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    Jets White PDF

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    Bachir El Fil

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MEAN FLOW 473 Turtaont ls used and their actuat pe: ‘boundary layer 7 ou. 6-33, was significantly wor 7 Noaale: G30 : Relaminadlzation ading mergers between coop. kext plateau in turbulence predie. cence will be even better, The will ever achieve “universal whether instead we shouig ve for certain regions or class. case in the 1981 Stanforg futuert “low that undergoes reverse | in the literature, reviewed by 2), and Warnack (1998), have leration of a boundary layer, duct flow. the sense that the turbulence’ saan roses Batis [Glen Oy tcion of dR smb ral ost egesin 0, this critical value does not sitical parameter isa dimen- though the original Ke model of Jones and Launder (1972) was ‘developed for this purpose. More recently, however, it has been possible to predict (6142) JF this effect, both with a second-moment closure, Shima (1993), and also with direct ‘aymerical simulation, Iida and Nagano (1998) ver thicknesses after acceler 4 that K cannot truly be a fun 6.9 REE TURBULEN "TS, WAKES, AND or information. MIXING LAYERS laminarization since, sufi ntitely. For a small (1-29) “The previous sections have been concerned with wall-bounded flows, where the ually until turbulent flow can interaction between an inner and outer layer is erucial to rational analysis. Now let fe than the rms fluctuations, |as consider free turbulence: high Reynolds number shear low in an open ambient ameters, Dissipation exceeds | ‘uid, unconfined or uninfluenced by walls. There are several monographs and 4bisa“viscous” laminariza- | feviews about free turbulent flows, notably Pai (1954), Abramovich (1963), List the reversion is thought to be (1982), Ho and Huerre (1984), Middleman (1995), Mortis et al. (2002), and Lee field. Atthe time ofthe seo ‘and Chu (2003). There is also’a very nice discussion in Sec. 14.7 of the text by |, few methods could predict ‘Sherman (1990), 474 viscous uum FLOW “ty = FIGURE 635 ‘Thee types of fre tutulet Bo: () mixing layer (6) fre jt (o) wate of a boy Figure 6-35 shows the three most common types of free turbulence: (1) a mix: ing layer between two streams of different velocity, (2) a jet issving into a sill (or moving) stream, and (3) a wake behind a body. In all three cases, there is a chars. teristic velocity scale, Uyyy(2) OF Atipay(%), and a characteristic shear-layer width d(x) Since these flows are “free,” or unconfined, the pressure is approximately cor stant throughout the flow, except for (smatl) turbulent fluctuations within the layer. {A confined shear layer not discussed here, such as from a jet pump, might have en impressed pressure gradient.) | noureess ‘In Fig. 6-35, we are looking at the asymptotic downstream behavior of the _ 4 Deis ofthe ety developient 0 free turbulence, traditionally assumed to be independent of the exact type of source, | which created the flow. The source, thus ignored, is also assumed to be symmett cal, so that the shear layer is not skewed in shape. One then analyzes the asymptot- ic behavior of width and velocity scales and the velocity profile, (x, 9) for plane flow or itz, 7) for axisymmetric flow. Actually, there are certain effects, to be dis- cussed, ofthe exact form of the jet source or the body creating the wake. Figure 6-36 shows the details ofthe initial formation of a jet, assuming a stl ambient fluid. The figure is valid only for similar jet and ambient fluids, e.g. air-inta- ti, not water into-er. Velocity profiles are shown as thick dark ines across the flo. ‘Typically the jet issues at a nearly fat, fully developed, turbulent velocity Us Mixing layers form at the lip ofthe exit, asin Fig. 6-35a, growing between the still ambient and the nearly inviscid potential core flowing at velocity Uy. The potet tial core vanishes quickly at a distance of about one diameter from the exit, where the velocity profile loses its mixing-layer-flat-cote shape, Downstream of the core, the flow begins to develop into the distinctive Gaussian-type shape we think J 9.4 geips of as a “jet"—tecall Fig, 4-18 for a plane laminar jet. Finally, at about 20 diame- ters downstream of the exit, the velocity profile reaches and maintains @ sel Assume that we are suffiet preserving shape, | self-similar, as in Eq. (6-1 ) | Fist remain constant at i 18) or if) 6-143) [re _ depending upon whether the jet is plane or