Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Renewable energy resources for distributed power generation

in Nigeria: A review of the potential
Y.S. Mohammed a,n, M.W. Mustafa a, N. Bashir b, A.S. Mokhtar a
a
Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Baharu, Malaysia
b
Institute of High Voltage and High Current, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Baharu, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Fossil fuels-based conventional grid extension in developing countries from centralized power systems in
Received 10 June 2012 urban centres to rural areas is usually capital intensive and in most cases not economically realistic. From a
Received in revised form global perspective, more than a quarter of the human population experiences an energy crisis, especially
4 January 2013
those living in the rural areas of developing countries. Among these numerous victims of global energy
Accepted 14 January 2013
shortage are the majority of people in sub-Saharan Africa, like Nigeria. More than 80% of Nigerians
Available online 5 March 2013
consistently rely on combustible biomass especially from forest wood and its charcoal derivatives for
Keywords: primary energy consumption amidst a serious shortage of access to modern energy sources. Nigeria has
Renewable energy abundant renewable and non-renewable energy resources. While most attention is concentrated on tapping
Distributed Generation
only the traditional bioenergy resources, other renewable energy resources are underexploited. This article
Potential
reviews comprehensively the potential of four major kinds of renewable energy sources (biomass, solar, wind
Nigeria
and hydro) in Nigeria. A total energy potential of 697.15 TJ is estimated from crop residue, 455.80 PJ from
animal waste and 442 MW from municipal solid waste in Lagos metropolis alone. The solar radiation in the
country ranges from 4 kW h/m2 in the south to 7 kW h/m2 in the north, which is sufciently above the
threshold average value of 2.3 kW h/m2 required for the operation of simple domestic load especially in rural
communities. Wind speed in the country varies from 1 m/s in the southern plain to 7.96 m/s far northwest in
Katsina State between June and September. Unexploitable hydropower potential of 12,954.2 MW also exists
as against the backdrop of 10,000 MW required to raise the socio-economic growth level and alleviate
poverty in the country.
& 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
2. Nigerian power sector and its looming crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
3. Review of related literature on RE potential for distributed generation implementation in SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4. Renewable energy resources with potential for power generation in Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.1. Biomass power sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.1.1. Agricultural residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.1.2. Municipal solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.1.3. Forest biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.1.4. Animal residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.2. Solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.3. Wind power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.4. Hydro power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5. Renewable energy development and policy framework in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6. Challenges towards renewable energy development in Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 60 1016 7313 271; fax: 60 755 662 72.
E-mail address: engryek88@yahoo.com (Y.S. Mohammed).

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.020
258 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268

1. Introduction commercial alternatives [523]. A share of electricity consumed

was just 0.52% within the same time period. The diminishing access
The objectives of harnessing renewable energy (RE) in devel- to electricity arising from inadequate supply has resulted in the
oping countries are to focus on provision of sustainable energy to depletion of the natural biodiversity, human health deterioration,
the economically subjugated fraction of the society, combat continuous deforestation and land degradation through excessive
energy shortage, encourage the development of rural infrastruc- cutting of trees for domestic energy consumption.
ture and provide clean energy from the perspective of the Kyoto There are several other renewable energy resources (RES) in
directive towards global decarbonization. This concept of RE has the country such as wind and solar, which are yet to be exploited.
become a fast growing idea in the global power sector. The The Nigerian hydropower development is very limited compared
popularity of RE development can be directly allied to the to its exploitable potential. The development of solar energy is
growing trend of environmental concern and the rapidly deplet- highly restricted to a few individual homes in urban cities and
ing reserves of conventional energy resources due to the aggres- some public street lighting operations to augment power shortage
sive utilisation. These emergent concerns call for a viable from the public utility grid. Though there is vast research on the
alternative solution to the contemporary environmental chal- potential of wind power in Nigeria, its development has not
lenges and the energy crisis scenario through sustainable means. attracted attention. This article critically reviews the current
There is increasing struggle in the developed and developing potential of RES in Nigeria as well as policy issues and challenges
countries to make provision for essential services such as elec- towards decentralized RE generation.
tricity to humanity through sustainable development. Sustainable
development is a goal that many countries all over the world
aspire to achieve [1] to preserve the environment and achieve
economic and social development. Realistically, the developing 2. Nigerian power sector and its looming crisis
countries of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are well-
known for their over-dependence on traditional energy sources Nigeria is naturally endowed with diverse and sustainable
due to poor technological access. However, to achieve sustainable renewable and non-renewable energy resources. The main RES in
development, there must be an adequate transition to the emer- the country are biomass, wind, solar and hydro with different
ging energy technologies. Nigeria is the most populous country in degrees of sustainable potential. A reserve crude oil deposit of as
Africa with over 160 million people but has very limited access to much as 36 billion barrels and natural gas 187.44 trillion cubic
electricity compared to some countries even in SSA despite the feet was estimated in 2005 (Table 1). Nigeria, being a key member
presence of huge oil, gas and other energy resources. of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), is
Poor access to energy in the country obviously translates into one of the major oil exporters in the world market today and is
increased poverty, poor economic performance, limited employ- ranked the eighth largest producer [25,26].
ment opportunity and complicated prospects for institutional
development. The high growth rate of the population is an Table 1
indication that the countrys energy demand will continue to rise, Nigerian energy reserve and capacity (2005) [27].
similar to how the increase in global population and industrial
Source of energy Estimated reserve
transformation of the 20th century tremendously increased
energy demand [2,3]. The energy crisis situation in Nigeria has Crude oil 36.5 billion barrels
considerably affected the public users of electricity. This phenom- Natural gas 187.44 trillion cubic feet
enon has undeniably compelled the majority of households in Tar sands 30 billion barrels of oil equivalent
Coal and lignite Over 40 billion tonnes
both rural and urban segments of the country to signicantly
Large hydropower 11,235 MW
depend on combustible RE sources especially for domestic heat- Small hydropower 3500 MW
ing and cooking. Fuel wood and charcoal are widespread energy Fuel wood 13,071,464 ha
sources commonly used in Nigeria and across SSA. Conventional Animal wastes 61 million tonnes/yr
biomass consumption has received little attention in the ongoing Crop residues 83 million tonnes/yr
Solar radiation 3.57.5 kW h/m2/day
biofuel debate, because it is considered unsustainable and primi- Wind 24 m/s at 10 m height
tive [4]. Fig. 1 shows that more of the fuel consumed in Nigeria in
2007 is obtained from fuel wood and kerosene with fuel wood
alone running to approximately 70%. Fuel wood is predominantly
used by those without the potential to meet the expense of Table 2
Energy generation (MW h) by power stations in Nigeria, 20072008 [4].

