(i) Scanning Laser Gauge

(ii) A scanning laser micrometer uses a rotating optical element to reflect or

refract a laser beam through a measurement area and across the path of an
object to measure. The part obstructs the laser light, creating a shadow that
persists for a time proportional to the size of the part.

(iii) Optics in the receiver collect the unobstructed laser light and focus it on a
photocell. The output of the photocell is analyzed by electronics to detect the
precise time at which the laser crosses each part edge. Software converts
timing data into meaningful measurements.

(iv) All scanning laser micrometers operate by the same fundamental principle,
whether they use a rotating mirror, prism, hologram, tuning fork, or some
other mechanism to scan the laser beam through the measurement field.
Scanning laser micrometers have used a variety of light sources: laser
diodes, helium-neon (HeNe) laser tubes, and LEDs.

(v) The electrical interfacepower, signal, and status linesto a scanning laser
micrometer also varies amongst this class of devices. However, since they all
operate on the same fundamental principle, the electrical signals encode the
same fundamental information.

(vi) (ii) Photo Diode Array Imaging.

(iii) Diffraction Pattern Technique.

(iv) Laser Triangulation Sensors.

Two-Frequency Laser Interferometer.

(vi) Laser Scanning Gauge.

 Scanning laser gauge

http://www.aeroel.it/technology/how-does-a-laser-micrometer-works/38-
inglese/tecnologia.html

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

D=OUTSIDE DIAMETER

D=MULTIPLE WIRE DIAMETER

(Dx+Dy)/2=AVERAGE DIAMETER
[Dx+Dy]=OVALITY
 Y2-Y1=FILM THICKNESS

Y=EDGE POSITION

GAP MEASUREMENT

Dmax-Dmin=OVALITY

LARGE DIAMETER D = L0-L1-L2

The problem of thermal expansion

Any measurement process must take account the effect of the ambient temperature which affects both the measuring
instrument and the part to be measured. Even if we would have a perfect instrument, not affected in any way by the
room temperature, we would have to consider the effect of the room temperature on the parts dimension.
It is well known, for example, that a temperature difference of 10C will result in a change of 3.6 m on a 30 mm steel
part, since the typical steel thermal expansion coefficient is about +0.012 m/mm C. In practice, with this deviation
you have to add the gauges thermal error, which is generally not known nor is perfectly reproducible. As a result, until
now, no one was able to predict with reasonable accuracy the overall measuring error when the instrument is working
at a temperature different from the reference temperature (20C). The only way to by-pass the problem was to
proceed to frequent re-mastering operations, using a master made with the same material of the parts being
measured and stored near the gauge at the same temperature of the parts to be checked.

3D object scanning

Barcode readers

Space flight[edit]

Photodiode arrays support diverse

applications
02/01/2003
 One of the major advantages of
photodiode architecture is its
flexibility. In fact, most applications
use a custom designed product in
terms of geometry, level of
integration, and overall performance.

Click here to enlarge image

null

The term photodiode array refers to a detector with multiple discrete

elements, each acting as separate p-n photodiodes. In some applications,
most notably in military and aerospace, an array may be assembled from
several individually fabricated detectors, but most of the time an array is a
single monolithic structure. The majority of arrays are based on silicon, for
cost and wavelength reasons, but they are also available in other
semiconductor materials.
 FIGURE 1. In x-ray baggage-scanning equipment, a copper alloy
layer preferentially absorbs soft x-rays, allowing hard and soft x-
ray images to be simultaneously acquired using back-to-back
photodiode arrays.

Click here to enlarge image

null

In a typical photodiode array structure each detector element consists of a p-

n junction formed by standard planar diffusion methods. All the elements
share a common cathode, which is a metallized back layer on the chip. The
signal is read out from each element by a segmented front-side anode,
consisting of a tiny wirebond pad.

Most applications for photodiode arrays involve OEM integration and utilize
custom designed arrays. Nearly all these arrays fall into three basic formats:
bi-cells, quad cells, and linear arrays. The linear arrays typically contain 1024
elements or less. For these smaller formats, a photodiode array generally
offers greater system simplicity than a charge-coupled device (CCD) because
there is no need for clocking signals and generating gate voltages. In
addition, photodiode pixels can be individually read out without perturbing
other pixels, unlike a CCD. For imaging applications requiring extended two-
dimensional (2-D) arrays, however, the CCD is nearly always preferred
because each photodiode element requires a separate lead and its own TIA
(transimpedance amplifier), which is not manageable for large extended
arrays.

