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The "Yiftoi" and the Music of Greece. Role and Function

Author(s): Rudolf M. Brandl
Source: The World of Music, Vol. 38, No. 1, Music of the Roma (1996), pp. 7-32
Published by: VWB - Verlag fr Wissenschaft und Bildung
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 7

The "Yiftoi" and the Music

of Greece. Role and Function

RudolfM. Brandl

Abstract

folkmusic
Professional oftheBalkansisunthinkablewithout thecontributions
madeby
Romany andCintimusicians. InAlbania andGreecethese musicians
arecalled"Yiftoi"
(fromeyiftoi= "Egyptian").
Under theOttomans, they succeededtheSpaniolJewsas
urban
professional musiciansinmusicalfunction,
repertoireandstyle,
andperformance
Due totheYiftoi
practice. andtothemusical reforms they thetraditional
supported,
musicofAlbania andGreece hassurvived,remaininga livingmusical Besides
heritage.
theshadow theaterkaragz,itisfirst
andforemostinthetwoinstrumental ensembles
koumpaneia (Greek)/saze(Albanian)(clarinet, luteanddrum)
violin, ontheonehand,
andthedavul-zurna ensemble (drumandoboe)ontheother, whereRomany andCinti
musicians
playanactive role.Descriptions
oftheir
music anddance formscanbefound
asthe19thcentury
asearly intravelogues thecourt
describing ofAliPaschainloannina.

folkmusicofEuropeoraboutitsmusicians
"One cannotspeakabouttheinstrumental
without specialattention
devoting totheGypsies. rolein
Theyplaya majoranddecisive
southern andintheBalkans"(Hoerburger
Europe,on theIberianPeninsula 1966:72).

"Wemusttherefore recognize theimportant and,I think,

thoroughly positiverolethe
Gypsieshaveplayedin themaintenance of instrumentalfolkmusic.In doingso, we
mustnothowever forget pointifwewanttoproperly
a veryessential judgethenature of
theGypsymusician. Thisis a peculiarity
thatwe comeacrosswithin instrumental folk
musiconlyamongtheGypsies, atleasttothisdegree:TheGypsydoesnotplayhisown
folkmusic,butrather thatoftheguests, morespecifically,
thatmusicthatis demanded
on a particular
occasionbythecelebrating community orassociation
.... He alsoplays,
whatis almostmoreimportant totakeintoaccount, forthemostdiverse nationalgroups
thattherecanbe inallthecountriesoftheBalkanandwithwhichheis involved" (ibid/.
74; translated
fromtheGerman).

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8 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

I . On the Designation "Yiftoi"