0.07% 0.09% 0.52% Power station 2007 (%) of total 2008 (%) of total
1.11%
0.84% Kainji 2816,749.70 12.26 2,707,020.00 12.90
Jebba 2750,325.00 11.97 2,794,976.00 13.32
Kerosene Shiroro 2230,768.00 9.71 2,089,460.00 9.96
Charcoal Egbin 3636,680.52 15.83 4,528,451.09 21.58
26.55% AES 1552,586.28 6.76 1,846,704.40 8.80
Firewood Omotosho 147,541.60 0.64 491,324.90 2.34
Others Afam 1401,159.60 6.10 300,209.60 1.43
Okpai 3294,207.00 14.34 2,708,690.80 12.91
0.84% Animal wastes Sapele 490,290 2.13 728,977.00 3.47
Crop residues/sawdust Delta 2696,718.60 11.74 1,510,988.00 7.20
Ajaokuta 357,110.00 1.55 995,873.98 4.75
69.98% Electricity
Geregu 1208,341.20 5.26 N/A N/A
Gas Omoku 348,583.54 1.52 211,752.37 1.01
Rivers 9,976.00 0.04 42,960.00 0.20
NESCO 37,092.16 0.16 23,390.82 0.11
Total 22,978,128.66 100.00 20,980,778.96 100.00
Fig. 1. Shares of energy consumption by source in Nigeria [24].
 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268
Even with the existence of these substantial energy resources,
the nation is deep-rooted in a serious energy crisis. The energy
delivery infrastructure is absolutely inadequate to handle the
energy demand of the country. Only about 40% of the households
in Nigeria have access to the public utility supply [28] and only
46% have access to electricity [29]. Moreover, efforts towards
considerable expansion in the quantity of electric power gener-
ated are not simultaneously accompanied by tactical expansion of
the transmission and distribution systems. This is mainly pre-
valent in rural areas where the government focuses on traditional
grid extension for electricity provisioning without any corre-
sponding expansion of the generation system. Only 2% of the
rural households in Nigeria have access to electricity either by
rural electrication actions initiated by the government or self
generation by private individuals [30].
There has been a consistent drop in power production from the
nations power sector due to inadequate funding, persistent
economic regression, poor system maintenance strategies and
constraints of technical reliability. A drop of 8.69% is observed
between 2007 and 2008 (Table 2). The gross energy output of
Kainji, Jebba, Shiroro, Egbin, Ajaokuta, Sapele, Omotosho and AES
increased whereas that of Geregu was unavailable due to a
shortage of gas supply resulting from the Niger Delta crisis.
NESCO is a privately owned hydroelectric utility company oper-
ating in Jos, a city in North Central Nigeria. Affected by the
incessant sectional crisis in the state, it delivered the lowest
energy output in 2008. The Electric Power Sector Reform (EPSR)
Act of 2005 was passed to bring about the much needed reforms
into the energy sector. The main focus of the Act was to ensure
that the electricity sector went through noteworthy changes
within a short to medium time period [3133]. The reality is that
the theoretical reforms lacked implementation strategy. The
overall situation of the nations power sector can be described
as one of sporadic power failures and characteristic severe state-
and district-wise load shedding.
3. Review of related literature on RE potential for distributed
generation implementation in SSA
Research on the potential of RE resources has gained impor-
tance in this era of pursuit for sustainable energy development.
A greater portion of Africa, especially SSA, has a large fraction of
Fig. 2. Percentage of population with no access to electricity [3435].
259
the population with no access to modern electricity (Fig. 2)
[34,35]. The ongoing power sector reforms in Africa [36] strongly
envisage the need for the estimation of different kinds of energy
resources in the region. Thus, SSA countries have found it to be a
worthy task to independently estimate the potential of their RE
resources as they have more energy demand from rural and
remote areas, which dominate the land area. The regional hydro-
energy and geothermal potentials are estimated to be 1800 TW h
[37] and 14,000 MW, respectively [38]. Further, there is also a
high potential of power generation from solar radiation [39,40]
and biomass [4143]. Biomass has an estimated potential of
15,000 MW from just 30% of residues from agricultural crops
and forest logging residues [29].
There is a vast literature regarding RE implementation based
on the distributed generation concept in many countries of SSA.
Kiplagat et al. [44] studied RE in Kenya with the focus on the
potential for exploitation as well as the status of development.
The study concluded that vast potential for power generation
using bagasse and biogas exists coupled with substantial biofuel
production capacity. Abanda [45] conducted a study on RE
potential, benets and environmental sustainability in Cameroon
and concluded that the country has a realistic potential for
renewable electricity development with biomass and solar energy
on the leading edge. Wind energy is viable in selected regions of
the country whereas the actual potential from geothermal and
tidal sources is yet to be ascertained. In Ghana, the potential of
agricultural biomass for decentralized energy in rural and remote
settlements of the country was investigated [46]. The study
indicated that there is huge potential for electricity generation
using a variety of bio-residues produced in the country.
Tiam [47] reviewed an article with respect to RE decentralized
electricity in a microgrid project in Senegal. A feasibility analysis
based on solar and wind energy stand-alone systems was the
focal point. The ndings point to the potential of producing
electricity from solar power and wind. Maiga et al. [48] studied
the RE options for the Sahel African region, with a specic
reference to Mali. The analysis indicated that Mali, though an
economically challenged nation, has the potential for RE exploita-
tion. It was concluded that the exploitation and utilization of RE
in the country could combat poverty, poor energy access and
threatening desertication. The potential of RE in South Africa has
been critically reviewed [49]. The country is found to be endowed
with RE sources particularly solar radiation. It is suggested that RE
260 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268