In terms of performance, photodiode arrays offer all the advantages and

flexibility of single-element photodiodes. They can be optimized for high
sensitivity, by increasing the thickness of the active region, or optimized for
speed, by decreasing device thickness. For "generic" devices, typical
responsivity is up to 0.65 A/W. Silicon photodiodes also offer impressive
linearity: as high as eight decades of linear response. Moreover, new
technology enables efficient blocking of out-of-pixel detection, which could
otherwise lower the effective spatial resolution (see "Novel masking process
enhances array performance," p. 80). In addition, photodiode-array
performance does not deteriorate over time, unlike devices such as
photomultipliers, which are based on vacuum tubes. And like other
semiconductor devices, photodiode arrays can be reliably and consistently
produced in high volume, making them particularly attractive to OEMs.

The flexibility, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of photodiode arrays have

taken these devices into an incredibly diverse range of applications, from
NASA satellites to clinical lab tests. To understand the broad utility of
photodiode arrays, it is useful to examine several applications.

X-ray baggage scanners

Ever wondered what is happening while you're waiting for your bag to pass
through the airport x-ray scanner and the operator is intently studying the
system's CRT monitor? Chances are the operator is toggling between hard
and soft x-ray images of your luggage to compare these images and look for
potential explosives and/or weapons. This simultaneous dual imaging is
possible thanks to a novel photodiode array implementation originally
patented by Lunar Radiation (Madison, WI).
In a typical system a fluorescent screen is epoxied onto the front surface of a
16-element linear array, which is rear-side mounted onto a PCB. This screen
emits near infrared (IR) light when irradiated by x-rays. Two of these units are
bonded together back-to-back with a copper alloy layer sandwiched between
them (see Fig. 1). These double-sided modules are typically about 1 in. long.
The baggage detector contains a long row of these modules butted together
to make a double-sided linear-array detector spanning the entire width of the
baggage conveyor belt. An x-ray transmission image is built up as a
sequence of line images as the bags are rapidly stepped between the x-ray
source and array detector, both of which are stationary.

The front-side photodiode array detects a combination of soft and hard x-ray
images, depending on the sensitivity of the fluorescent screen. The copper
alloy layer serves to absorb much of the remaining soft x-rays. The "back-
side" fluorescent screen thus is exposed mostly to the hard x-rays.
Comparison of the two images acts as a dual-wavelength x-ray spectral
imager. Certain explosives and metals are readily highlighted by intensity
differences in the two images.

Position encoders

Automated remotely controlled motion is used in a wide range of

applications, from moving the flaps on an airplane wing, to precision motion
in a CNC machine. The majority of these applications use some type of
encoder to provide real-time feedback on this motion. There are two classes
of encoders, providing either absolute or relative position information, and
the majority of them are based on some type of optical technique with a
photodiode array.
 FIGURE 2. Many particle counting or measurement systems rely on
Fraunhofer diffraction of a laser beam. A cross section of the
Fraunhofer ring pattern is captured using a photodiode array.

Click here to enlarge image

null

The most basic encoder design is a rotary encoder utilizing a single disk. This
glass or metal disk has a series of radial slits machined (or masked) around it
with a very uniform spacing. In the simplest configuration, the edge of the
disk is placed between a light-emitting-diode (LED) source and a photodiode.
As the slits cross the light path during rotation, the photodiode generates a
corresponding sequence of signal pulses. These encoders are commonly
placed on the drive shafts or screws used to cause the motion so they
provide direct feedback.

Higher resolution can be obtained with multiple disks or with a single disk
with concentric rings of slits with each ring having a slightly different pitch
(angular spacing) in an optical analogy of a Vernier scale measurement. A
multi-element linear photodiode array is positioned behind the disks with
each element sensing light from a specific ring of slits. Again the light source
is an LED. A simple signal processor combines the signals and thereby
determines the precise amount of rotation that has occurred.

A more ingenious encoder design is the digital encoder, which also uses a
linear photodiode array. Here the rotating disk contains concentric circles of
small holes. The hole patterns are chosen so that at each position (minimum
resolution specified for a particular encoder) of the encoder disk, there is a
unique sequence of array elements that are "light" or "dark." Thus, each
position is read as a binary sequence of '1's and '0's, making this device
fairly impervious to signal noise or drifts.

Particle measurement and counting systems

There are many applications for measuring and/or counting particles, such as
measuring dust levels in clean-room environments, or looking at liquid
suspensions such as inks or blood. Typical measurements are on the number
of particles per unit volume or the particle-size distribution. The most
common particle-measurement systems rely on Fraunhofer diffraction. The
particles are forced to flow in a linear tube or stream (see Fig. 2). A low-
power laser beam is directed through this flow at normal incidence. Forward
diffracted light is then detected by a photodiode array.