On the Greek mainlandsedentaryand nomadic Roma, the lattermostly

seasonalitinerant workersforthefruitand cottoncrops,are designatedin the
languageof dailyuse as "Yiftoi,"a namewhichderives - as theAlbaniandesig-
- =
nation1"Evgit" from"Eyiftoi" "Egyptian,"and whichtheyused themselves
untilthe 1980s.The designation"Athinganoi"(= "impure")can be foundonly
in the older Greek literary
language(Katharevousa),and I have neverheardit
used orally.
In thisway,a singerof a Roma itinerantworkerlineagegroup thatWolf
Dietrichand I recordedin 1977 at a campgroundon the streetlyingbetween
Farsala and Karditsain Greece designatedhimselfas "Eyiptoyiftos." In recent
timesabove all manyprofessional musiciansemphasizetheirRoma identity.
The designationEyiftoi /YiftoiderivesfromByzantinian2 and crusaderac-
counts.In Korfuthereeven existedsince 1346 a ('feudumacinganorum" with
vassal status(Baud-Bovy1983:68). The existenceof Roma has been verifiedin
Constantinoplesince the 11thcenturyand in Epiros since the end of the 14th
century. AndAlexanderPfalzgraf bei Rheinreportedfromthemainlandin 1495:
Modonis analmoststrong city/not a bishop'sseatandtherearemany
verypretty/is
Jewsand Greeksin Modon/and fewChristianpeople/and nextto Modonlies a
mountain calledGype/andthereareabout200 smallhouses/or huts/there
arethe
Egyptians namedHeydenandsomepeoplecallthismountain withitsinhabitans/
littleEgypt(Vossen1983:22).
This Roma settlement Gype/Gyppelay neartoday'sMethoni,and LittleEgypt
can be equatedwithEpirosand Peloponnesus.Conspicuousis theproximity of
theJewsand Yiftoi,to whichwe willreturnlater.
We should keep in mind,as emergesfromaccountssuch as this,thatthe
supposedlytypicalnomadicwayof lifeof theRoma in theBalkansseemsto be
not at all so inbornas is alwaysasserted,but ratherresultsfroma legal-eco-
nomicsituation.As soon as a more-or-less
secureexistenceas a folkgroupseems
to be guaranteed,thentherewas voluntary sedentariness.
It can thusbe deter-
minedthatabove all the professionalRoma musiciansin Greece and Albania
are sedentary, - probablyin thetraditionof Ottomancities- theylive
although
in theirown quartersof thecity,mahala-s, whichwereoftennearthebazaar or
on the edge of the city.In villagestheymostlyhave houses thatare set apart
fromthoseof the Greeks (e.g., in Anthinear Serres,Macedonia). In the cities
thereis as a rulea musicians cafedirectlyat themarketplace, wheretheywait
forengagements.
ManyRoma leftthe Balkansafterthe victoriesof the Turks,because they
feared,withgood reason,thatthe ethnictoleranceof the CentralAsian con-
quererswould applyonlyto devoteesof monotheistic religions(Christiansand
Jews),and thattheytherebywould have,accordingto Muslimlaw,littlemore
thanslave status:

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 9
The"Yiftoi"

Gypsies... wereconsidered slavesof theSultanand theirservices wereannually

leasedusingtheleftover staterevenues (forabout5 bags).Theseservices consist
of
servingas messengers, helpingat harvest time,threshing,strippingthecorn,etc.
Manyreleasethemselves from thisworkfora payment totheleaseholder. Theypay,
in addition60 Piasterforeverytentand everymanwhohas reachedlegalage,6
Piasterin poll tax (Charadsch). Veryfeware blacksmiths, mostlivefromhorse
tradingandbreaking in horsesandstilllead an unsteady life,in whichtheyocca-
sionallycomein contactwithhorsethievery (Hahn 1854:74;translated fromthe
German).
So beginsa new migrationin the directionof centralEurope (see Vossen
1983:58-60),whereasat about thesame timethe SpaniolJewsof southernEu-
rope,theSephardim,emigratedin theoppositiondirection,awayfromthepo-
gromsof anti-Semitic reconquistaand of crusadingknightsfromSpain, Italy
and Venice.Theyemigratedto the OttomanEmpire,wherethe Sultanoffered
themextensiveprotectionuntil1900- evenfromtheanti-Semitic Greeks,who
to a largedegreeremainso disposedto thisday.Afterthe reformof Tanzimat
(from1835),Jewswereevenlegallyplaced on thesame levelwiththeMuslims
and thereforeallowed also at the bazaar and withinotherrespectedprofes-
sional guilds.3
The Romawho stayedbehindin Greece and Albaniatookon, primarily for
reasonsofreligiousprotection, eithertheRoumanianor GreekOrthodoxChris-
tian religions.They were not, however - more or less forgood reason- esti-
matedby membersof eitherreligionto be truebelievers.
"Althoughtheyhaveconvertedto Islam,thesemiserablebeingsare damned
and excommunicated "
bytheTurks (Pouqueville1805-11:134-6; translated from
theFrench).The statement thatthe MuslimGypsies(and Jews)werenot con-
sideredto be truebelieversby strictMuslimswas also confirmed by Leake in
Thessaloniki(1830-111:250).Since manyChristiansand Muslimsthemselves
refusedto make music,theyleftit to the Roma, amongothers,who were not
regardedas truebelievers.
Shutout of the approvedbazaar guilds,theYiftoiwereonlyleftthepossi-
bilityofmakingtheirlivingin serviceoccupationsor as musicians,and thisthey
mainlydid, until 1835, in itineranthandyworktradesin the countrysideand
aroundthecaravans,as wanderinghorsetraders(lowara),boilermakers (kalde-
rsh, chalkiades)
, sievemakers(chouvari), seasonal workers,etc., as well as as
exhibitorsin travelingshows,acrobats,jugglers,beartrainers
(ursari), as Karagz
shadowplaypuppeteers,snakecharmers, dancersand musicians,and as fly-by-
nighttraders(cf. table in Vossen 1983:142-51). One can also considerthe re-
markabout Yiftoias executioners.

