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Within oceanic lithosphere a fossilized fabric is often preserved hydrated faults in the upper portion of the slab that result from
originating from the time of plate formation. Such fabric bending stresses at the outer rise. This phenomenon could result
is thought to form at the mid-ocean ridge when olivine in seismically inferred fast directions that are parallel to the trench,
crystals align with the direction of plate spreading1,2 . It is owing to a combined SPO (shape preferred orientation) and LPO
unclear, however, whether this fossil fabric is preserved within effect of the serpentinized faults13 , which is consistent with some
slabs during subduction or overprinted by subduction-induced P-wave and Rayleigh wave observations1416 (down to a maximum
deformation. The alignment of olivine crystals, such as within depth of 200 km).
fossil fabrics, can generate anisotropy that is sensed by passing The most direct observations of seismic anisotropy usually come
seismic waves. Seismic anisotropy is therefore a useful tool from shear wave splitting, whereby the orientation of the fast
for investigating the dynamics of subduction zones, but it has polarized shear wave () and the delay time (t) between the
so far proved difficult to observe the anisotropic properties of fast and the slow polarized waves are measured. For most shear
the subducted slab itself. Here we analyse seismic anisotropy wave splitting studies targeting subduction zones, anisotropy within
in the subducted Nazca slab beneath Peru and find that the the slab itself is typically disregarded because the relative path
fast direction of seismic wave propagation aligns with the length through the slab is small compared to the rest of the upper
contours of the slab. We use numerical modelling to simulate mantle. For the Nazca slab beneath Peru, however, the unique flat-
the olivine fabric created at the mid-ocean ridge, but find it slab geometry, with a transition from a shallow to steeply dipping
is inconsistent with our observations of seismic anisotropy in slab 500 km inboard from the trench (Fig. 1), allowed us to
the subducted Nazca slab. Instead we find that an orientation make splitting measurements on the seismic S phases with relatively
of the olivine crystal fast axes aligned parallel to the strike long path lengths through the slab (see Methods), which would
of the slab provides the best fit, consistent with along-strike normally be difficult to observe. Using data from the PULSE and
extension induced by flattening of the slab during subduction PeruSE arrays, we obtained 16 splitting measurements (out of 36
(A. Kumar et al., manuscript in preparation). We conclude that suitable arrivals) for deep local S phases (Fig. 2a), with the majority
the fossil fabric has been overprinted during subduction and of fast directions oriented approximately NS (mean : 6.3),
that the Nazca slab must therefore be sufficiently weak to and exhibiting substantial delay times (mean t: 1.3 s). In the
undergo internal deformation. same vicinity as the local S results (for example, area encircled
It has long been suggested that the process of seafloor spreading by dashed line in Fig. 2a), source-side measurements on down-
at mid-ocean ridges (MOR) induces a lattice preferred orientation going S phases measured at distant stations show very similar
(LPO) of olivine in the underlying mantle that is subsequently splitting characteristics (mean : 1.2 , mean t: 1.6 s, number of
frozen-in to the oceanic plate during its formation1,2 . For A-type measurements: 9), indicating that the two types of phases sample
olivine LPO fabrics, typical of dry oceanic lithosphere, the fast may the same anisotropic source region.
a axes of olivine tend to align with the plate spreading direction, Several lines of argument suggest that this main anisotropic
resulting in a fossilized crystallographic fabric in the oceanic plate3,4 . source is within the subducting Nazca slab. First, when the ray paths
Such fossilized fabric will manifest itself as seismic anisotropy, are plotted in three dimensions (see Supplementary Information)
the phenomenon by which seismic wave velocity is directionally and compared against the slab outline from regional S-wave
dependent. Observations from surface-wave-derived azimuthal tomography17 , it is clear that many rays (both local S and source side)
anisotropy57 , shear wave splitting8,9 , and refracted P-wave (Pn) have long path lengths through the slab (Fig. 2a, Supplementary
velocities10 all indicate that seismic anisotropy within the oceanic Figs 1 and 2 and Supplementary Movie 1). In particular, a cluster
lithosphere is consistent with the concept of fossil spreading. of NS-oriented fast splitting measurements towards the centre
In subduction zones, where oceanic plates descend into the of the study area travel through relatively fast (blue) material all
mantle, it is unclear whether this fossil spreading fabric is preserved the way from the mid-transition zone (555 km) to the mid-upper
within the slab to depth, or if the anisotropic signal is overprinted by mantle (<200 km), representing a total path length of over 250 km
subsequent subduction-associated deformation. Observations that through the slab (Supplementary Fig. 1). We also note that this
directly constrain intra-slab anisotropy are limited in number11,12 , NS orientation roughly correlates with the NS strike of the
and completely absent for the deep portions of slabs (below 200 km). subducting Nazca Plate. Outside of the slab, for measurements that
An alternative model for slab anisotropy invokes vertically aligned, sample mainly sub-slab mantle, the fast directions are generally
1 Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA. 2 University of Southampton, National Oceanography
Centre, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK. 3 Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. 4 Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC 20015, USA. 5 Instituto Geofsico del Per, Lima 15400, Peru.