Every time a particle crosses the path of the laser beam, it causes the laser
beam to be diffracted into a series of concentric conesat any given
distance the pattern appears as a series of circles with the bright
undiffracted beam at the center. Counting these events yields the number of
particles. The typical array for this type of instrument is a linear array
containing up to 64 elements. Diffraction theory dictates that the light
intensity decreases toward the edges of the diffraction pattern (that is, in the
larger rings). But accurate particle-size determination requires quantitative
intensity measurement of as much of the pattern as possible. For this reason
the array has a unique shape with the pixel dimension increasing away from
the center of the array (see photo, p. 81). In addition, to avoid saturation or
damage due to the high intensity of the undiffracted beam, the center of the
array is blocked using a metallized overcoat.

Smart weapons

With the military activity in Afghanistan and the possibility of war in Iraq,
smart weapons are once again topical. Collectively, smart weapons represent
one of the biggest applications for photodiode arrays. The simplest, most
widely used example is the guided bomb relying on a laser target designator.
Here a near-IR laser beam is directed at the target. Optics in the nose of the
bomb image the target on to a quad cell through a bandpass filter at the
laser wavelength (usually Nd:YAG at 1064 nm). A smart circuit in the bomb
uses the photodiode signals as feedback to control directional vanes that
adjust the flight trajectory. Specifically, the flight is adjusted so as to null the
signal difference between diagonal pairs of elements, thereby ensuring the
bomb is directed precisely at the laser spot. This basic system is very flexible
and economical, given that the laser is not sacrificed as part of the bomb.
The laser beam can be mounted in the launch platform (tank or plane) or
directed from a third-party platform such as covert personnel on the ground.

MIKE ALLEN is director of sales and PAUL SHARMAN is director of

operations at Advanced Photonix, 1240 Avenida Acaso Camarillo, CA 93012;
e-mail: mallen@advancedphotonix.com

Novel masking process enhances array performance

Signal-to-noise ratio is an important consideration in the design of

photodiodes and complete photodetection systems. With any photodiode
system, there are many sources of noise to be considered, including Johnson
noise, 1/f noise, shot noise, and amplifier noise. However, with photodiode
arrays, there is an addition noise sourceout of pixel detection.

Each pixel is defined by the extent of the diffusion used to create the p-n
junction. Beyond this region, the semiconductor substrate is still sensitive to
light and can generate charge carriers due to light absorptionalbeit with a
much reduced sensitivity (<20%) compared to the p-n junction region. Some
of these carriers can migrate into the pixels and be detected as noise. This
noise also has the effect of lowering the spatial resolution of the array.

Over the years, photodiode array manufacturers have experimented with

various methods to try to reduce or eliminate this noise source, with varying
degrees of success. One technique, for example, relies on a metal mask to
block light reaching the material beyond each pixel edge. However, metal is
reflective and reflected light can cause other resolution problems in some
applications.

These limitations have been addressed in a new process called developed at

Advanced Photonix. In this process, a proprietary polymeric mask is
deposited around the pixels, efficiently blocking light (up to 99%) while
avoiding the reflectivity problems of metal masks. This deposition process is
compatible with, and integrated within, the normal fabrication steps so does
not unduly raise the manufacturing costs of these photodiode arrays.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction

Applications Of Laser Diffraction In Dry And Wet

Granulation Compaction Processes
Sponsored by Malvern Instruments Ltd

Topics Covered
Introduction
The Purpose of a Granulation Step
Granulation Techniques
Monitoring Granulation Processes
Principles of Laser Diffraction
Case Study: Using Laser Diffraction to Optimize and Control Compaction Processes
About Malvern Instruments

Introduction
Granulation processes are used for converting light fine powders into large, dense granules
to make fast-dissolving drinks, optimized blends for compression tableting, and granules for
waste water absorption applications. They are also used in catalyst manufacture, where the
aim is to produce granules that satisfy the requirements of subsequent processing steps or
end use.

This article considers a number of granulation processes and uses real time particle size
measurement in their optimization, with key focus on two different sizing methods, the
spatial filter technique and laser diffraction.

The Purpose of a Granulation Step

It can be a challenge to handle fine powders, with materials in the sub-10 micron range
being especially problematic. The strong attraction forces between fine particles lead to high
cohesivity and flowability, compromising efficient manufacture and use. Such materials can
also present a dust hazard.

These issues are tackled by the granulation of fine powders, eliminating any dust hazard,
improving flowability and enabling the close control of:

Wettability

Bulk density

Product appearance

Compressibility

Abrasiveness

Solubility

Drying properties

Absorptive capacity

Blend granulation can also help prevent segregation, thereby ensuring product uniformity.
Tablet production in the pharmaceutical industry is a key application area exemplifying the
use of granulation.
Granulation Techniques
The granulation technique involves inducing otherwise discrete particles to cohere in order
to form a large stable granule. Certain materials can and must be granulated in the dry
state while for others wet granulation is preferable.