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10 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

2. TheYiftoi as Professional Musicians on the Mainland

Althoughmusiciansin theOttomanEmpirewereorganizedin guildsuntil

1835- at least the urban ones- , the Yiftoiwere generallyconsideredin the
Balkans,as well as on the Greek mainland,in Peloponnesusand in Albaniaas
the musicians,as theyare to the presentday.Yiftoiis synonymous amongthe
populationwithorganopaichtes , thatis, "instrumentalists."Lookingmoreclosely
at Greekfolkmusic,thisbecomesmoreclearlydelimitedin certainaspects:
As alreadysuggested,Roma musicianstodaylive onlyon the Greek main-
land and in Peloponnesus,and earlierin GreekAsia Minoras well,and theyare
totallylackingon theAgaean Islands and- interestingly, withone exception -
also in theurbanrembetika. This subcultureofbouzoukia, withitshashishsongs,
was composed,from1922 on, of Asia Minor refugees,island Greeks and the
demi-mondescene in Pirus and Thessaloniki.
This sharplygeographicdelimitation had, in myview,variousreasons:The
inclination ofRomato themusicalprofession beliesin itselfno specialtalentfor
musicas an underlying cause- thisis simplyprejudice- but ratherpurelyeco-
nomicalreasons.It is a difficult butrelatively well-paidserviceprofession, which
theethnicmajority - partyforreligious4
itself or socialstatusreasons- does not
wantto practice.The musicalprofession makespossible,thanksto theportability
ofinstruments, a mobileworklocation,thatallows,in case ofpersecution, a fast
change of location. the
Finally, musical professionpresupposes in terms of the
instruments a craftman-like dexterity as faras manufacture and repair are con-
cerned,as well as skillin theirprofessionaloperation,none of which is not
possible foran inexperiencedfarmer. At the beginningthe rembetika and the
islandsofferedthe musiciansno opportunity to live fromtheirmusicas their
main profession.
One shouldnot forgetthatthe rembetika originally was the musicof pov-
erty-striken bazaar craftsmenand uprootednewlyarrivedimmigrants in the
industrialized citiesof 1850. These people had no moneyto pay musiciansand,
due to theirpartiality forhashishand because oftheaccusationthattheyplayed
"Turkish"music,theywerepersecutedand forbiddenby thepolice until1866.
The Yiftoihad alreadyhad enoughproblemswiththe authorities and withthe
supportersof nationalistic music,who wantedto cleanseGreekmusicof Turk-
ish influencesso thattheythemselvescould become activein thisscene. After
1955 however,when the rembetikabecame more sociallyaccepted and more
economicallyinteresting throughrecordsand touristtaverns,it was alreadytoo
late fortheYiftoi:themarketwas alreadyruledby Greekmusicians.
ElementsfromtheRoma can stillbe foundin one rootoftherembetika , the
AsianMinor cafamn, whichexistedfrom1835 to 1955, a musicand dance
caforientedtowardstheFrenchcafchantant, witha smallstageformusicians
and dancingboys and, after1835, femaledancersas well. Such tracesexist,
althoughall historicalsourcesto thepresentshowthatat leasttheowners,and

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 11
The"Yiftoi"

oftentheperforming musiciansas well,were SephardicJewsand Armenians.5

The conceptamanes, thatis, a sung,metrically freelove lamentin a Turk-
ish-Arabic-Persianmakm(see Askari,Brandl& Maucksch1985) in thestyleof
theArabiclayali (amnis a lamentcall) supposedlyderivesfromtheRom-Argot
fromGalata/Pera,the tavernsuburbof Constantinople, whereGreeks,Arme-
nians,Jews,Yiftoi as well as other lived.
foreigners The concept re(m)btesit-
self,which means (societal) "drop-out,""good-for-nothing," is derivedfrom
theArgotwordfor"privilegeddrunkard";in Arab script(withoutvowels)h-r-
b-tforharbtiequals r-b-t(forrebetes)(Gauntlett1985:38-9).
thereis evidencethatinArta,Prevezaand Ioannina,thatis inEpiros,
Thirdly,
cafamn existed around1920and thefamousRomakoumpaneia ofNikosTzaras
played there(Figure1).

