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God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions (and other belief systems) who is
either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism.[1]
God is most often conceived of as the supernatural creator and overseer of the universe. Theologians have ascribed a
variety of attributes to the many different conceptions of God. The most common among these include omniscience
(infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), omnibenevolence
(perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence.
God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation,
and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish,
Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[2] Augustine of Hippo,[2] and Al-Ghazali,[3]
respectively. Many notable medieval philosophers and modern philosophers have developed arguments for[3] and
against the existence of God.
General conceptions
There is no clear consensus on the nature of God.[13] The Abrahamic
conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in
Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept of
God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of
God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from
monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity were recognized by
the historical Buddha, particularly akra and Brahma. However, other
sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role
in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter
developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place
to notions of the divine.
Oneness
Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the
one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names.
The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the
know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[14] and Sun and Moon by Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well
known example of the depiction of God the
Sikhism.[15] Father in Western art.
Islam's most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called tawhd.
God is described in the Qur'an as: "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not,
nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[16] [17] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity
and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not
to resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules are not expected to visualize God.
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other
deities.
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but
is not identical to, the Universe; the distinctions between the two are subtle. It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic
Church, Theosophy, some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism which believes in panentheism, Sikhism, some
divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within
denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God which has wide
acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov but only as an addition to the
Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.
Other concepts
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully
malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers
Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[22] Another
example would be Theistic Satanism.
Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural
being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists
understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. Others such as Dawkins see the idea of God as entirely
pernicious.
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. The
contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and
definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[23]
Existence of God
Many arguments which attempt to prove or disprove the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers,
theologians, and other thinkers for many centuries. In philosophical terminology, such arguments concern schools of
thought on the epistemology of the ontology of God.
There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are sometimes
nonspecific, while other definitions can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically include
metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around perceived holes in evolutionary
theory and order and complexity in the world. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical,
deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost
certainly does not exist"[24] (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but
this cannot be proven or disproven" (weak theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism). There
are numerous variations on these positions.
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God cannot be
adjudicated on for or against by using scientific method.[25] [26] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and
religion are not in conflict and do not overlap. (Non-overlapping magisteria)
Specific attributes
Epitheta
It is difficult to distinguish between proper names and epitheta of God. Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bible
there are many names for God that portray his (God is always characterised as male in Biblical sources, except
Genesis1:26-27[27] [28] ) nature and character. One of them is elohim,[29] [30] (which is actually a plural word).
Another one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[31] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means The Most
High God.[32]
God 4
God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being
Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God in
Islam).[33]
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.
The spiritual teacher Meher Baba lists many epitheta and names of God in his Parvardigar Prayer, including "the
Ocean of Love" and "the Highest of the High."
Gender
The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an allegorical aspect of a deity. In polytheistic religions, the gods
are more likely to have literal sexual genders which would enable them to interact with each other, and even with
humans, in a sexual way. In most monotheistic religions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal
gender-based way, so the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how
humans and God address, and relate to, each other, with no sexual connotations.
Theological approaches
Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to
God, including omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect
goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God
has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all
moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[1] These
attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish,
Christian and Muslim scholars, including St Augustine,[2]
Al-Ghazali,[3] and Maimonides.[2]
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly
predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that
will, combined with perfect-infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is
defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised by
such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from
morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, like Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic";
or to take, like Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[38] Some theists agree that none of the arguments for
God's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no
risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by
Pascal as: "The heart has reasons which reason knows not of."[39]
Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day existences. Many
believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints,
djinni, demons, and devas.
Anthropomorphism
Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general,
supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the
best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern
soap opera than other religious systems.[42] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through
formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable
entities as intermediaries.[43] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto
non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that
god concepts are projections of one's father.[44]
Likewise, mile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to
include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans
began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups,
morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce
morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and
spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[45]
Notes
[1] Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995.
The percentage of population in European countries who responded
[2] Edwards, Paul. "God and the philosophers" in Honderich, Ted.
in a 2005 survey that they "believe there is a God". Countries with
(ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University
Roman Catholic (e.g.: Poland, Portugal) Eastern Orthodox (Greece,
Press, 1995.
Romania, Cyprus) or Muslim (Turkey, Cyprus) majorities tend to
[3] Platinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the Existence of,"
poll highest.
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
[4] The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely
hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba" implies as its preTeut-type either "*ghodho-m" or "*ghodto-m". The former
does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of the
required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. "hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr "hu", Gr.
i;, OE "geotn" Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267
[5] Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words, page 323.
HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270094-7
[6] Webster's New World Dictionary; "god n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * hau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans
havat, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs
of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a
person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded
as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty
God 7
[7] Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ God); "God /gd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the
universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity,
presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the god of
mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a
deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the
spectators in this part of the balcony.
[8] Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN142861575X.
[9] "God" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithgod. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18.
[10] "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allh.
[11] L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[12] Hastings 2003, p.540
[13] "DOES GOD MATTER? A Social-Science Critique" (http:/ / www. hds. harvard. edu/ news/ bulletin/ articles/ does_god_matter. html). by
Paul Froese and Christopher Bader. . Retrieved 2007-05-28.