deployment in the country could possibly confront a number of
challenges affecting the development plan of action especially in
the rural areas.
Nigeria being in the same sub-Saharan region and deep-rooted
in energy crisis like the countries mentioned here with the
exception of South Africa should not be left behind in the
expedition for potential assessment of RE resources. This is very
crucial for both the present and future energy planning. Invari-
ably, to widen the socio-economic status of developing countries,
more access to modern energy has to be created; therefore,
effectual knowledge on the types and quantities of RE resources
available is imperative to inuence national policy makers
decision, stakeholders interest in energy investment and to rene
the governments approach and priority towards RE development.
through different modern technologies that can guarantee better
efciencies and reduce atmospheric pollution. Biomass is the
oldest form of energy and is used by humans since prehistoric
eras though in traditional forms. Biomass has been a traditional
source of primary energy for the majority of people in Africa.
Globally, application of biomass for electricity has progressively
increased by an average of 13 TW h annually between 2000 and
2008 [51]. In the last few years, more developed and developing
nations have favoured the development of biomass for power
generation. This has created a widespread recognition for biomass
among other RES as shown in Fig. 3 with the United States of
America leading the trend. There are numerous sustainable
renewable bioenergy resources in Nigeria for power generation.

4.1.1. Agricultural residue

4. Renewable energy resources with potential for power
generation in Nigeria
4.1. Biomass power sources
Biomass is the third largest primary energy resource in the
world after coal and oil [50]. Biomass is all biological plant and
animal matter that can be used for energy production. It com-
prises four major categoriesagricultural source, forests and
their derivatives, municipal solid wastes and animal dung. Bioe-
nergy resources can be converted to heat, electricity or biofuel
Fig. 3. Global distribution of biomass energy consumption in 2008 [52].
Agricultural residue production in Nigeria is dictated by
ecological zones and regional agricultural activities. Nigeria is a
developing agrarian nation where agriculture basically supports
the rural microeconomics but the national economic index rests
on crude oil export, which accounts for more than 85% of the
countrys revenue. About 80% of the countrys total land is
cultivable and typically supports cereal crop production. The
most important source of agricultural residue in Nigeria is cereal
crop residue. The crops are essentially consumed as staple feed-
stock in the country and during the harvest season, large
quantities of processing residue are generated. Most of the
residue is burnt in the farm to allow for further cultivation of
the soil. This destruction becomes inevitable due to an inability to
utilize the residue for modern energy production. At the house-
hold level especially in rural communities, a part of the residue is
used for domestic fuel by direct burning in traditional three-stone
stoves. In urban settlements, the agricultural residue generated is
discarded as part of the municipal solid waste. Table 3 sum-
marises the energy potential of different agricultural residues in
the country.
Apart from cereal crop residue, there are other agricultural
biomass sources namely Jatropha curcas, sunower, cassava,
sugarcane and castor oil with sustainable potential for liquid
biofuel production. Considering the fact that Nigeria has a
sustainable potential for biofuel production, the Federal Govern-
ment of Nigeria gave a directive for biofuel production in the
country in 2005 to the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
(NNPC) to initiate the development of biofuel for automotive
consumption [58]. Through the pursuit of RES for diversication
and consolidation of local investment, biofuel development has
the potential to alleviate poverty in Nigeria. The use of biofuels
enhances the potential for the Nigerian economic [59] growth.
There is a hopeful trend in the prospect for biofuel development

Table 3
Energy potential of major agricultural residues in Nigeria based on 2010 FAO statistics..