Fig.1. NikosTzarasandhiskoumpaneia, around1930(clarinet

,
violin,lauto)(Mazaraki1959:73)

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12 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

The Yiftoiare also notpresenton theGreekislands:mostof theislandsare

too small to offera professionalmusicianthe basis forexistence.Above all,
however,a second aspectplaysa role:Greekislandmusicwithlyraand luteor
violinis muchmorestrongly tiedto a singerwiththe abilityto improvisetexts
(mantinades ) as thatof the mainlandGreeks,and thereare fewethnicminori-
ties on the islands.A musicianmustbe a good singeron the islandsand his
circleof activity rarelyextendsbeyondhis own village.
On themainland,on theotherhand,numerousdiversefolkgroupslive in
close proximity to each other:Greeks,Albanians,Aromouns(= Vlachs) and
southernSlavs,as wellas thePonticGreeksin Macedoniasince 1922. A profes-
sionalmusicianmusttherefore have an interethnic repertoire (cp. Srosi 1985),
in orderto musicallyprovideforthe saint'sfeasts,the weddingsand the bap-
tismsof different villages.At thesametime,he mustabove all be a good instru-
mentalist - vocal abilityis hardlyrequired,since the celebrantsthemselves
providethisat thefeastsand in theirown dialects.
This definestherefore a second characteristic of the Yiftoimusicians:they
are almostexclusively instrumental musiciansand usuallydo notevenknowthe
textsofthesongsthattheyaccompany.Dance musicis at anyratepurelyinstru-
mental.Onlysince 1965 and theintroduction of pan-Greekhitparademusicin
theregionalfeastrepertoire are thereprofessional male and femalesingerswho
are looselytied to an ensemble.Until 1930 femalesingerswere engagedindi-
vidually,and thesewere looselyassociatedwitha specifickoumpaneia , since
thisgroupbroughtalong knivesto be used in her defensein case a drunken
hostbecametoo forward(Mazaraki1959).
The followingrulecan thusbe formulated: The Yiftoimusiciansare exclu-
sively instrumental musicians and not singers. More preciselystated,theyform
and
permanent typical ensembles that are engaged play above all at village
to
feastsand weddingsand onlyseldomperform in cafsor in privatehomes.Their
repertoire interethnic, is, theyplay accordingto necessityGreek,Alba-
is that
nian, Aromoun,Macedonian or Pontic songs and dances. In doing so, they
accompany localsingersandplaydancemusic.Theirinstruments areindependent
fromthe respectivemusicalgenres;fundamentally howevertheypreferthose
instruments thatcannotbe playedby amateurmusicians.Such instruments as
playedby amateurs are rejectedby the Yiftoimusicians (e.g.,flutes,bagpipes).
Since thereis no rulewithoutan exception,two musicalprofessions of the
Yiftoihave been introducedwhichare stillprofessionalbut whichhave only
minimalsocialstatusand are economically hardlyprofitable: thelaternaand the
Karayiossi(Karagz) shadow plays.These involve musical areas thatare typical
fortheyearlymarketsand thelargerfestivals, thatis, theybelongin thecontext
of professionaltravelling shows.Unfortunately, todaythesehave almostcom-
pletely died out.
The laternais a setofmechanically pluckedplates,analogousto theCentral
European barrel organ, which mostly playedtogetherwiththe framedrum
is

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 13
The"Yiftoi"

dfior daire(withjingledisks).It was a one-manensemblethatwas verypopu-

lar above all in theportcitiesoftheLevantand thatearlieraccompaniedfemale
dancers(oftenthewifeor daughter)or dancingbears at themarketplaces.

