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A controller calculates the error using the control point and the set point. Analog controllers
perform the subtraction in the summing junction (error generator). Digital controllers
calculate the error with a section of their microprocessor called the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU). A signal representing the magnitude of the error is sent to the output signal
generator. The changes in the output signal are a function of the size, direction and timing
characteristics of the error signal.
Controller Modes
1. two-position mode
4. proportional mode
Two position control maintains control point near the set point
Two position control is also used to prevent the control from exceeding a predefined safety limit.
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A control differential creates a delay between changes in the output signal to reduce the
possibility of the output signal repeatedly cycling on and off whenever the control point is near
the set point. This prohibits the output from switching until the difference between the set point
and the control point exceeds a predetermined value. This built-in delay is called the control
differential.
Hunting or oscillating causes excessive wear, overheats relays and motors, excessive arcing of
electrical contacts, causing pitting and increasing the resistance of the contact surface.
Examples
Humidity processes: 3% to 5%
The size of the control differential is selected by the control technician during the calibration
procedure.
The control range is defined as the set point + / - one half of the control differential. Range of
control of a process with a set point of 74 and a control differential of 4 is 74 + / - 2. The
control point must exceed the set point plus one half of the control differential before the
controller changes the state of its output signal i.e. above 76 or below 74
An operating differential is the range of the process control point that results from the combined
effects of the control differential and process time lags.
No response or change occurs instantaneously. All dynamic processes take time to respond to
changes in their load or set point. The total time lag is a combination of the delays that occur
while the sensor measures the change in the controlled variable plus the time it takes to send
the information through the control loop and back to the process. All the while these delays take
place, the control point continues to change.
When the effects of the time delays are added to the pulsations of the control agent, the
resulting response shows the control point exceeding the control differential by a value related
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to the length of the time delays. The range of the control point is called the operating differential
of the process. The operating differential is always greater than the control differential.
Timed two position control is a method of reducing the operating differential in electric, two-
position temperature control applications that use a thermostat. An anticipator circuit, mounted
under the sensing element, uses a resistor to add heat to the sensing element to speed up its
response to changes in the room temperature. It causes a heating system to cycle off earlier or
a cooling system to cycle on earlier because the additional heat makes the room appear warmer
than it is.
This can only be available on electrically based controllers. It does improve occupant comfort
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Straight two-position mode is used for safety applications and other processes where the
mass or energy can be pulsed into the process without producing excessive oscillations
in the control point.
Timed two-position mode should be used to maintain comfort temperature.
Applications
Two-position mode can be used with any control signal type: pneumatic, electric, or electronic.
Timed two-position mode is used exclusively in electrical or electronic systems because electric
current is needed to supply the anticipator circuit heat.
Timed two-position mode is limited to residential and light commercial facilities where zones
have their own individual heating and cooling equipment.
Floating control generates a three state output signal and it positions a three state actuator. The
final controlled device has to be made specifically for these applications. It cannot be used with
any other control mode.
Floating mode has two circuits that connect the controller's output to the final controlled device.
One circuit modulates the final controlled device open while the other modulates it closed. It is
limited to electronic control. It has a control differential called the neutral zone.
Floating mode is also called three-wire float mode. The three wire terminals are usually labelled
clockwise (CW), counter clockwise (CCW), and common. When a signal is applied to the
common and clockwise terminals, the actuator turns in one direction. The actuator moves in the
opposite direction when the signal is applied to the common and counter-clockwise terminals.
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When no signal (hold) is applied to either the clockwise or counter-clockwise terminals, the flow
control device remains stationary, at its present position.
Modulating action
No pulsed flow
Neutral zone creates a delay and allows control point to move away from the set point
(bad for comfort and efficiency).
Error is Set Point minus Control Point (i.e., difference between what we want and what we have
got).
Controllers can be configured to respond to the rate of change and/or the length of time an error
exists. Using the dynamic characteristics of the process improves the response and efficiency of
the control loop and its process.
1. The proportional gain parameter responds to changes in the size and direction of the
process error.
2. Proportional gain + integral gain respond to the size, direction, and length of time an
error exists.
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A controller that is only configured with proportional gain is called a proportional only controller.
A controller using proportional gain + integral gain in its transfer function is called a PI controller.
A controller that is configured with all three gains is called a PID controller.
Proportional gain can also be used with derivative gain to create a PD controller that responds
to changes in the size, direction and rate of change of the error. Neither integral gain nor
derivative gain can be incorporated into a transfer function unless proportional gain is also used.
Proportional controllers generate changes in their output signals that are proportional to the
changes that occur in their control points. The output signal follows a pattern similar to the
changes that occurred in the control point. During unexpected load changes, the control point
can move beyond the limits of the throttling range. i.e. the controller's output signal is at one of
the limits of its range (0 or 100%). The system remains out of control until the load changes
sufficiently.
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Offset
Proportional mode is only designed to balance the energy transfer with the load. It will not
maintain the control point at the set point. So, the control point seldom equals the set point. With
proper calibration, the control point will always be very close to the set point
Offset that remains after the controller output signal stabilizes is called the steady state error
Absence of control differential and neutral zone give comfort and efficiency.
Control point remains closer to the set point over all load changes.
An integral component is added to the proportional part of the transfer function to modify the
controller output signal. Integral portion continues to change the output signal until the loop error
equals zero. When no error exists, the output stays at its present signal level until another load
change occurs.
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Cancels offset.
With proper calibration, will improve operating efficiency over Proportional control.
PID control will give quick response to all load changes with no steady-state error remaining
after the loop has stabilized. Derivative mode provides an anticipatory response to the
controller by altering its output in proportion to the rate of change of the process error.
The derivative element arises from the derivative of the error signal, which calculates how
fast the error is changing, multiplied by the derivative gain. Therefore, derivative mode only
plays an important part in the loop response when the load is changing quickly. This
restraining action keeps the control point closer to the set point during fast load changes.
When the load changes slowly, the contribution of derivative element is minimal.
Responds to the change in the size, direction, speed at which the control point is
changing along with the magnitude of an offset and the length of time it exists.
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Proportional
Mode
Step
change in
the load.
Integral only
Direction and
slope of line
P & I Mode
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The controller's output signal continues to increase as long as an error is present. Ultimately,
the increases in the output signal forces the offset back to zero.
When the error is finally driven to zero, the contribution produced by the proportional mode is
also driven to zero because the error (0) times the proportional gain equals a change of zero
units.
Integral mode is also known as Reset. Reset time is inversely related to the value of the integral
gain. As integral gain is increased, the reset time decreases.
To generate the same change in less time, the slope of the ramp must increase and is
represented by a steeper line.
PID Response
This is not a step change but an infinite rate of change. As the rate of change increases, as
represented by a steeper sloped line, the derivative element's contribution to the output signal
increases.
When the error is not changing, the derivative element's contribution is zero because derivative
gain times a derivative of zero equals zero.\
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PID
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H
C
A
B
AB
Classroom
HW Supply
HW Return
Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
By working backwards, we can determine the valve setting during steady state conditions. Lets assume
that the room is currently at 15C at steady state. We can work backwards to find the error signal and
figure out what the setpoint is.
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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-
Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C
Sensor
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