Running head: THE FUTURE OF CAREER SERVICES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

The Future of Career Services

in Higher Education: A Review of Literature

Stephanie Swigart

Wright State University

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Abstract

The purpose of this literature review was to explore career services in higher education as it

relates to the future. The history of career services was briefly reviewed and present practices

were also investigated. Next the effects of globalization and the increasing prevalence of

technology were discussed, giving special attention to the usage of social media. The importance

interconnectedness and collaboration were also explored as ways of increasing effectiveness of

career services. This literature review is more of a theoretical interpretation on the future of the

field rather than a one-size-fits-all model. Individual institutional needs should always be taken

into consideration in order to ensure the best possible service for the student population.

The Future of Career Services

in Higher Education: A Review of Literature

The field of Student Affairs is constantly changing and requires its professionals to be

dynamic and highly adaptable individuals who are always willing to grow and learn new skills

and expand upon existing competencies. While the main goal is to help students develop

holistically during their time in college, the current economic climate and focus on
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unemployment in our society has led to a heightened focus on graduates being able to

successfully start their careers and find work after college. There is a demand to prove that the

investment of all the time and money of attending an institution will be worth it in the end. With

that, we must turn our attention to the area of career services in order to make sure that it is

keeping up with the times and is able to meet the changing needs of our students as the world

increasingly becomes more interconnected and technologically advanced.

In order to fully understand the present and in hopes of better navigating the future, one

must first look to the past. The history of career services can be viewed as a series of shifting

paradigms. The emphasis and methods of assessing the success of career services in each

paradigm has been dependent on the circumstances and demands of the time. This includes social

issues, politics, socioeconomic factors, and of course generational shifts in student demographic.

By synthesizing paradigms first introduced by Donald Casella with later adaptations, Dey

and Cruzvergara (2014) divided the history of career services in higher education into five

categories which include Vocational/Teachers Guidance, Job Placement, Career Counseling,

Professional Networking, and Connected Communities paradigms. 1900-1940 falls under the

Vocational/Teachers Guidance paradigm. This was a time in which the first career center was

created, although it was not located at a university. On campuses, faculty during this period

served as mentors in terms of vocational guidance. However, being that not even fifty percent of

higher education institutions had vocational guidance, there wasnt any assessment taking place.

The Job Placement paradigm was between 1940-1970 and started, in large part, due to the GI

Bill and the high demand for workers in the flourishing economy after World War II. Placement

Centers were created on campuses as a response and they were assessed based on the amount of

students that they were able to match to jobs. The Career Counseling paradigm can be seen as
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lasting from 1970-1990. This period was characterized by the self-actualization movement and

by career centers that focused on numbers of appointments and workshop participation. The

Professional Networking paradigm from 1990-2010 turned its attention towards employer-

student networking opportunities and a more facilitator type role for career services

professionals. This brings us to the current Connected Communities paradigm which was

catalyzed by the financial crisis of 2008. The This new shift is predicted to last until at least 2030

and offers a stronger emphasis on building connections through partnerships with employers

from a variety of sectors, experiential learning, mentoring, and developing career communities of

learners and networkers that will engage students and alumni for a lifetime (p. 8).

This theme of connectedness is mirrored in how career services are being organized.

Career centers can be categorized as centralized, decentralized, or hybrid in regards to structure,

with the hybrid model varying in response to the individual requirements of each unique

institution (Schaub, 2012). In their study, Vinson, Reardon, and Bertoch (2014) found that no

respondents in their 2010 sample reported having a decentralized model of career services. This

drastic change from 12% in 1979 led them to suggest that there has been a trend of merging in

terms of structure on university campuses. According to Dey and Cruzvergara (2014), the

centralization tactic that is being utilized by the most intentional of institutions aids in ensuring

that resources are being amplified and that redundancies are being reduced. Of course,

considering how technological advances and globalization are driving forces behind this

movement of connectedness, there is also a need to clearly outline structure in regards to online

presence as well (Cabellon & Junco, 2015). When addressing international efforts on campus,

Kenyon and Rowan-Kenyon (2014) suggested that, in their experiences, a hybrid model works
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best in order to promote internationalization efforts and they would recommend this type of

organization of career services when pushing for successful programs and initiatives.

Reporting structure is another interesting aspect to consider when looking at the

trajectory of the field. Vinson, Reardon, and Bertoch (2014) found in their study sample, Student

Affairs oversight of career services went from 21% to 71% from 1979 to 2010. Placement center

oversight went from 34% to only 1% and counseling center oversight dropped from 13% to zero

during that thirty-year period. On the other hand, oversight by an academic dean went from zero

in 1979 to 11% in 2010. These stats seem to really reflect the shifting paradigms and their

respective emphasis quite nicely. The rise of reporting structure through an academic dean is

noteworthy because as Dey and Cruzvergara (2014) pointed out, there is a trend towards greater

responsibility and accountability for career services and with this comes an elevated status and

exalted titles for the leaders of career services. Increased collaboration with the academic side of

the house has additionally led to a movement away from the current majority of Student Affairs

oversight into other reporting structures.