Fig2. "Yiftes
mepipizeskaidaouli"['Romamusicians
withshawms anddrum']:
shadowtheater.
Karayiossi LeatherfiguresofWassilaros etal 1976-1:240).
(Yayannos

3. The Karagz (Shadow Theater)

The TurkishshadowtheaterKaragzis, as the name of the main hero al-

readyimplies,of Roma origin;moreprecisely, the theaterwas mostlikelyper-
formedin thebeginningexclusivelyby Roma travelingshowmen(Yayannoset
al. 1976). Figure2 showsa davul-zurna-playingYiftoiensemblefromtheset of
figuresby Wassilaros(Yayannoset al. 1976-1:240).Taeschnerwrites:
theshadowtheater
Stylistically, is performed withcolor-impregnated
leatherfig-
uresandnamedafterthemainfigure, an uneducated
GypsyQaragz(blackeye).
The ... Qaragz... hashisparallelsin EastAsiaandwasprobably
brought bythe
Turks(Taeschner 1954:1058;translated fromtheGerman).

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14 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

Pouquevilleremarks:
If oneexcludesthefeastsofBairam,whentheMuslims putdowntheirworkand
allowthemselvessomepleasure, somehigherplaceto lie down,smoking
finding
andenjoyingthepleasureableview,onefindsthemotherwise
unswervinglybusy.
Strictly one cannotsaythattheyhavea shadowtheater
speaking, becauseitis not
allowedto lendthisnameto indecent
actually marionette
scenes,sceneswhichare
oftenplayedoutbyjealousmenin theirownfamilies.
"Theherooftheplay,"saysM. L. B. Sevin,whosewordsI am borrowing, "is a
scoundrel namedCaragueuse , whoappearsinthescenewithan entire entourage of
brokenGods ofLampsaque.He marries
fragile, in thefirstactand consummates
themarriage in thepresence ofa respectable
gathering;in thesecondacthiswife
givesbirthandthechildholdsan obsceneconversation on thespotwithhisfather.
The thirdact follows,in whichCaragueusetakestherobesof theDerwishand
immediately- as expectedfrom - a shockeddragoncomes,whoswal-
hisprofession
lowshimandtheentire clostercommunity.Sincethemonster cannotdigestsucha
bad meal,he finally themonks,
regurgitates one aftertheother. Through this,the
theateris destroyedandthetroupewithdraws. Caragueuse is alwaysaccompanied
bya sillyclownnamedCodjaHacivat,theso-to-say JacquesPoudingoftheEnglish,
whois somewhat similar
to ourGilles.He receivestheblowsthatweremeantfor
hismaster, whoseespritandbonmots helpemphasize hisownstupidity.
I myself
haveseenseveralofthesefarcesandhavefoundtherulesofAristotle even
lessrespected Theyoftenoffer
as morality. as an interlude
thespectacleofa Jewish
burialrite,duringwhicha sellerofsmallcrackers comesat theendofthefuneral
procession, outandselling
calling hiswaresinthePortuguese language
(Pouqueville
1820/21-11:292-4;translated
fromtheFrench).

In a footnotePouquevillewritesthattheJewswho live in Constantinople

and in theOrientspeak an old Spanishdialect.Pouquevilleletsloose his aver-
sion to Roma: "Since the creationof thepeoples of theearth,men and women
practicethe professionof fortunetelling and the dishonorableartof lascivious
dances,inwhichyounggirlsareraisedfromtheirchildhood"(Pouqueville1820/
21-11:292-4).Still,he describesthetwomainfiguresofKaragzand Hacivat, an
interludeand a typicalepiloguethatdestroysthetheater(see Tietze& Baldauf
1985:164-8).
In viewoftheacrobatsand artistssuchas bear trainers, snakecharmersand
dancers,he could notrefrain fromexpressinghisdistastefortheGypsies.Roma
musicitselfhad apparently not displeasedhim(it is "tender"),but indeedtheir
"lascivious"dances:

Andso theTurkshaveneithertheaternorfeasts;
theplazasthemselvesarecovered
whohavesnakesdanceto thesoundofdrums,
withjugglers, conjurers,ortrainers
ofdancingbears;onefindsGypsybrassbandsor Tchinguenets, whichperformthe
soundsoftendermusicforthelascivious
dances(Pouqueville 134-6;trans-
1805-11:
latedfromtheFrench).