Agricultural Generated Production quantity Crop to residue Calculated residue Energy content Energy
crop residue (103 t)a ratio (PRR) generated (MJ/kg) potential (TJ)

Maize Stalk 7306 1.5 [5354] 10,959 15.48 [56] 169.65

Rice, paddy Straw 3219 1.5 [5354] 4,829 15.56 [56] 75.14
Sorghum Stalk 4784 2.62 [5354] 12,534 17.00 [56] 213.08
Wheat Stalk 34.2 1.5 [55] 51.3 19.3 [56] 0.99
Coconut Shell 170 0.6 [53,54] 102 10.61 [56] 1.08
Oil palm fruit Empty fruit bunch 8500 0.25 [53,54] 2,125 15.51 [56] 32.96
Sugarcane Bagasse 1414 0.3 [5354] 424.3 13.38 [56] 5.68
Cocoa Husk 428 1.0 [53,54] 428 15.48 [56] 6.63
Millet Stalk 4125 3.0 [5354] 12,375 15.51 [56] 191.94
Total 697.15

a
Crop production quantity data [57].
 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268 261

in Nigeria especially in bio-ethanol production due to an increas- waste generated in the area. Often, environmental reports on
ing number of companies showing interest in the investment. The municipal abattoirs raise issues concerning the spread of disease-
existing biofuel companies are also expanding their production causing microbes such salmonella, Rift Valley fever virus and
capacities. Presently, prominent companies involved in bio- Escherichia coli bacteria especially if the wastes are let out into
ethanol production are Alconi/Nosak (43.8 million l/year), UNI- open systems. This validates the need to capture the waste for
KEM (65.7 million l/year), Intercontinental Distilleries (9.1 million constructive development and environmental sanitation.
l/year), Dura clean (4.4 million l/year) and Allied Atlantic Dis- The potential of MSW can be exploited for power generation as
tilleries Ltd. (10.9 million l/year). The Nigerian Yeast and Alcohol a smart option for clean development mechanism. In most
Manufacturing Company is currently building a $200 million Nigerian cities, the recyclable parts in the MSW are collected by
ethanol manufacturing plant with a capacity of 30 million l/year. human scavengers from open dump areas. Contrarily, in advanced
countries, recyclable materials from MSW are separated by
machines before the MSW is taken for landlling or power
4.1.2. Municipal solid waste generation. This is done to prevent any hazardous encounters as
Municipal solid wastes (MSW) are materials generated from MSW is a major source of uncontrolled biogenic waste emissions
the daily activities of humans. Municipal solid waste manage- like methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia and nitrous oxides.
ment in Nigeria includes both open dump in unmanaged sites and
controlled sanitary landlls. Organized sanitary landlls are
limited to major urban cities like Abuja, Lagos, Ibadan, Akure 4.1.3. Forest biomass
and other state capitals. The average municipal solid waste per The exact potential of forest biomass in the country is not well
capita per day signicantly varied from place to place in Nigeria, known due to poor record keeping of forest resource production
for example Lagos (0.63 kg), Kano (0.56 kg), Ibadan (0.51 kg), and exploitation. The trees, residues and charcoal derivatives are
Kaduna (0.58 kg), Port Harcourt (0.60 kg) and Onitsha (0.53 kg) mainly consumed as combustible biomass. The soaring reliance on
[60]. The value appreciably varied in different places depending traditional biomass for energy is revealed by the fact that 80% of
on the economic activities, social standard of living and level of the wood harvested in developing countries is used for fuel wood
urbanization. Municipal solid waste mostly contains two basic consumption [6668] and the value is about 90% for Africa [61]. In
components of biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter. The the last few decades, a great fraction of the countrys forest
biodegradable fraction can be treated by anaerobic digestion for resources has been ruined. The harvested forest trees are mostly
biogas, a highly combustible gas used for cooking and power used for fuel wood, charcoal, plywood and timber production.
generation. However, it was estimated that 12% of the total land mass of the
Many developing countries have been promoting biogas con- country is covered with forest and wood (Fig. 4). Forest biomass in
sumption due to its clean nature for considerable emissions Nigeria varied from north to south. The forest in the northern part
reduction. In 2005, it was reported that 17 million households of the country is highly open structured and dominated by wood
used biogas in China, 3.8 million in India and 170,000 digesters and shrubs. In the southern part, thick rain forest trees are found. As
were installed in Nepal [61,62]. Biogas production technology a measure to counter rapid deforestation, most forest developers are
offers another advantage of good fertilizer as a by-product now planting short rotation trees such as Gmelina arborea, Gliricidia
[63,64]. Apart from these benets, both the organic and inorganic sepium and Leucaena leucophala particularly in Southern Nigeria.
fractions of MSW can also be used for electricity generation by About 95% of the established forests in Nigeria are owned by
thermo-chemical conversion in an incineration or gasication the government. Undisputedly, these forest lands are not well
power plant. A sustainable potential of approximately 442 MW secured for their resource conservation because private indivi-
was estimated for Lagos metropolis (Table 4). Besides, other duals can easily encroach into the forest for rewood extraction.
densely populated and economic nucleus cities in the country In addition, most lumbering activities are not regulated as
like Port-Harcourt, Kano and Kaduna could have better potential a result of loose control and weak forest policy and implementa-
for power generation using MSW. A 35 kW electricity project has tion strategy. Excessive harvest of forest and shrub land wood
been initiated in Bodija (Oyo State) to utilize biogas from abattoir resources for bioenergy is also a great limiting factor affecting the
establishment of new natural and planted forest areas. Bush lands
Table 4 are usually ransacked by women for rewood irrespective of the
Estimated power generation potential from MSW in Lagos
state of succession of the plants. This is predominant among rural
Metropolis [65].
inhabitants with limited access to forest wood and less nancial
Local Government Area Estimated power capability to obtain alternative energy through electricity or
generation kerosene. This continuous harvesting pressure has resulted in an
potential (MW) increase in the quantity of fuel wood and charcoal production as
shown in Figs. 5 and 6 [70], respectively. Fuel wood and charcoal
Agege 28.5
Ajeromi-Ifelodun 37.7 are widely used by the economically and socially less privileged
Alimosho 56.5 people. A majority of the fuel wood consumers are not aware of
Amuwo-Odon 14.5 the environmental consequences of the excessive extraction [71].
Apapa 14.5
Eti-Osa 27.2
Ifako-Ijaiye 20.6 3%
Ikeja 17.9 8%
12% Forest and woodland
Kosofe 25.8
Lagos Island 23.8 Others
Lagos Mainland 17.4
44%
Mushin 36.5 Arable land
Ojo 26.0 33%
Oshodi-Isolo 31.3 Permanent pasture
Somolu 28.3
Surulere 35.2 Permanent crops
Total 441.7
Fig. 4. Percentage estimate of land use in Nigeria [69].
262 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268