axisymmetric, Iti this asymptotic sl similar form of free turbulent flows that we wish to study here. Equation (6-143) is satisfying physically but h ‘a mnaximum through a poi reasonably well when nor istic widths. The develope origin” in front of the exit ‘Note that the velocit the same mass flow, Fluid ‘mass flow increases dow: schematic of the time-me: ‘sucture in Fig. 6-2. jimilar Ant fate ake of body. of free wrbulence: (1) a mix 2) a jet issuing into a stil (or three cases, there is a charac- acteristic shear-layer width, ‘ressure is approximately con. fluctuations within the layer om a jet pump, might have at Set flow FIGURE 6.36 Drinils ofthe early developrnent ofa eal jt downstream behavior of the antof the exact type of source also assumed to be symmetr e then analyzes the asympiot- seity profile, i, y) for plane are certain effects, to be dis y creating the wake. ‘ation of a jet, assuming a sill dd ambient fluids, eg, air-into rick dark lines across the flow, oped, turbulent velocity Ui 35a, growing between the sill g.at velocity Use The poten- Jiameter from the exit, where shape. Downstream of the Saussian-type shape We think 1. Finally, at about 20 diame- aches and maintains a self: (@) oa vit, Ib is this asymptotic self= sudy here. Equation (6-143) is | origin” in front of the exit, as sketched in Fig. 6-36. structure in Fig. 6-2. 69.1 Self-Similar Analysis of Turbulent Jets const = const pba, (plane jet) const pie. exisymmenio) INCONPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MBAN FLOW 475 preserving 20, whe | tpi the flow be = he actual soure ‘The turba igure 6-376 sb ilar at x/D = 2 igh levels of t = ransverse comy ‘hich point the penis 0” and w! ‘Turbulenc 3 the K~e mo ‘modified to i _ 1989). The me moderately we. Wilcox (1998) TE the jet development of and Bilger (19% Fig. 6-374, and ‘pat the growth ~ For example, f from the me a/D = 300, ¥, similar for x/D at x/D = 266. 69.2 TheP ‘Using an eddy file in a mixing INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MAN FLOW 479 = jhis has the same form as the laminar round jet, Eq. (4-207). This solution is com- © red with experiment in Fig. 6-37a. It agrees reasonably well with the data but is “| eo high in the outer regions of the jet, a discrepancy possibly due to intermittency jf turbulence near the jet edge [Corrsin and Kistler (1955)]. better formula for the round jet is found simply by carying over the plane- __ et solution with a different value of a: gee seo'(to42) (6-153) “| his expression is seen in Fig, 6-372 to be in excellent agreement with the data of 6-182) 1 seyenanski and Fiedler (1969), Self-similarity in the velocity profile occurs for 9. (6-189) _ 3D > 20, whore Dis the source diameter At the centerline, Up, decreased 38 “pif he flow began from a virtual origin approximately seven diameters in front of | the actual source. | The turbulence components take longer to develop than the mean velocity. | Figure 6-37b shows the measured streamwise velocity flicuation, which is nonsim- at x/D = 20 and does not become self-similar until x/D = $0. Note the very high levels of turbulence (80 percent) compared to boundary layers (Fig. 6-4). The Iransverse COmpONENtS, Uryy ANd Wye, GO not become similar until x/D = 70, at which point the round jet Is tray self preserving. Even at x/D = 100, the compo- exer (1960) -} pents o° and w" are smaller then w, so that the turbulence has not become isotropic. -- | turbulence in free-shear flows can be predicted by higher order theories, such as the K~e model of Sec. 6-7.2.2, but the “constants” in Egs. (6-107) have to be | Inodified to improve the agreement, as reviewed by Rodi (1984) and Taulbee (1989). The models predict mean velocity very well, growth rate and shear stress tnoderately well, and are only fair to poor for the turbulence compoments. See Wilcox (1998) for further discussion, [Trine jer issues at velocity U; into a co-flowing stream of velocity Uy the development of self-similarity is strongly affected, as shown by the data of Antonia xd Bilger (1973). The mean-velocity difference scales well with y/y4 similar to Fig. 6-37a, and is well ft by but the growth rate y,(x) is smaller and decidedly non-linear, as U,/U, increases. For example, from Fi 25 atx/D = 300. However, from the measurements of Antonia and Bilger (1973) for U,/U, = 1/3 and at ‘x/D = 300, y1).D ~ 3.2, or eight times smaller, The mean velocity becomes self- © simitar for x/D > 40, but the streamwise turbulence t'yue/ Ug i8 not similar even