*e-mail: caroline.eakin@gmail.com
10
Brazil
Bo
livi
Per
12
a
u
Event location (source side)
Event location (local S)
Stations (source side)
Latitude ( S)
Stations (local S)
14
40 M
a
16
e APM
a Plat
Nazc
45
Ma
18
50
600
500
400
200
300
100
Ma
1 s splitting (non-slab)
20
80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64
Longitude ( W)
Figure 1 | Tectonic setting of southern Peru, showing the distribution of stations and events, and comparing the splitting results with the slab geometry.
Slab contours are derived from the regional tomography model and represent the midpoint of the slab at that depth17 . Black arrows illustrate the slab dip
vectorsthat is, the gradient of the contours. Splitting results (blue and red bars) are plotted at their pierce point at 300 km depth. The orientation of the
bar represents , and its length is scaled by t. Absolute plate motions (APM; ref. 28) and seafloor age contours29 are shown for the Nazca Plate.
trench perpendicular (ENEWSW), most likely reflecting trench anisotropy seems to lie between 200 and 400 km depth within the
normal mantle flow beneath the flat slab18 . This flow direction slab. Considering this path length of 200 km through anisotropic
is opposite to that previously inferred by less direct SKS splitting material then this would imply an anisotropic strength of 34%,
methods19 , and is discussed in detail in our earlier work18,20 . consistent with observations from other subducted slabs21,22 . When
Another line of evidence for distinct anisotropy within the slab compared to the slab morphology (Fig. 1), the fast-axis orientation
itself comes from the fact that the most of the local S phases arrive of these slab splitting results generally seem to be sub-parallel to the
510 s earlier than predicted by our reference velocity model slab contours, with over three-quarters of measurements oriented
(Fig. 2b). The S-waves must therefore be travelling through relatively within 33 of the slab strike (Supplementary Fig. 3). Because the
fast material with a velocity anomaly of the order of +3.5% (1.5%) slab morphology can change abruptly, it is possible that several
to account for the travel time difference. The magnitude of this geometries are sampled along any single ray path, which may
required velocity anomaly is comparable to the strength of the account for some of the scatter in the results. In general, however,
velocity anomaly present in the slab (Fig. 2a), as estimated from the our inference of values aligned with the slab strike contrasts with
tomographic inversion17 . observations of azimuthal anisotropy within the Nazca Plate before
Yet another telling observation is the fact that the two slowest it subducts beneath South America57 . These show fast axes sub-
local S phases, which arrive close to the expected arrival time parallel to the palaeo-spreading direction (roughly EW), consistent
(see FM05 and FS12 in Fig. 2b), exhibit contrasting fast directions with fossilized A-type (or similar) olivine fabric.