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 15
The"Yiftoi"

Hobhouse describestheKaragzperformance of a Jewishplayerduringthe

Ramazanin Ioannina (1813:183-4): "An evening two beforeour departure
or
fromIoannina,we wentto see the onlyadvance whichthe Turkshave made
towardsscenicrepresentations. This was a puppet-show, conductedby a Jew,
who visitsthisplace during the Ramazan, with his card performers... ." The
nightsof Ramazan were a largepublic in
festival Ioannina,accordingto Hob-
house,where therewere "puppet shows" (certainlytheKaragzshadowtheater),
dancers
jugglers, (Roma dancinggirls and boys) and storytellers.
Bothreportsshowthatat Karagz, theRomawerecompetingwiththeJews.

4. The ProfessionalYiftoi Ensembles

to the
Now we come back to the actual main object of our observations,
ensemblesoftheYiftoion themainlandand thePelo-
instrumental
professional
ponnesus.Thereare twoensemblestypeswhichin recenttimesare onlyplayed
bytheYiftoi:

4.1 The davul-zurnasensemble

The davul-zurnas ensemble,whichwas and is stillalwaysplayedexclusively

by Yiftoi.
It is composedofone or twoshawms - calledzumasor karamouzes -
and a largedrumthatis playedon one side witha thickstickthatmarksthe
mainaccentsof the dance rhythms and on the otherside witha thinrod that
variablysounds off-beats.The drum is the leader of the ensemble:The player
goes next to the main dancer,while the oboistor oboistsstandin themiddleor
on the edge of the dancingarea. The musicplayedto thisis "outdoormusic"
and onlyinstrumental dance music.Centersforthisare above all Corfu,Mac-
edonia- includingthe Pontic Greeks- and the Peloponnesus (Hoerburger
1976).Thereareno sourcesrelating to thisensemblein theGreekpartofEpiros.
In recenttimesit is also decliningin Greece.
The shawm/drum ensembleis, accordingto Hoerburger,the genuinein-
strumental ensembleof theRoma and came withthemfromIndia; he pursued
thistheoryin fieldworkin China,Nepal, Afghanistan, NorthAfrica,Albania,
Yugoslavia and Greece. Actuallythere is evidence of itsexistenceonlysincethe
appearance of the Roma in the Balkans and the Orient. Also, the name of the
melodicinstrument derivesfromtheIndian shanaiand became zurna{s), surle,
suona (in China), etc.,whileit is alwaysplayedwiththe double-headedlarge
drumdavul,daouli, or dhol.Characteristic of the dronewayof playingare the
microtonal deviations, ornamentation and virtuostic glissandiwhichHoerburger
(1966:46-52)- in referenceto the expressivejazz terms"dirty, blue notes"-

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16 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

Fig.3. Zurnades-daouli
[shawms/ inAnthinearSerres,
drum]ensemble Macedonia
(Greece)in 1977:Panayiototis BatzisandGeorgios
Lokos,Georgios Georgiou.

definedas "dirtyplaying."They are typicalof thisensembleand make up its

own "aestheticcharm,"whichstandsin contrastto the classicalmusicideal of
Europe.In Greece thisensemblewas formally called also chondrfoni(in Turk-
ish,kaba saz = "thick,loud voice"),whilethe koumpaneia was describedas psili
foni(Turkish,ine saz = tender
"fine, voice" = fastiart music).
It has been shownthathistorically thisensembleabove all in the Ottoman
Empireplayedthemilitary music mehterhane of the janissarytroops,whichis
considereda kind of art music.It was also grantedto deservingPashas as a
specialprivilege,above all the "outer"viziers,thatis the provincialgovernors.
Thus theAlbanianAli Pasha Tepeleniin Ioannina(1750-1822) also had such a
troupeunderthedirectionofa mehterbashi. Whileno Yiftoiplayedthemehterha-
ne of thesultanhimself - accordingto information fromUrsulaReinhard(oral
communication) - , theycould oftenbe foundin the garrisoncitiesof Greece:
Ali Pasha Tepelenihad musiciansand dancersfromConstantinople cometo his
courtin Ioannina,amongwhomwas the violinistand singerDimitriosKara-
"
oulanis,whose name,withthe prefix Kara indicatesa Roma (Anoyanakis
1979:297;Baud-Bovy1983:68).
On thestreetto Artawas a suburbofIoanninawhichwas populatedmainly
by Romas (Leake 1835-IV:162).Ali Pasha used themas blacksmiths and musi-