[14] See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1
[15] "Sri Guru Granth Sahib" (http:/ / www. srigranth. org/ servlet/ gurbani. gurbani?Action=Page& Param=1350& english=t& id=57718). Sri
Granth. . Retrieved 2011-06-30.
[16] Qur'an112:14
[17] D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
[18] Smart, Jack; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism. Blackwell Publishing. p.8. ISBN0631232591.
[19] Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval Essay in Philosophical Theology. Lexington Books. p.34. ISBN0739102508.
[20] "Philosophy of Religion.info Glossary Theism, Atheism, and Agonisticism" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080424071443/ http:/ /
www. philosophyofreligion. info/ definitions. html). Philosophy of Religion.info. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.
philosophyofreligion. info/ definitions. html) on April 24, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-07-16.
[21] "Theism definition of theism by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ theism).
TheFreeDictionary. . Retrieved 2008-07-16.
[22] (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 28054/ 28054-h/ 28054-h. html) pp259-261
[23] Michel Henry : I am the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity (Stanford University Press, 2002)
[24] Dawkins, Richard. "Why There Almost Certainly Is No God" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ richard-dawkins/
why-there-almost-certainl_b_32164. html). The Huffington Post. . Retrieved 2007-01-10.
[25] Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God: genes, memes, and the meaning of life (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V9dr6167AJ8C).
Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN9781405125390. .
[26] Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical Christian Theology: Examining the Great Doctrines of the Faith (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Jb5aRB7OxWsC). Kregel Academic. ISBN9780825423802. .
[27] Elaine H. Pagels "What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity" (http:/ / holyspirit-shekinah. org/ _/
what_became_of_god_the_mother-1. htm) Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293-303
[28] Coogan, Michael (October 2010). "6. Fire in Divine Loins: God's Wives in Myth and Metaphor" (http:/ / books. google. nl/
books?id=2_gPKQEACAAJ& dq=god+ and+ sex& hl=nl& ei=4fbCTaPKDpGXOrq88Z0I& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2&
ved=0CEcQ6AEwAQ). God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p.175.
ISBN978-0-446-54525-9. . Retrieved May 5, 2011. "humans are modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differences."
[29] Isa. 45:18; 54:5; Jer. 32:27; Gen. 1:1; Deut. 5:23; 8:15; Ps. 68:7
[30] "Bible Gateway, http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ " (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Isa. 54:5& version=31).
Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-06-30.
[31] Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2
[32] Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25
[33] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library.
ISBN0-87808-299-9.
[34] McGrath, Alister (2006). Christian Theology: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing. p.205. ISBN1405153601.
[35] "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence" (http:/ / www. patheos. com/ Library/ Islam/ Beliefs/
Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence. html). Patheos.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-29.
[36] Qur'an51:56
[37] Wierenga, Edward R. "Divine foreknowledge" in Audi, Robert. The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press,
2001.
[38] Beaty, Michael (1991). "God Among the Philosophers" (http:/ / www. religion-online. org/ showarticle. asp?title=53). The Christian
Century. . Retrieved 2007-02-20.
[39] Pascal, Blaise. Penses, 1669.
[40] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Great Britain: Bantam Press. ISBN0-618-68000-4.
[41] Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon Haunted World p.278. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN0-345-40946-9.
[42] Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained, (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wreF80OHTicC& pg=PA142& lpg=PA142& dq=boyer+
modern+ soap+ opera). New York: Basic Books. pp.142243. ISBN0-465-00696-5. .
God 8
[43] du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M. (2008). Computer Theology,. Austin, Texas: Midori Press. pp.221222. ISBN0-9801821-1-5.
[44] Barrett, Justin (1996) (PDF). Conceptualizing a Nonnatural Entity: Anthropomorphism in God Concepts (http:/ / www. yale. edu/
cogdevlab/ People/ Lab_Members/ Frank/ Frank's papers pdfs / Frank's articles/ conceptualizingnonnaturalentity. pdf). .
[45] Rossano, Matt (2007) (PDF). Supernaturalizing Social Life: Religion and the Evolution of Human Cooperation (http:/ / www2. selu. edu/
Academics/ Faculty/ mrossano/ recentpubs/ Supernaturalizing. pdf). . Retrieved 2009-06-25.
[46] National Geographic Family Reference Atlas of the World p. 49
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1-4039-6457-2
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God 9
External links
Concept of God in Christianity (http://www.armatabianca.org/eng/padre.php?sottomenu=4)
Concept of God in Islam (http://www.islam-info.ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm)
God Christian perspective (http://www.allaboutgod.com)
God in Judaism (http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=3001)
Hindu Concept of God (http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm)
Jewish Literacy (http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp)
Mystical view of God (http://www.fatherspeaks.net)
Relation of God to the Universe (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06614a.htm)
Discussion about God in Germany 2009 (http://knol.google.com/k/nils-horn/
the-science-of-proving-god-s-existence/d0nwq0okqs4d/28/)
Article Sources and Contributors 10
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