(WNWESE and NESW; green lines in Fig. 2a) in comparison with To quantitatively test the hypothesis that the slab preserves the
the remainder of the local S data set (approximately NS). When fossil fabric to depth, we carry out a series of forward models based
compared against the tomography, the ray paths associated with on likely elastic tensors for the upper mantle (see Methods and
these two measurements mostly sample outside the slab, especially Supplementary Information). For all fabric types considered (olivine
in the 200400 km depth range (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 1). A-, B-, C-, and E-type, plus a natural peridotite), the mean angle
On the basis of the evidence outlined above, we have a group of misfit between the modelled fast directions and those measured
of 23 splitting measurements (14 from local S and 9 from source- by shear wave splitting (Supplementary Fig. 4) is far greater than
side teleseismic S) that we infer to reflect intra-slab anisotropy (blue the standard observational errors (<20 ). This demonstrates that
bars in Fig. 1). The average splitting parameters of this sub-set are none of the fabric types considered provides a good fit to the data
3.4 for (s.d.: 27 ) and 1.4 s for t (s.d.: 0.6 s). On the basis of under the assumption of frozen-in anisotropy, indicating that the
the splitting pattern and the slab geometry, as well as other criteria fabric frozen within the Nazca Plate must have been overprinted or
(see Supplementary Information), we infer that the main source of otherwise modified during subduction.
Event 1
FS12
10 FS10
FS05
12 PH10
FM09
FS6A
Latitude ( S)
14
PH40
FS06
Event 2
FS1A
16
FS02
FM07
18 PG08
FM06
7 Vs (%) 7 FM05
20 1 s splitting (local S) FS12
1 s splitting (source side)
10 0 10
Time relative to
80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 expected S arrival (s)
Longitude ( W)
Figure 2 | Comparison of the regional splitting pattern with seismic signatures of the subducting slab. a, Shear wave splitting results overlain on
S-wave tomography17 . Splitting measurements are the same as Fig. 1. Within the area enclosed by the dashed circle, which overlies the slab (linear dark
blue feature), the source-side and local S splits show similar characteristics. Two local S splits (shown in green) that lie outside the slab show contrasting
orientations. b, Record section of local S phases for which splitting was measured. Records are grouped by event and then sorted by arrival time relative to
the reference velocity model (Supplementary Table 1). The normalized horizontal component in the direction of initial polarization is plotted. All
seismograms are bandpass filtered from 0.03 to 0.15 Hz. The two slowest phase arrivals correspond to the green results in sub-figure (a).
>3% anisotropy for our ray paths, which can easily reproduce our
ction d
Fossil fast
Slab d
delay times with reasonable path lengths through the slab (200 km;
direction
shear or extension in the slab; either scenario would align the fast 10. Gaherty, J. B., Lizarralde, D., Collins, J. A., Hirth, G. & Kim, S. Mantle
axes parallel to the slab strike4 (the sense of shear is unresolved). deformation during slow seafloor spreading constrained by observations of
Along-strike extension is reasonable given the contorted slab seismic anisotropy in the western Atlantic. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 228,
255265 (2004).
morphology and abrupt bends in the contours (Fig. 1). This scenario 11. Audet, P. Seismic anisotropy of subducting oceanic uppermost mantle from
is also supported by T-axes (that is, the direction of maximum fossil spreading. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 173177 (2013).
extension) inferred from earthquake focal mechanisms, which also 12. Song, T.-R. A. & Kim, Y. Anisotropic uppermost mantle in young subducted
follow the strike of the Nazca slab where it transitions from flat slab underplating Central Mexico. Nature Geosci. 5, 5559 (2012).
to steep (A. Kumar et al., manuscript in preparation). 13. Faccenda, M., Burlini, L., Gerya, T. V. & Mainprice, D. Fault-induced seismic
Our inference contrasts with the standard view of slabs as cold, anisotropy by hydration in subducting oceanic plates. Nature 455,
10971100 (2008).
rigid, elastic plates that are strong enough to resist permanent 14. Eberhart-Phillips, D. & Reyners, M. Three-dimensional distribution of seismic
internal deformation and therefore preserve fossil anisotropy to anisotropy in the Hikurangi subduction zone beneath the central North Island,
depth. Instead, our results imply that the Nazca slab may deform New Zealand. J. Geophys. Res. 114, B06301 (2009).
relatively easily, and may thus be relatively weak. The development 15. Wagner, L., Fouch, M., James, D. & Long, M. The role of hydrous phases in the
of new LPO (and overprinting of previously existing LPO) in formation of trench parallel anisotropy: Evidence from Rayleigh waves in
particular directly implies plastic deformation in the dislocation Cascadia. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 15 (2013).