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 17
The"Yiftoi"

cians,but also as executioners(Hughes 1830-1:455).And Bartholdyreported

fromLarissain 1801 (1805:72) thattherewas a Yiftoiquartersin thesurround-
ing area and thatmostwere blacksmithsthere,but he also emphasizedtheir
musicalfunction:"Justas one hiresin manyarmiesthenegroesin theCorps de
Musiqueofthestate,so do theTurksuse theGiftis.The VoivodeofAthenshad
of thesemany,who playedshrillmusicfromthe Acropoliseveryafternoonat
thetimeof prayer"(translatedfromtheGerman).
This certainlyinvolvessuch musiciansas thosewho weresentby Voivodes
to the homes of Chandlerand his companionsforthe eveningentertainment
duringRamazanin Athensat theend of the 18thcentury(a honorablepresent
thatalso Ali Pasha made to his guests),in orderto playat the court(Chandler
1776-11:132,and 1777:188), so faras the Franksdid not accept otherinvita-
tions.And also the Bey of Corinthhad his musicianscome to a receptionof
the- once moreinstituted - metropolitan of Athens(Chandler1776-11:244).
In EleusisChandler(1776-1:44)visiteda feastwherean oboe/drumensem-
ble played,duringwhichhe observedboththeembouchureand circularbreath-
ingof the zumas windinstruments:
Twooftheirmusicians, seeingus sitting
undera shadytree,wherewe had dined,
cameandplayedbeforeus,whilesomeoftheTurcsdanced.One oftheirinstru-
mentsresembled a common tabour,butwaslarger andthicker. Itwasfounded with
twosticks,thesametimewitha bigger, whichhada roundknobattheend,on the
top.Thisone was accompanied bya pipewitha reedforthemouthpiece,and
belowit a circularrimof wood,againstwhichthelipsof theplayercame.His
cheeksweremuchinflated, and thenotesso various,shrill,and disagreeable,
as
remind meofa famous composition designedfortheancientAulosorflute, as was
fabled,byMinerva. It wasan imitationofthesqualling,
andwailing, madebythe
serpent-haired
gorgons, whenPerseusmaimedthetriplesisterhood, bysevering
fromtheircommon bodytheheadofMedusa.
OurTurcsandthemusicians, whentired, as usual,bac-shish
expected, ora present.
After them,
satisfying we wentup to theplace,atwhichGreekswereassembled.
Formermilitarymusicians,to whose duties- next to the illustrating and
stimulatingaccompaniment of Turkishwrestling - playingat feastsin thegarri-
sons also belonged, soon settled on the trade roads above all around the
caravanseries.In thisway musiciansettlements were built up thatservedthe
musicalneeds of travelingtradesmenand the surrounding landowners,as well
as thesettingoftypicaldutiesofindividualensembles,whichprovidedregularly
forfeasts.
Dividingup of territoriesis typicalfortheeconomicorganizationof Roma
koumpaneia , whichare notexclusively builtupon blood relations(in contrastto
thefamilianclan societiesvitsa, Vossen 1983:208). The tie to the caravansand
in whichdifferent
largerterritories ethnicgroupshad settled(Greeks,Albani-
ans, Aromouns,Slavs), presentedthe musicianswiththe necessityof building
up an interethnicrepertoirein orderto properlyfulfillall themusicaldemands

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18 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