64,000,000 of 18.5 GJ/t (cattle), 14.0 GJ/t (sheep), 11.0 GJ/t (pigs), 14.0 GJ/t
Fuel wood production quantity (m3)

(goats) and 11.0 GJ/t (chicken) [73], these correspond to energy

63,000,000 potentials of 201.5 PJ, 68.5 PJ, 24.0 PJ, 115.5 PJ and 46.3 PJ,
respectively.
62,000,000 Animal manure is another feedstock most suitable for biogas
production by anaerobic digestion similar to the organic fraction
61,000,000 of MSW. It can also be used as a co-substrate with human waste
or other wastes for biogas production especially in a centralized
60,000,000
anaerobic digestion (CAD) facility. In CAD, the feedstock used are
predominantly manure and industrial biogenic waste [75]. The
59,000,000
possibility of biogas production through CAD seems sustainable in
58,000,000 the northern part of the country, which has the largest share of
the nations livestock population. A majority of rural community
57,000,000 in the northeast and northwestern parts directly depend on
livestock farming as a basic source of livelihood.
Though the livestock rearing system in Nigeria is predomi-
nantly free-roaming, but the animals are kept in seclusion at
Fig. 5. Fuel wood production from 2001 to 2010 [70].
night, which can still make it easy for the waste collection. Till
date, less than 10 biogas digesters have been installed including
4,000,000.00 in a prison in Zaria, National Animal Production Research Institute
(NAPRI), Zaria, Ojokoro/Ifelodun, Lagos and Mayower Secondary
3,500,000.00
Charcoal production (tonnes)

School, Ikene, Lagos. A majority of the large farm livestock owners

3,000,000.00 are ignorant of the importance of biogas production from animal
manure.
2,500,000.00

2,000,000.00 4.2. Solar power

1,500,000.00 The intensity of solar radiation exhibits remarkable variation

1,000,000.00
from the north to the south of Nigeria (Fig. 7) but is dependably
higher in the northeastern axis. Nevertheless, the entire country
500,000.00 has enough solar radiation to sustain the domestic local energy
requirement especially in rural areas with smaller electrical load
0.00
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 demand. Using the benchmark of 2324 W h/m2/day as the aver-
age domestic load demand [76], Nigeria has a solar radiation
Fig. 6. Charcoal production from 2001 to 2010 [70]. potential ranging from 7000 W h/m2 in the farthest northeast to
4000 W h/m2 towards the end of the southern belt of the country
(Fig. 7). A unique tendency of solar energy is that it is available in
Table 5 every part of the world. The potential of solar as a renewable
Livestock production quantity in Nigeria from 2001 to 2010 [74]. source of energy is apparently limitless [77]. Solar energy is
Year Cattle Pigs Goats Sheep Chicken
captured on reaching the earths surface and based on the fact
that the temperature of a radiating body is greater than absolute
2001 15,133,400 5249,540 45,260,400 28,692,600 124,620,000 zero, the heat energy generated can be converted to electrical
2002 15,148,600 6111,820 46,640,000 29,400,000 131,125,000 energy. Many studies have been conducted on the potential
2003 15,163,700 5677,900 47,551,700 30,086,400 137,680,000
analysis of solar energy application in Nigeria and virtually all
2004 15,700,000 5910,000 48,700,000 30,800,000 143,500,000
2005 15,875,300 6141,220 49,959,000 31,547,900 150,700,000 indicated that vast opportunities for tapping solar energy existed.
2006 16,065,800 6390,000 51,223,600 32,314,200 158,400,000 Fig. 8 is a representation of the solar photovoltaic potential for
2007 16,152,700 6642,340 52,488,200 33,080,300 166,127,000 some selected cities in different geopolitical zones of the country,
2008 16,293,200 6908,030 53,800,400 33,874,300 174,434,000 namely Port-Harcourt (SouthSouth), Owerri (Southeast), Lagos
2009 16,435,000 7184,360 55,145,400 34,687,300 183,156,000
2010 16,578,000 7471,730 56,524,100 33,519,800 192,313,000
(Southwest), Abuja (North Central), Sokoto (Northwest) and
Maiduguri (Northeast). Maiduguri exhibits the highest potential
value of solar photovoltaic while Sokoto is the second highest.
4.1.4. Animal residue Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory located in the North Central
Animal residue is another major source of RE in the country. shows remarkable potential with a minimum value greater than
This consists of livestock residue more precisely referred to as 3000 W h/m2/day. In the southern axis, Port-Harcourt displays
animal dung. Cattle, pigs, goats, poultry (turkey, chicken and the least potential in July but still maintains a value higher than
duck) and sheep are the main livestock reared in Nigeria. the threshold. Generally, the period JuneAugust experiences a
Production of animal dung varies across different animal species notable fall in potential due to high cloud cover resulting from
depending on factors such as animal body size, frequency and peak rainy season.
quantity of feedings and animal head counts. The northern Efforts towards harnessing solar energy in Nigeria have been
regions of Nigeria harbour most of the nations ruminant livestock championed by the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN) through
[72], especially cattle. The FAO statistic for animal production is direct coordination of research and development activities of
presented in Table 5. In 2010, estimated populations of livestock Sokoto Energy Research Centre (SERC) and National Centre for
were 16,578,000 (cattle), 7471,730 (pigs), 56,524,100 (goats), Energy Research and Development (NCERD). By this arrangement,
33,519,800 (sheep) and 192,313,000 (chicken). The dry dung solar based PV-connected rural electrication of schools, cottage
output in kilograms per head per day are 1.8 (cattle), 0.4 (sheep), hospitals, urban trafc lighting, water pumping, domestic lighting
0.8 (pigs), 0.4 (goats) and 0.06 (chicken) [73]. Using energy values and small-scale laboratory applications have been established.
 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268 263

