Elasticity and Deforming Forces

External forces acting on a body, bring about a change in its state or configuration. The latter is possible
when the body is not free to move, but the molecules are compelled to change their positions. Such
forces are called deforming forces. These forces bring about a change in the length, volume or shape.
What happens to the body when these forces are removed? Obviously one expects the body to regain its
shape. How does one account for this?

On applying the forces, the interatomic distance becomes more than r o, thus increasing their potential
energy (leading to instability). On removing the forces, the system tends to regain a minimum P.E. and as
a result, attractive forces develop, restoring them to their original shape. The same applies when a body
is subjected to a compressional force, where repulsive forces develop and restore the system to
equilibrium.

The property of the material of a body by virtue of which, the body regains its original length, volume and
shape after the deforming forces have been removed, is called elasticity.

Do all bodies possess this property of elasticity to the same extent? Substances like putty (clay), kneaded
flour and paraffin wax undergo a permanent deformation. This property where bodies do not show a
tendency to recover their original form after deforming forces are removed, is called plasticity.

Stress
Elastic bodies regain their original shape due to internal restoring forces. This internal restoring force,
acting per unit area of a deformed body, is called a stress.

An object can be deformed in different ways.

Types of stress and strain

Different types of stress : Stress is of two different types mainly (i) Normal Stress (ii)
Shearing or Tangential Stress .

Normal Stress : If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called normal stress. Stress
is always normal in the case of a change in length or a wire or in the case of change in
volume of a body
Longitudinal Stress : When a normal stress change the length of a body then it is
called longitudinal stress which is given by

Longitudinal S tress = Deforming Force / Area of cross section =

The longitudinal stress can be further divided into two types. When a wire or a rod is
stretched at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, the stress is called tensile
stress. When a rod is pushed at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, it will be
under compression. The stress in such a case is called compressive stress. The pillars
of a building experience compressive stress.

Volume Stress (or ) Bulk Stress : When a normal stress changes the volume of a
body then it is called volume stress. When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, the force
at any point is normal to the surface of the body and the magnitude of the force on any
small area is proportional to the area i.e., the body is under the action of a pressure P.

Bulk Stress = = Pressure

Shearing Stress : When the Stress is tangential to the surface due to the application of
forces parallel to the surface, then the stress is called tangential or shearing stress. It
changes the shape of the body.

Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area = F / A

Normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume and tangential stress
produces change in shape of the body.The ratio of change produced in the
dimensions of a body by a system of forces or couples, in equilibrium, to its
original dimensions is called strain.

Strain is of three types depending upon the change produced in a body and the stress
applied. The three types of strain are (i)Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain and (iii)
Shearing strain

Longitudinal Strain : It is the ratio of the change in length of a body to the original
length of the body. If L is the original length of a wire or a rod and the final length of the
wire or the rod is L + e under the action of a normal stress, the change in length is e.

Longitudinal Strain = Change in length / Original length = e / L

If the length increases due to tensile stress, the corresponding strain is called tensile
strain. If the length decreases due to compressive stress, the strain is called
compressive strain.
 Volume Strain : It is the ratio of the change in volume of a body to its original volume.

If V is the original volume of a body and v + v is the volume of the body under the
action of a normal stress, the change in volume is v .

Volume Strain = Change in volume / Original volume = .

Shearing Strain : If is the angle through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed face
is turned. (or) It is the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from the fixed layer.

Stress
Elastic bodies regain their original shape due to internal restoring forces. This internal restoring force,
acting per unit area of a deformed body, is called a stress.

An object can be deformed in different ways.

Sub Topics

1. Types of stress and strain

2. Tensile stress

3. Compression stress

4. Tangential stress

Types of stress and strain

Different types of stress : Stress is of two different types mainly (i) Normal Stress (ii)
Shearing or Tangential Stress .
Normal Stress : If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called normal stress. Stress
is always normal in the case of a change in length or a wire or in the case of change in
volume of a body

Longitudinal Stress : When a normal stress change the length of a body then it is
called longitudinal stress which is given by

Longitudinal S tress = Deforming Force / Area of cross section =

The longitudinal stress can be further divided into two types. When a wire or a rod is
stretched at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, the stress is called tensile
stress. When a rod is pushed at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, it will be
under compression. The stress in such a case is called compressive stress. The pillars
of a building experience compressive stress.

Volume Stress (or ) Bulk Stress : When a normal stress changes the volume of a
body then it is called volume stress. When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, the force
at any point is normal to the surface of the body and the magnitude of the force on any
small area is proportional to the area i.e., the body is under the action of a pressure P.