Regardless of reporting line, there is a consensus that accountability is at an all-time high

for career services. As the National Association of Colleges and Employers Professional

Standards for College and University Career Services 2014 (NACE, 2013) states:

Systematic and regular quantitative and qualitative program evaluations must be

conducted in support of career services mission, goals, and student learning and

development outcomes. Although methods of assessment vary, a sufficient range of

measures must be employed to maintain objectivity and comprehensiveness. Data

collected must include responses from students, employers, and other affected
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constituencies. Thorough analysis must be conducted and applied to programmatic

decisions that lead to improvement of services. (p. 36)

Especially with the Connected Communities paradigm, it will be important for career services

professionals to be able to demonstrate value through assessments that focus on reputational

analysis of not only the center itself, but of the people who work there. Additionally, it will also

be important to take into consideration referrals and the engagement of all the parties involved

with vested interests within the vastly growing networks (Dey & Cruzvergara, 2014). The aspect

of assessment is especially important with regards to justify funding for career services (Garis,

Reardon, & Lenz, 2012). In response to the call for greater accountability, there is a trend in

career services to develop research positions in order to focus solely on assessment (Dey &

Cruzvergara, 2014).

When examining the idea of networks, it is important to look at them from different

levels of perspective. Of course, there has always been the student and employer aspect of

networking. The whole concept of career services is to help facilitate that connection. However,

the role of career services has evolved immensely since that early job placement paradigm. The

wide scope of core competencies that fall under the brokering, connecting, and linking

function in the NACE Professional Standards illustrates that reality (NACE, 2013, p. 19).

The concept of have strong networks within the institution itself has been, and will

continue to be, of the upmost importance in order to ensure that the student is receiving the most

comprehensive and holistic approach to their career and professional growth. The ability to

maintain open lines of communication with the academic side of the house is essential to

ensuring that the bases are covered for all students regardless of major (Garis, Reardon, & Lenz,

2012; Schaub, 2012). According to their study, Vinson, Reardon, and Bertoch (2012) found that
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the perceived faculty acceptance of career services offices has improved since 1979 with

senior student affairs officers perceiving faculty acceptance as very positive as opposed to

adequate (p. 206). This would make sense in relation to the paradigms since the focus has

moved from counseling to networking. However, it is important to note that the shifts do not

mean that the essence of the paradigm is lost, but rather that it is expanded upon (Dey &

Cruzvergara, 2014).

This can be seen in regards to the function of counseling. As mentioned earlier, while the

reporting structure to counseling services has gone down (Vinson, Reardon, & Bertoch, 2012), it

still remains a pivotal function to the profession (NACE, 2013). The psychological effects and

stress that can be partnered with a students career search should not be ignored, especially when

in times of economic hardship. For this reason, Schaub (2012) recommends a strong partnership

between the counseling center and the career center in which both are cognizant of the

psychological implications that can accompany the career search process (p. 211).

While partnerships were certainly a large focus across the literature, there were also some

common threads when it came to some general concepts that need to be given attention. For

instance, alongside of preparing students for career opportunities, there is a need for career

services to also advise and prepare students for decision regarding graduate school. Specifically,

assisting them to determine how attending grad school fits in with their long-term career goals

and helping them weigh their decisions accordingly (Bushnell, 2012; Schaub, 2012).

Additionally, there is a call to action for students to engage in career exploration and to pursue

experiential learning opportunities earlier on in their college careers (Dey & Cruzvergara, 2014;

Mourshed, Farrell, & Barton, 2012).

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Stepping back to get an even larger picture of career services, it is important to

conceptualize the idea of collaboration not only with students and employers, but with faculty,

alumni, the community, and the world at large. As touched upon earlier, globalization is a reality

that must be embraced if we want our students to succeed in this highly competitive global

market. Furthermore, the impact of technology and the ways in which it is continually evolving

is also another consideration that must be taken very seriously.

As the world becomes more and more interconnected, the need for incorporating

internationalization efforts into higher education becomes all the more apparent (Bushnell, 2012;

Kenyon & Rowan-Kenyon, 2014). The role that career services plays in those efforts to prepare

students to become globally competent citizens is critical. NACE (2013) included the promotion

of international connections as a professional standard and details that career services staff

should be knowledgeable on global job market information. Moreover, they must consider

different employment practices, laws and regulations in other countries without prejudice (p.

11). Kenyon and Rowan-Kenyon (2014) assert that the two major methods that career services

can employ to aid in globalization efforts are advising students on global career opportunities

and on obtaining international internships. In addition, the authors advocate for an overall vision

for their efforts that incorporates disseminating knowledge to the community as a whole so that

internationalization can be better understood and embraced by all.