Fig. 7. Annual average of daily sums of solar irradiation for Africa [78].

Fig. 8. Solar photovoltaic potential for some selected cities in Nigeria [78].

The global power sector has generally exhibited a growth rate of
2% per annum with RE consumption of about 25% on a yearly
basis, with an estimated 50% of solar energy alone [79]. This
development in solar energy has resulted in an increase in access
to energy and creates employment for numerous job seekers in
developing countries.
4.3. Wind power
Wind is another important source of clean and RE with the
ability to be used for power generation where available. In
different parts of the world and especially in Europe, America
and some parts of Asia, wind energy systems have been used to
reduce the environmental constraint from fossil based power
generation. Wind power is usually harnessed through the
mechanical power generated by aero-turbines located at a sui-
table position usually referred to as wind farm. A hybrid power
system comprising wind and solar has been used successfully as
well. Realistically, the success of wind energy development in the
country depends on the intended promotional strategies by ECN,
which has been the key player behind energy research and
potential evaluation in the country. Applications of wind for
power generation have been the least diffuse among the renew-
able sources of energy in Nigeria due to poor awareness and lack
of support from the government. Based on the projection by [80],
wind shows a superior contribution to electricity generation in
264 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268

the country both at 7% and 13% growth rates (Table 6). Presently, Table 7
the utilization of wind power in the country is only limited to a Seasonal variations of wind characteristics for six sites in Nigeria from 1971 to
2007 [81].
few water pumping operations, and many of these too have been
abandoned. Apart from the 5 kW wind power generation system Location/season Mean wind speed Average power Monthly seasonal
in Sokoto state (Sayyan Gidan Gada), the other systems in north- (m/s) at 10 m height density (W/m2) duration range
ern Nigeria are not in use. Several research studies have been
undertaken to determine the potential of wind application for Gusau
Rainy season 5.45 120.83 JuneSeptember
power generation in the country. The common conclusion is that Dry season 6.42 207.31 OctoberMay
the potential of wind in the country varies from weak to modest Kaduna
category. Rainy season 4.78 74.61 JuneSeptember
It was reported [28] that an annual mean speed of not less Dry season 5.52 126.70 OctoberMay
Katsina
than 5 m/s at an altitude of 10 m above the ground is the
Rainy season 7.96 391.31 JuneSeptember
satisfactory speed for the utilization of wind power based on Dry season 7.19 314.13 OctoberMay
present day cost scenarios. Fig. 9 displays four different wind Kano
speed regimes with increasing effects in strength from the south- Rainy season 7.81 371.03 JuneSeptember
ern coast to the far north. Mean wind speed is the main parameter Dry season 7.74 367.86 OctoberMay
Bauchi
that determines the capacity to exploit any advantage offered by Rainy season 4.39 80.37 JuneSeptember
wind resources for power generation. A more recent study [81] Dry season 5.16 149.17 OctoberMay
revealed that wind speed potential in some parts of the country in Potiskum
the north appreciably met the 5 m/s requirement for wind power Rainy season 4.02 46.21 JuneSeptember
Dry season 5.20 89.57 OctoberMay
generation (Table 7). Gusau, Katsina and Kano met the require-
ment in both rainy and dry seasons whereas in the dry season, all
the study sites met the benchmarked speed. In the rainy season,
values above 4 m/s were recorded for Kaduna, Bauchi and
Potiskum, where Potiskum recorded the least potential. Further,
Kano and Katsina show an all-time high potential in both rainy
and dry seasons. In these study sites, the wind energy has not
been exploited but o1 kW wind power systems were established
in Katsina (Goronyo) and Bauchi (Kedada). These were later
abandoned as the rural communities had neither the nancial
strength nor the human intellectual capacity to adequately
maintain the systems.