Bulk Stress = = Pressure

Shearing Stress : When the Stress is tangential to the surface due to the application of
forces parallel to the surface, then the stress is called tangential or shearing stress. It
changes the shape of the body.

Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area = F / A

Normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume and tangential stress
produces change in shape of the body.The ratio of change produced in the
dimensions of a body by a system of forces or couples, in equilibrium, to its
original dimensions is called strain.

Strain is of three types depending upon the change produced in a body and the stress
applied. The three types of strain are (i)Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain and (iii)
Shearing strain

Longitudinal Strain : It is the ratio of the change in length of a body to the original
length of the body. If L is the original length of a wire or a rod and the final length of the
wire or the rod is L + e under the action of a normal stress, the change in length is e.

Longitudinal Strain = Change in length / Original length = e / L

If the length increases due to tensile stress, the corresponding strain is called tensile
strain. If the length decreases due to compressive stress, the strain is called
compressive strain.

Volume Strain : It is the ratio of the change in volume of a body to its original volume.

If V is the original volume of a body and v + v is the volume of the body under the
action of a normal stress, the change in volume is v .

Volume Strain = Change in volume / Original volume = .

Shearing Strain : If is the angle through which a face originally perpendicular to the
fixed face is turned. (or) It is the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from
the fixed layer.

As strain is a ratio , it has no units and dimensions.

Tensile stress
If there is an increase in the length of the body in the direction of force applied, the stress set up, is called
tensile stress.

Compression stress

If there is a decrease in length (decrease in volume) due to the force applied, the stress is compression
stress
Tangential stress
When the deforming force act tangential to the surface of the body, then this tangential force per unit area
is called tangential stress (F). See diagram below.

Strain
The change in configuration of a body depends on the type of stress. The ratio of change in configuration
to the original configuration is called a strain. Strain, being a ratio, does not have any units or dimensions.

Types of strain
Hooke's law
Experimental study by Hooke revealed that elastic bodies regain their original configuration completely,
only upto a limit. He termed this limit as the elastic limit. He found that within the elastic limit, the
extension produced in the wire was directly proportional to the load applied.

i.e. Stress a strain

Stress = E strain

where E is constant and is called modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.

Experimental verification of Hooke's law

The apparatus is set as shown above. The weights are loaded one by one and unloaded one by one to
bring the spring to its elastic mode. Weights are then added in the pan and reading of pointer on the scale
is noted. Some more weights are added and the readings are noted once again. The difference between
the two gives the extension in the spring due to the weights added in the pan. The procedure is repeated
for other weights. On plotting a graph between the load and extension, one gets a straight line as shown
below. Thus, the graph verifies the Hooke's law.
Young's Modulus of elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain within elastic limit.

F is the normal force applied at the end of its wire, A is area of cross section (= pr2), Dl is the extension
produced due to normal force, L is the original length of the wire.

Bulk Modulus of elasticity (K)

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limit. Thus,

Consider a spherical solid body of volume V and surface area a, when a force F is applied normally, the
volume decreases by

Modulus of Rigidity
It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain within the elastic limit.

Considering a solid metal cube whose lower face is fixed and its upper face is subjected to a tangential
force F. The body suffers a change in its shape but not in its volume. If q is angle through which upper
layer is sheared then,
 (Modulus of Rigidity)

Stress - Strain Relationship in a wire

AO = Elastic Range

P = Yield point

OD| = Breaking stress or tensile stress

E = Breaking point

OO1= Permanent set

When the stress-strain relationship in a wire is studied, one finds that stress is directly proportional to the
strain upto the point A (see the graph). The point 'A' is called the elastic limit and AO is called the elastic
range. The Hooke's law is valid up till A. Beyond A, if the stress is removed, graph between stress and
strain does not follow AO. BO| is followed when stress is zero, strain is not zero or a permanent
deformation sets in the material. Therefore, OO| represents the permanent set. Notice that beyond 'A', the
stress - strain graph is a curve and that for a small stress, large strain is produced in the material. The
material beyond A and upto 'P' is partly elastic and partly plastic in behaviour. Beyond 'P', the behaviour of
the wire is very erratic. There is a large increase in the strain but a very small change in the stress.

At this stage, the wire flows down upto the point C. The point 'P', when the wire yields to the applied
stress and begins to flow, is called the yield point. The region PC is called the plastic region. Materials
used to make sheets or wires must have a longer plastic region and must be ductile.

Beyond C, the graph has a hump at D. Even if the wire is loaded by a little amount, the wire becomes thin
at weak portions of the wire and tends to break at E. The stress corresponding to the breaking point is
called the breaking stress. Brittle substances generally have a small plastic region and the breaking
stress lies closer to the elastic limit.

The above graph is useful in classifying materials which serve different purposes.