at x/D = 266. acy: () mean vlochy, 5 sean 69.2 The Plane Mixing Layer Using an eddy-viscosity analysis, Gértler (1942) also solved for the velocity pro- file in a mixing layer between parallel streams, including the case where the upper 480 viscous FLUID LOW FIGURE 6 38. Measurements i a plane mixing layer: () mean velocity; ( ton. [After Pestak end Johnston (1988).] ©) longitadinalfetwation; (transverse Bet moves al U; a1 i. sprees about th (00) = c solution given b: Sif we define the | “abs ~ 1.64, or bfx © gh, experiments jg. 6-380 were tal Jip 638 inosy/st — Up divide ‘Note in Fig. 6 “the mean velocity it Foot solf-simiar ut “the distance where t Pion, Plesniak and [ected by steamli 4 aggplar momentum ‘The plane mix, “direct simulation of ised a spectral metl F compute a turbule: | Rep, = 100. Vortex: A> ine with three of | aomalous results | the phases of the e ‘Fig, 6-39. Note bo jal mining layer i ‘When time- file almost identica © good for turbulenc | wrong sign near th Fpulence is a fritie 6.93 Turbulen “The wake in Fig. 6 is a “defect” ina | scceleration than ¢ "assume self-simile INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MEAN FLOW 481 syeam moves at U, andthe lower stream at Uj. The flow is thas approximately anti- Syimetrical about the midpoint, with boundary conditions H(-00) = |The solution given by Gerler (1942) is weg ah +ee(2)| ox 135 154) jg we define the layer half-thickness as the point where w* = 0,99, then : < gbfx © 1.64, or bfx > 0.121 = tan(7°). Equation (6-154) is in good agreement cece “| with experiments such as Plesniak and Johnston (1988), whose data shown in | Fig, 6380 were taken in a water channel with U;/U, = 0.5. The abscissa in © fig. 6-38 is not y/x but rather y nondimensionalized by a “shear thickness” 6, equal "ta (U, — U,) divided by the slope (@7/2y)ye at the center point (y = 0). ‘Note in Fig. 6-38, as with jet flow, the staged development of self-similarity. ‘The mean velocity in Fig. 6-38a develops at x = 30-cm, whereas Wy in Fig. 6-380 js not self-similar until x = 70 om. Finally, Ugg in Fig. 6-38c is not similar within the distance where the data were taken and is not as large as the streamwise fucti- sation, Plesniak and Johnston (1988) further show that the mixing layer is strongly affected by streamline curvature, being stabilized or destabilized depending upon the angular momentum rato of the upper and Tower streams, ‘The plane mixing layer at low Reynolds members is an excellent test case for _girect simslation of turbulence by supercomputers. Sandham and Reynolds (1987) - oged a spectral method, with 1024 longitudinal and 256 transverse mesh points, to ‘compute a turbalent mixing layer with U\/U, = 0.5 and an inlet profile w ~ Rep, = 100. Vortex pairing and turbulence were triggered by forcing the inlet pro- file with three of its unstable frequencies. Stricily periodic forcing gave erratic, ‘momalous results. However, by “jittering” the inlet forcing, i., randomly varying the phases of the exciting modes, very realistic results were obtained, as shown in Fig, 6-39. Note how these “numerical snapshots” resemble the visualization of a zeal mixing layer in Fig, 6-2 © When time-averaged, the simulations in Fig. 6-39 yield a mean-velocity pro- file almost identical to Fig. 6-38a or Eq. (6-154). However, the agreement is not as ‘good for turbulence components, and the mean scalar fluxes seem to have the ‘wrong sign near the layer edges. [tis clear that direct numerical simulation of tur- bulence is a fruitful research area, 6.9.3 Turbulent Wakes ‘The wake in Fig, 6-35¢ looks like a jet carved out of a uniform stream, Since a wake is a “defeot” in a moving stream, it has a much stronger effect due to convective acceleration than a jet, and the resulting formulas are different. Far downstream, we auction: (6 taneverse Mut assume self-similarity Aw Megan) sols] x 482 viscous FLUID Low FIGURE 6-39 “Tiyee instantaneous snapshots of passive scalar coors ina supercomputer simulation ofa tubules mi ing layer. Compare with Fig. 6:2. (fer Sanchar and Reynolds (1987). ‘As with jet flow, the pressure in the wake is nearly constant—except for turbulent fluctuation effects—because of the open environment. This time, the momento theorem states thatthe drag force F associated with the wake profile is indepen- ent of x: F [ pli AwdA = const * (const) pUAtigab (plane wake) FF (Const) pU Atay, b® (round wake) (6-156) where U is the stream velocity outside the wake, assumed uniform, The last (0 results in