job shop) is usually appropriate. In the intermediate case of
medium-variety, medium-volume environments, group configuration is most appropriate.
GT can produce considerable improvements where it is appropriate and the basic idea can be utilized in all
manufacturing environments:
To the manufacturing engineer GT can be viewed as a role model to obtain the advantages of flow
line systems in environments previously ruled by job shop layouts. The idea is to form groups and to
aim at a product-type layout within each group (for a family of parts). Whenever possible, new parts
are designed to be compatible with the processes and tooling of an existing part family. This way,
production experience is quickly obtained, and standard process plans and tooling can be developed
for this restricted part set.
To the design engineer the idea of GT can mean to standardize products and process plans. If a new
part should be designed, first retrieve the design for a similar, existing part. Maybe, the need for the
new part is eliminated if an existing part will suffice. If a new part is actually needed, the new plan
can be developed quickly by relying on decisions and documentation previously made for similar
parts. Hence, the resulting plan will match current manufacturing procedures and document
preparation time is reduced. The design engineer is freed to concentrate on optimal design.
In this GT context a typical approach would be the use of composite Part families. Consider e.g. the parts
family shown in Figure
In the functional process (job shop) layout, all parts travel through the entire shop. Scheduling and material
control are complicated. Job priorities are difficult to set, and large WIP inventories are used to assure
reasonable capacity utilisation. In GT, each part type flows only through its specific group area. The reduced
setup time allows faster adjustment to changing conditions.
Often, workers are cross -trained on all machines within the group and follow the job from Start to finish.
This usually leads to higher job satisfaction/motivation and higher efficiency.
Since a workcenter will work only on a family of similar parts generic fixtures can be developed and used.
Tooling can be stored locally since parts will always be processed through the same machines. Tool changes
may be required due to tool wear only, not part changeovers (e.g. a press may have a generic fixture that can
hold all the parts in a family without any change or simply by changing a part-specific insert secured by a
single screw. Hence setup time is reduced, and tooling cost is reduced. Using queuing theory (M/M/1 model)
it is possible to show that if setup time is reduced, also the throughput time for the system is reduced by the
same percentage.

Composite Part
Mitrofanov (1959) and Edwards (1970) have proposed composite part approach to implement the
concept of cellular manufacturing. A composite part is formed by merging the primitives of all the parts
of a part family. Thus, the composite is a single hypothetical part that can be completely processed in a
manufacturing cell/group. If a new part is loaded in a machine group, the degree of dissimilarity of the
part from its related part family or the hypothetical composite should have minimum deviation and
desired to be zero. The manufacmturing facility could be planned on the basis of composite part to
facilitate economical production. The primitives of three parts shown in Fig. 1 are merged into
composite part as shown in Figure 2 by incorporating all the primitives of the three parts.

Sometimes, it may not be judicious to merge all the primitives of parts due to various production
considerations, as in that situation the shop will converge back to a large job shop and all the benefits of
CMS will be lost. The size of the manufacturing group depends on initial capital investment capacity,
machines available and outsourcing facilities. Therefore, individual parts features (in terms of
primitives) could be merged in the composite part based on their repetitions in the parts. The primitives
having more repetitions will be more eligible candidates for merging in the composite part. Various
techniques could be used for selection of optimum primitives for merging in composite parts. The
genetic algorithm is proved to be one of the effective techniques.
Primitive Library and Processing of New Parts
Finding the process requirements of any part is the pre-requisite of creating the part-families and
subsequently the corresponding machine groups are formed. There are many researches in this direction.
Liu (2004) has described a methodology for feature extraction and classification of rotational parts. In
realistic situation, where 2D representation is utilized in the form of drawing, a methodology is need to
be developed to identify the process required and the sequence of these processes.
Basic Assumptions

The following assumptions are made in this work:

- The data solely represents the machine requirements on which operations are performed to
produce any part.
- The time needed for production is not considered.
- The type of operation is not considered. For example, if a machine is utilised for performing
many types of operations, no separate code is provided for each of the operations. However,
the software can be modified for coding each operations separately.
- Service departments like heat treatment, painting, quality control etc., are not considered for
grouping, as they are always shared.
 - Workload for each type of machine has also not been considered initially for the obvious
reason that in a dynamic condition the same cannot be correctly predicted. However the
modification in the model has been made subsequently.
- Alternate processing may be considered.

Machine cell design

Rank Order Clustering
This is is done in three steps
Interpret rows and columns as binary numbers
Sort rows w.r.t. decreasing binary numbers
Sort columns w.r.t. decreasing binary numbers

First, the rows are interpreted as binary numbers and sorted

This gives a new ordering of the machines: B D C A E. Next, we sort columns w.r.t. decreasing binary
numbers (note the new order of rows here):

This gives a new ordering of parts: 6-5-1-3-4-2.

Now 2 groups can be formed
Group 1: parts {6, 5, 1}, machines {B, D}
Group 2: parts { 3, 4, 2}, machines {C, A, E}
Parts 1, 4, and 2 can be produced in one cell. The remaining items 6, 5, and 3 are outside the bold
rectangles (indicating the block diagonal structure) and cause problems. There are, in principle 3
possibilities:
1. these parts produced in both cells, i.e. part 6 is mainly produced in cell 1 but for operation on
machine C it has to be transported to cell 2
2. machines B, C, and E have to be duplicated, so that all parts can be produced within one cell
3. some parts that do not fit at all could also be given to subcontractors
Binary Ordering is a simple heuristic no guarantee that optimal ordering is obtained.
Sometimes a better better block-diagonal structure is obtained by repeating the Binary Ordering until there
is no change anymore. In the above example this yields the final form of the matrix
Hence, repeated Binary Ordering did not help in this example.
The strategy in feed forward control is to anticipate the effect of disturbances that will upset the process
by sensing them and compensating for them before they can affect the process. As shown in Figure the
feed forward control elements sense the presence of a disturbance and take corrective action by
adjusting a process parameter that compensates for any effect the disturbance will have on the process.
In the ideal case, the compensation is completely effective.