16. Yu, D. & Wang, L. P-wave anisotropy tomography of central Japan: Insight into
creep regime at relatively large strains. In comparison, simple subduction dynamics. Tectonophysics 592, 1430 (2013).
geometrical estimates of the slab bending strain24 , based on the 17. Scire, A. et al. Imaging the transition from flat to normal subduction: variations
curvature of the slab contours, have an upper range of = 1.01.4 in the structure of the Nazca slab and upper mantle under southern Peru and
(see Supplementary Fig. 8). northwestern Bolivia. Geophys. J. Int. (in the press).
The view of slab deformation indicated by our observations is 18. Eakin, C. M. & Long, M. D. Complex anisotropy beneath the Peruvian flat slab
consistent with some geodynamical modelling; for example, viscous from frequency-dependent, multiple-phase shear wave splitting analysis.
J. Geophys. Res. 118, 47944813 (2013).
deformation is required to explain the global geoid pattern25 . The 19. Russo, R. & Silver, P. Trench-parallel flow beneath the Nazca plate from seismic
relative amount of viscous versus elastic deformation within slabs is anisotropy. Science 263, 11051111 (1994).
still debated26,27 , perhaps in part because we lack direct observations 20. Eakin, C. M., Long, M. D., Wagner, L. S., Beck, S. L. & Tavera, H. Upper mantle
of the non-elastic strain. Analysis of intra-slab seismic anisotropy anisotropy beneath Peru from SKS splitting: Constraints on flat slab dynamics
such as that described here may therefore provide important new and interaction with the Nazca Ridge. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 412,
constraints on the deformation and rheology of subducting slabs as 152162 (2015).
21. Matchem, I., Savage, M. K. & Gledhill, K. R. Distribution of seismic anisotropy
they descend through the mantle. A crucial observational limitation, in the subduction zone beneath the Wellington region, New Zealand. Geophys.
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are relatively short. It remains to be investigated, therefore, whether 24. Turcotte, D. L. & Schubert, G. Geodynamics (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002).
25. Hager, B. Subducted slabs and the geoid: Constraints on mantle rheology and
other subduction zones exhibit similar modification of the fossilized flow. J. Geophys. Res. 89, 60036015 (1984).
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Methods Geophys. Geosyst. 15, 45074525 (2014).
28. Gripp, A. E. & Gordon, R. G. Young tracks of hotspots and current plate
Methods and any associated references are available in the online
velocities. Geophys. J. Int. 150, 321361 (2002).
version of the paper. 29. Mller, R., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C. & Roest, W. Age, spreading rates, and
spreading asymmetry of the worlds ocean crust. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 9,
Received 11 May 2015; accepted 14 October 2015; 1836 (2008).
published online 23 November 2015
Acknowledgements
The PULSE deployment was facilitated by the PASSCAL program of IRIS (Incorporated
References Research Institutions for Seismology) and the data was accessed through the IRIS Data
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by S. Karato on modelling anisotropy within the slab. The PULSE experiment was
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supported by National Science Foundation grants EAR-0943962 (M.D.L.), EAR-0944184
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Author contributions
C.M.E. conceived the paper topic, made the measurements, and carried out the
Pacific region. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 250, 5371 (2006). modelling in collaboration with M.D.L.; A.S. and G.Z. provided the tomographic images
6. Debayle, E. & Ricard, Y. Seismic observations of large-scale deformation at the and slab contours; M.D.L., S.L.B., L.S.W. and H.T. were principal investigators on the
bottom of fast-moving plates. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 376, 165177 (2013). PULSE deployment; C.M.E. and M.D.L. co-wrote the paper with feedback and input
7. Beghein, C., Yuan, K., Schmerr, N. & Xing, Z. Changes in seismic anisotropy from all co-authors.
shed light on the nature of the Gutenberg discontinuity. Science 343,
12371240 (2014). Additional information
8. Wolfe, C. & Silver, P. Seismic anisotropy of oceanic upper mantle: Shear Supplementary information is available in the online version of the paper. Reprints and
wave splitting methodologies and observations. J. Geophys. Res. 103, permissions information is available online at www.nature.com/reprints.
749771 (1998). Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to C.M.E.
9. Harmon, N., Forsyth, D. W., Fischer, K. M. & Webb, S. C. Variations in
shear-wave splitting in young Pacific seafloor. Geophys. Res. Lett. Competing financial interests
31, L15609 (2004). The authors declare no competing financial interests.