Yet another aspect of fully integrating an international perspective into career services is

to consider how to best provide for international student on campus. Unfortunately, while the

numbers of international students on campus continue to rise, there seems to be a lack of

literature and studies focused on their unique career and vocational needs (Crockett & Hays,

2011). This is something that will most certainly need to be addressed because, as Kenyon and
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Rowan-Kenyon (2014) state both domestic and international students must be woven into any

institutions international fabric if a genuinely globalized on-campus and community-wide

environment is to be achieved (p. 99).

The interconnectedness brought on by globalization is undoubtedly a result of rapidly

advancing technology. As a whole, student affairs practitioners must embrace the technological

perspective in order to better relate and engage students. If used correctly, it is an unbelievably

powerful tool that can enhance virtually every aspect of the field. However, there are also

inherent risks involved if used incorrectly.

Despite the common understanding of the importance of technology, Cabellon and Junco

(2015) identified that the student affairs profession is not where it should be in terms of overall

technological fluency (p. 51). Cabellon and Junco also pointed out how only one association

currently has a technology competency that stands alone, which is the the Association of College

Unions International. As for career services, NACE (2013) highlighted the use of technology

throughout the Professional Standards for College and University Career Services 2014,

including on the mission page. There is also a section dedicated entirely to technology, which

reiterates its overall importance to the field.

In the Connected Communities paradigm of career services, Cruzvergara & Dey (2014)

identify branding as one of the top emerging trends (p.12). The idea of creating a unique

presence that is highly identifiable and authentic is helpful in gaining student and employer

attention in addition to helping to improve upon the perceived relevance and approachability of

career services. This branding concept also ties into looking at career services in terms of how it

needs to take on some business attributes. When conjecturing about the qualities future career

services leaders will need to possess, Garis, Reardon, and Lenz (2012) alluded to the significance
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of hiring individuals who possess not only a career services background, but expertise in

business as well (p.21).

Perhaps one of the most obvious ways to build a brand is through the use of social media.

Seeing that there was a need for more empirical studies to be conducted on university career

centers social media usage, Osborne and LoFrisco (2012) set out to examine how these online

tools were being utilized as well the perceived pros and cons through distribution of a survey. In

their sample, Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn were identified as the most frequently used sites.

One surprising result of their study was that only 2% of career centers surveyed stated that they

use social media to connect with employers and that none of the career centers cited using social

media to link up with faculty or additional career centers. This is something that needs to most

certainly needs to be addressed.

When it comes to advising students on how to best market themselves, it is important for

career services to be able to help students understand how their online presence can affect their

job search. As NACE (2013) states, under the career advising component, career services should

help students understand the potential benefits and pitfalls of social media and the importance

of a positive Internet footprint (p. 8). When first addressing students social media in regards

to searching for a job, career services main focus was on maintaining privacy and ensuring that

the students web reputation was free of potentially harmful information. (Bushnell, 2012).

However, much like creating a career services brand as discussed earlier, students are able to

harness the power of social media to create their own personal brand, which could possibly

positively influence hiring managers during their job hunt.

There is no guarantee what the future will hold for career services. However, much

insight can be gained by looking at its history. Furthermore, fully acknowledging globalization
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and embracing technology are ways at least to be better prepared. By remaining open to learning

new skills and expanding upon existing competencies, career services professionals can ensure

that they are able to adapt to whatever may come their way.
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References

Bushnell, E. J. (2012). Looking forward: New challenges and opportunities. New Directions for

Student Services, 2012(138), 91-103.

Cabellon, E. T., & Junco, R. (2015). The Digital Age of Student Affairs. New Directions for

Student Services, 2015(151), 49-61.

Crockett, S. A., & Hays, D. G. (2011). Understanding and Responding to the Career Counseling

Needs of International College Students on U.S. Campuses. Journal Of College

Counseling, 14(1), 65-79.

Dey, F., & Cruzvergara, C. Y. (2014). Evolution of Career Services in Higher Education. New

Directions for Student Services, 2014(148), 5-18.

Garis, J., Reardon, R. C., & Lenz, J. G. (2012). Current status and future development of career

centers in the United States. Asian Journal of Counselling, 19(1), 5-26.

Kenyon, M. A., & RowanKenyon, H. T. (2014). The Globalization of Career Services. New

Directions for Student Services, 2014(148), 93-102.

Mourshed M., Farrell D., Barton D. (2012), Education to Employment: Designing a System that

Works, Washington, DC: McKinsey and Company.

National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). (2013). Professional standards for

college and career services 2014. Bethlehem, PA: Author.

Osborn, D. S., & LoFrisco, B. M. (2012). How Do Career Centers Use Social Networking Sites?.

The Career Development Quarterly, 60(3), 263-272.

Schaub, M. (2012). The profession of college career services delivery: What college counselors

should know about career centers. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 26(3),

201-215.
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Vinson, B. M., Reardon, R. C., & Bertoch, S. C. (2014). Career Services at Colleges and

Universities: A 30-Year Replication Study. Journal of College Student Development,

55(2), 203-207.