Table 6
Projected electricity production by fuel-mix for 7% and 13% growth rates [80].

Fig. 10. Percentage contribution of thermal and hydro to electricity supply in

Year 7% 13%
Nigeria 19992005 [83].
Hydro Small hydro Solar Wind Hydro Small hydro Solar Wind
4.4. Hydro power
2010 3,702 40 5 0 3,702 208 30 500
2015 4,962 90 10 126 4,962 360 80 1,200 Hydroelectric power resource in Nigeria was rst tapped in 1962
2020 6,479 140 34 1471 6,479 1000 750 3,971
2025 9,479 227 75 3019 9,479 1956 2670 6,920
by the Niger Dams Authority (NDA). Hydropower generation in
2030 11,479 701 302 5369 11,479 2353 4610 15,567 Nigeria has substantial potential including the small, mini and micro
water capacity for power generation but in the last few years its total
power contribution has signicantly declined due to some technical
reasons (Fig. 10). The discovery of oil and gas and subsequent
application of natural gas for power generation has without a doubt
greatly affected the hydropower development in Nigeria. The
installed capacity of the hydropower plants in Nigeria has remained
stagnant for many years while the output power produced has
continued to decline due to lack of proper maintenance and seasonal
uctuations in the volume of water owing into the reservoirs.
Nigeria has three hydropower sites: Kainji (760 MW), Jebba
(540 MW) and Shiroro (600 MW). The fourth hydropower station,
owned by a private utility service company, the Nigerian Electricity
Supply Corporation Limited (NESCO), is located at six different sites in
Plateau State but has a total potential of just 21 MW.
The countrys hydropower potential is underexploited despite
its vital role in the electric power generation in the global energy
sector. Hydropower as one of the foremost RE sources contributes
more than 97% of the total electricity from renewable resources
and approximately 22% of the electricity generated globally
[84,85]. Different categories of hydropower such as large, small,
mini and micro exist in Nigeria. Several studies conducted on the
Fig. 9. Annual mean wind speed distribution in Nigeria (isovents at 10 m potential evaluation of exploitable hydropower in the country
height) [82]. revealed that small hydropower (SHP) with capacity of less than
 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268 265

10 MW is more prevalent. Small hydropower has been favorably Table 10

used in many parts of the world due to its optimal civil PHCN estimate of current exploitable hydropower sites in Nigeria (installed
potential) [86].
construction expenses and limited environmental destruction in
the form of land used for dam construction. Tables 8 and 9 Location River Estimated installed
present a total sum of 764.2 MW of SHP from 286 sites spread potential capacity (MW)
across different locations in the country. Only 30 MW of this
potential is currently in existence as indicated in Table 9, while Donka Niger 225
Zungeru II Kaduna 450
the remaining 734.2 MW is yet to be exploited. Zungeru I Kaduna 500
The Nigerian landmass, especially the northern part with a hilly Zurubu Kaduna 20
landscape coupled with the presence of waterfalls, natural dams and Gwaram Jama are 30
natural streams located at a height above ground level, is suitable for Izon Gurara 10
Oudi Mada 40
hydropower exploitation. Many water bodies were impounded by
Kafanchan Kongum 5
dams but most of them are used for shing and recreation after being Kura II Sanga 25
abandoned by the government. Apart from the three large hydro- Kura I Sanga 15
power sites (Jebba, Kainji and Shiroro) already developed, there are Richa II Dafo 25
still a few large hydropower potential sites recently surveyed Richa I Mosari 35
Mistakuku Kurra 20
(Table 10) by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN). In Korubo Gongola 25
recent times, ECN has focused attention on brainstorming pro- Kiri Gongola 40
grammes and workshops to cultivate awareness on the importance Yola Benue 360
of RE exploitation, especially SHP, for sustainable development. This Karamti Kam 115
Beli Taraba 240
has been manifesting in the form of efforts being channeled towards
Garin Dali Taraba 135
involving international development agencies like the World Bank, Sarkin Danko Suntai 45
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and Gembu Dongu 130
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Kasimbila Katsina Ala 30
including local stakeholders on RE development and application Katsina Ala Katsina Ala 260
Makurdi Benue 1,060
programmes. Still, much is needed to be done locally to overcome Lokoja Niger 1,950
some notable challenges for exploitation of any RE energy source for Onitsha Niger 1,050
electricity production in the country. Ifon Osse 30
Ikom Cross 730
Afokpo Cross 180
Atan Cross 180
5. Renewable energy development and policy framework Gurara Gurara 300
in Nigeria Mambila Danga 3,960
Total 12,220
Quite a number of energy policy frameworks have materia-
lized in the past few years to help improve the poor state of