Whenever appropriate, dry granulation is the simplest option. Compaction methods are
valuable for moisture-sensitive materials and/or those that are susceptible to heat. Dry
processing allows close control of granulate density, but equipment costs may be quite high
and it can be comparatively tough to engineer a truly successful process. Contrastingly, wet
granulation results in a product with lower fines content and higher, but less well-controlled,
granule density.

In high shear granulation, the blend is granulated in a high shear mixer that includes a main
mixing blade and an integral chopper to promote rapid and efficient agglomeration. A binder
solution is sprayed onto fluidized particles suspended in an upward flowing heated air
stream in a fluidized bed. Between the particles, liquid bridges are formed creating large-
sized agglomerates from the fine powder.

Monitoring Granulation Processes

For all granulation types, the importance of particle size makes it an easily identifiable
candidate for measurement during manufacture and process development. This requirement
is fulfilled by offline analysis to a certain degree, but automated continuous analysis can
offer a better information stream for process control, and simultaneously eliminate the risk
of exposure to a hazardous material where this is a concern.

Continuous particle size measurement in place an operator can instantaneously see how
agranulation is proceeding, and observe the impact of any operational changes made. It is
possible to detect upsets instantly and new operating conditions are established quickly. The
endpoint of the granulation, where this is based on granule size, can also be precisely
identified.

In-or on-line measurement offers a platform for automated control, a route to consistent
operation at a 'sweet' or optimal point, with the minimum of manual intervention. It enables
close monitoring of the process trajectory and confident identification of the process end
point in a batch process.

Principles of Laser Diffraction

Laser diffraction is a non-destructive, rapid analytical method based on the Mie theory that
describes the relationship between particle size and light scattering. Droplets or particles
present scatter the light passing through a sample. The light is intensely scattered by larger
particles at a narrow angle and smaller particles scatter widely at lower intensities.

Laser diffraction is well matched to dry granulation demands and to fluidized bed
applications based on the granule size produced and the moisture levels at the
measurement point. Measuring in the range of 0.1 to 2500 microns, the best on and in-line
laser diffraction systems generate as many as four complete particle size distributions per
second, offering real-time measurement for rapidly changing processes. It is possible to
measure dilute process streams without any sample preparation, while larger and/or more
concentrated streams are measured through a sample loop that takes a representative
proportion of the bulk flow.

Case Study: Using Laser Diffraction to Optimize and Control Compaction

Processes
A schematic of a typical dry granulation compaction process is shown in Figure 1. The final
granule quality can be manipulated by changing operating parameters such as hopper
stirrer speed, roller pressure, feed screw speed, roller speed and roller gap, as also making
changes to the ribbon milling process. The successful optimization and operation of the
process is supported by understanding the impact of all these variables on granule size.

Figure 1. A schematic of a dry granulation process

Figure 2 shows the trend data recorded during an experiment to study the impact of roller
pressure. The operator team assesses four different roller pressures as they explore how to
shift the product towards the desired particle size distribution. Such experimentation will
rely on off-line analysis without real-time measurement and be low and less precise.
 Figure 2. Real-time trend showing the impact of roller pressure on granule size

Figure 3 shows data from an extended experiment. Six different compaction condition
setshave been evaluated by changing roller gap and pressure, to target a specific granule
size. The recorded data clearly identifies the most successful conditions streamlining the
development of an optimized operating regime for this particular product.
 Figure 3. Investigating the impact of compaction force, as controlled by roller gap and
pressure, on granule size

The focus shifts from identification of optimal processing conditions to ensuring consistent
operation in commercial manufacture. In this environment, real-time measurement adds
value not by just promoting better process control, but also by alerting the operator to plant
problems.

Figure 4 shows trend data recorded during a feed interruption, the red line represents
optical transmission, a measure of the amount of material passing through the analyzer and
the blue line represents Dv90.
Figure 4. Feedstock interruptions can be immediately detected with real-time particle size
measurement in place

About Malvern Instruments

Malvern provides the materials and biophysical characterization technology and expertise
that enables scientists and engineers to investigate, understand and control the properties
of dispersed systems.

These systems range from proteins and polymers in solution, particle and nanoparticle
suspensions and emulsions, through to sprays and aerosols, industrial bulk powders and
high concentration slurries.

Used at all stages of research, development and manufacturing, Malverns

instruments provide critical information that helps accelerate research and product
development, enhance and maintain product quality and optimize process efficiency

http://www.microtrac.com/s3500-laser-diffraction-particle-size-analysis-
instrument/#.V3uWnG597Dc