Eg. (6-156) follow from the small-defect assumption, du < U. Thus, unlike the jet, Adiga, 8 proportional to 6”! (plane) and to b°* (circular wake) When these facts are substituted in the boundary-layer equations with the “homentur Gaussian However, hat is, (0, | sear, (Wu eal. (198 sonal wal The | ates and v INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MEAN FLOW 483 nall-defect assumption u(@u/d2) shieved unless U{@ujax), we find that similarity cannot be 2 wake: b We Aw, aH lane wake const x Algae = const ‘ (eis) CGreular wake: = const x! Atigy, = const “Phis information enables us to solve for the velocity defect similarity profiles. If we + ge the Clanser-type eddy-viscosity distribution, Eq. (6-146), and take “b” as the hull-velocity point, the solution is a Gaussian distribution [recall Bq, (4-211)} u 0.693)" t= eo(22) (6-158) Atlas \ Yip ‘The constants in Bgs. (6-157) that determine the variations of Ada,, and yj2 must ‘ye established by experiment. This is difficult because of the large-scale sttuctures, -e, Karmén vortex streets, in typical wekes—similarity may not develop until up tp 1000 diameters downstream. Using a dual-plate “smnall-disturbance” wake gen- - qrator, Sreenivasan and Narasimha (1982) proposed the following growth-rate expressions for a plane wake: Yap © 030680)" yn (6-159) sua ts0(2) Where @ is the momentum thickness of the wake [8 B89 = ew ‘that is independent of x. This writer knows of no comparable correlations for a cit cular ora three-dimensional wake. vnstant-—except for turbulent: ‘Wygnanski etal. (1986) measured the plane wakes behind various types of it. This time, the momentum | bodies—cylinders, high-solidity screens, strips, and airfoils—with the results the wake profile is independ- | shown in Fig. 6-40. The flows did not become self-similae until hundreds of ~ Inomentum thicknesses downstream of the bodies. “The tnean-velocity defect data in Fig. 6404 arc in good agreement with the | Gaussian formula, Eq. (6-158), (not shown) except near the edge of the wake. b (plane wake) However, the growth rates for cylinder wakes fit constants different from Eq. (6-159), F that is, (0.275, 1.75) rather than (0.30, 1.63), an 8 percent deviation, Moreover, Fig. 6-40 shows that the streamwise fluctuation behind cach reaches self-similarity but the distributions do not agree with each other. Even the normalized turbulent | shear, (~w’v")/ Av2,,,, was not the same behind the various body shapes, Wygnanski sumed uniform. The last 2 | etal. (1986) conclude that there is no “universal” tate of similarity for two-dimen- sssumption, Aus < U-Thus, | sonal wakes except forthe mean-velcity defect. sand to 6” {circular wake). ‘The various cases of free turbulent flows just discussed have their growth ty-leyer equations with the | rates and velocity decay rates suromarized in Table 6-3. ‘puter simulation of 2 mxbalea mis a 2 (round wake) 6-156) 484 viscous #LUID mLOW FIGURE 6-40 Mcasuements of plane wakes boot latatonThe data are taken fr 3/8 = 200 to TOD, (afer Wygransi et behind varousshaped bodies (o) mean-velocity defer; ()scamoe a (986)) INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT MEAN FLOW 485 TABLES Power laws for jets and wakes ‘Turbulent tow Growth of Velocity dseay Growth of Velocity decay wath 5 otnor bu width otieor Aw ‘iningzene xl? 10 10 Plane jet Bn rp Greats jt ® x aa ye fiat “| 610 TURBULENT CONVECTIVE * HEAT TRANSFER ‘As in laminar incompressible flow, the heat transfer seems to aise as an afterthought, because the velocity profile, skin ftiction, etc, can be caloulated essentially inde” pendent of temperature. Then, with velocities known, the temperature can, in princi ple, be calculated from the thermal-energy equation for turbulent-boundary-layer flow ‘The difficulty, as usual, isthe correlation of the turbulent-inestia terms ‘This section is a brief overview of turbulent convective heat transfer, a sub- Ject popular with many textbook and monograph authors. In chronological order, they are Arpaci (1984), Kays and Crawford (1993), Burmeister (1993), Bejan (1994), Kakac and Yener (1994), Oosthuizen (1999), and Kaviany (2001). Some anthors specialize in the computational or CHT aspects of the subject: Jaluria and | Torrance (1986), Nakayama (1995), Tannehill et al, (1997), and Comini and Sunden (2000). All types of turbulence models, from zer0- and one~ and two- equation models to second-moment closures, large-eddy simulation (LES), and

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