energy supply in the country. Increase in population, enthusiasm

Table 8
Total SHP potential in surveyed states of Nigeria [86]. for modern economic and material transformations as well as
human capacity building are activities that need energy to be
State River basin Total sites Total capacity (MW) sustained. The most recent landmark power sector policy reform
in the country was passed into law in 2005 following the
Sokoto Sokoto-Rima 22 30.6
Katsina Sokoto-Rima 11 8.0
establishment of a statutory regulatory body; the National Elec-
Niger Niger 30 117.6 tricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) has been entrusted to
Kaduna Niger 19 59.2 coordinate activities in the nations electricity industry. The policy
Kwara Niger 12 38.8 is called the EPSR Act, 2005. The major idea behind the policy is to
Kano HadeijaJamaare 28 46.2
break the existing monopolistic context enjoyed by the nations
Borno Chad 28 20.8
Bauchi Upper Benue 20 42.6 power sector since its inception in 1962. The outcome of the
Gongola Upper Benue 38 162.7 reforms appears to be partial deregulation as private investors are
Plateau Lower Benue 32 110.4 permitted to procure electricity operating license subject to NERC
Benue Lower Benue 19 69.2 approval to build, own and operate a power plant.
Cross River Cross River 18 258.1
Total 277 734.2
One of the reform agendas was to unbundle the power sector
into three independent companies comprising generation, trans-
mission and distribution, which was realized in 2007. As a
consideration for RE exploitation, Rural Electricity Agency (REA)
Table 9 was established to create opportunity for decentralized rural
SHP in existence in Nigeria [87].
power generation. The operating capacity of REA was to be
River State Installed capacity (MW) enhanced with the provision of autonomous funding system
through the Renewable Electricity Trust Fund (RETF), which is
Bagel I Plateau 1 to be handled by the Rural Electrication Fund (REF). Additionally,
Bagel II Plateau 2
ESPR allows private individuals to own and operate a power plant
Ouree Plateau 2
Kura Plateau 8 in off-grid mode with a capacity of less than 1 MW without
Lere Plateau 4 acquiring electricity license from NERC and regardless of the fuel
Lere Plateau 4 type. This is a strong impetus to RE promotion as in most rural
Bakalori Sokoto 3 communities of Nigeria, power demand is usually less than 1 MW,
Tiga Kano 9
Total 30
which can be generated from renewable sources. It is a mixture of
sincerity of purpose, high level of political willingness and
266 Y.S. Mohammed et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 257268
aggressive RE policies that can guarantee effective exploitation of
RES for constructive development and poverty alleviation.
As on date, the country is still in need of a market-oriented
policy that will increase RE investors participation in constructive
development of the available resources. Effective policy making is
an incitement that can strengthen the prospect for investment
and development of RE technology. Feed-in tariffs, investment tax
credits and renewable portfolios are some policy issues that could
be useful to enhance better share of RE in the nations power
generation mix. The suggested issues are regulatory strategies to
lower the costs of RE while increasing the adoption of RE sources.
With the fact that soaring upfront investment expenses of RE
development is sometimes responsible for their being ignored by
potential investors, well-structured policies can be employed to
resolve issues regarding subsidies and tax waivers. Disciplinary
energy experts are convinced that suitable policies and actions
are capable of resolving some barriers against RE exploitation
[8891].
6. Challenges towards renewable energy development in
Nigeria
There have been some challenges related to the development,
diffusion and commercialization of RE for distributed power
generation in Nigeria. In many developing countries, electricity
supply is not well subsidized due to incessant economic and
nancial problems. DeLucia [92] stated that renewables might not
be exploited to benet fully from the Kyoto mechanisms due to
their economies, small sizes and their dispersed nature. Regard-
less of the current outstanding progress in RE application in some
developing countries, a better level of utilization is possible
provided the prevailing constraints to successful exploitation
are identied and confronted through proactive policies. It is a
well reckoned fact that ascending the energy ladder entails
transition from combustible renewables to more effective and
cleaner methods of exploitation and diversication of other RE
resources in a modern way. The possibility of this transition
directly depends on the potential source of income for individuals
because as income increases, consumers ascend the energy ladder
[93] for cleaner and more comfortable energy sources.
Technological lag, decient political will, economic uncer-
tainty, poor level of awareness and educational background,
nancial corruption and bureaucratic ineffectiveness are the key
challenges to RE development in Nigeria. Each of these challenges
and the convergence of all are the main drawbacks to investment
in RE despite the existence of many incentives for exploitation.
This has seriously damaged the socio-economic welfare of a
majority of the population especially in rural areas. It was
reported that about 300 million people have been liberated
from poverty attachment in China since 1990 by increasing their
access to modern energy [94], which is an indication that there
exists an inevitable correlation between energy access and
economic growth [95].
7. Conclusion
The preceding sections have established that there is sustain-
able potential for distributed generation of electricity using RES in
the country. Diversication of RES for power generation is an
integrated solution to rural energy poverty. Electricity generation
from renewables is environmentally friendly as it can be used to
offset atmospheric global warming potential from conventional
fossil fuels. The potential from hydropower alone estimated in
this study is sufcient to keep abreast with the need for economic
and industrial development of the country. It can also drastically
reduce excessive consumption of rewood and charcoal. There is
limited place for electrical energy as a cooking source in devel-
oping countries due to high cost. Effective development of other
renewables such as biogas from bio-wastes can be used as
substitutes at affordable cost. To keep in pace with the high
growth rate of the population of Nigeria, RE exploitation to
compensate for increase in energy demand especially in rural
areas is inevitable. Effective deployment of distributed generation
technologies in strategic rural locations where the resources are
available can help mitigate the present energy crisis challenges in
the country.
Acknowledgements
This work is nancially supported by a research grant from
Tertiary Education Tax Fund (TETFund) project 2011, Abuja-
Nigeria. The authors acknowledge the help of Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia for the provision of suitable research materials con-
sulted in the creation of this manuscript to make it a realistic
endeavour.
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