madebytheiremployers. Thisimportant roleofcaravanseriesbothforthebuild-

ing up of an interethnic
repertoireand also forthe concentration
of musicians
today,would be
in specific"musicians'places" thatcan stillbe distinguished
somethingto investigatemorepreciselyin historicalterms.
Stackelbergand his Danish friendsobtainedin 1812 permissionfromVeli
Pasha to excavatethe Apollo Templein Bassai in Peloponnesus.For thispur-
pose helpingworkersfromthe nearbytown of Andritsenawere to be made
availableto the 14-manteamof archaeologists. The people therewere Vlachs,
who are supposedto have spokena Greek-Albanian- Aromoundialect(Stackel-
berg1826:13-4). Sinceno townwas locatedneartheexcavationsite,theysetup
a campwithtentsand hutsofbranches.Soon a colorfulpicturepresenteditself:
Musicians cameon theowninitiative fromfar-away townsinorderto cheerup the
workers,according to an old country custom,through music.Theyweretakenon
fortheentire durationoftheexcavation and,justas bythefounding ofThebesand
Megara,andbytherebuilding ofMessene, heremusicaccompanied thehearty calls
oftheworkers and therolling of stones.Musicalso gavethesignaleachtimeto
beginand endtheworkday. The evening ofeachdaywas closedwitha danceby
maleand femaleshepherds, whoseheartsweresetin motionbythenoiseofthe
pipesanddrums, displayingtheirjoyinBacchus-like jumps,accordingtotheirwild
manner.Moreandmorepeoplefromtheneighboring came
villages to in
join the
.... The driving
festivities musicandthebeatsofthebigdrum,whichalwaysbe-
camemoreviolentand doubledbyitsecho,resoundedthrough themountains
(Stackelberg 1826:16-7;translated fromtheGerman).
The musicalbackgroundto thegroupworkas describedhereis something
we also know today as one of the usual functionsof the Roma davul-zurnas
ensemble(= karamouzes , "pipes and drums").The factthatit is this thatis
involvedcan be seenbyobservingthetitlevignetteofthebook (1826) concern-
ing the excavations:Using a magnifying glass,one can recognizethe working
scene. To the left,one can see the alreadyreplacedcolumns,in the centerin
frontof some treestherelie a pile of pieces of columns.To therightand in the
foreground, one recognizesthe drummerin a bend-overposition,facingthe
observer,with theright,thickbeateron thedrumskin;in frontofhim,withhis
back half-facingtheobserver, squatsthekaramouzaplayer.The supportsof the
instrument clearly indicatea shawm. The righthand holdsit above,themouth-
is
piece placed in themouth, and the instrument is held straight.
The playersits
on a balcony.Both musicianswear a kind of turban - whatindicatestheyare
Yiftoi.
In otherwords,thegenuineRoma oboe/drumensembleprobablytraveled
withtheRomafromtheiroriginalhomeland,but found,throughOttomanmili-
tarymusic,itswayintothevillagesof theBalkan,whereit represented up until
the 1960s thefeastmusicand this,althoughit- due to itsproported"Turkish"
musical style- was even forbiddenby the police in the 1950s in Greece, as
Hoerburger(1967) reports.

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 19
The"Yiftoi"

4.2 The koumpaneia

The Roma koumpaneiacan be foundin the centersof Epiros,Peloponne-

sus- the empireof Ali Pasha around 1800- and westernMacedonia-Thrace
(Serres-Volos),theformerhuntinggroundsof thesultans:thereare locatedthe
Thracianamans(Baud-Bovy1983:70).Todaythecompositionof theensemble
is clarinet,violinand luteor in Thracetheshort-necked luteoutiand thedulci-
mersantouri , as wellas theframedrumdefiy or in Thracethecup-shapeddrum
toumbeleki (deblek ). Formerlythe clarinetwas playedinsteadof thetransverse
flutenei. The musicwas originally"house music" and was used both in song
accompaniment - thenthe clarinetplaysonlyinterludesduringthe pauses of
-
thesinger or to dance. The mainmelodicinstrument is the clarinet,the con-
siderably softerviolinplaysa secondostinatovoice,eitherin intervals ofa fourth
or fifth,in double stops (mostlywith one emptystring).The styleis called
arvanitiko(= Albanian).Quick broken-upchordsover the octave representa
stylecalled vlachiko(= Aromoun)and representsa virtuosoinstrumental ar-
rangement oftheyodel-likesecondpart{glossimo= glottalstop) oftheEpirotic
vocal diaphonythatexistsin thisregion(Brandl1992a). Accordingto thestate-
mentsof the musicians (Interview1977 with Michael Chaliyannisand his
koumpaneiain Parakalamos),one should not be able to hear the violinvoice
alone but it servesto "cover the unbeautifultones of the clarinet."The lute
playsa changingdronechord.
The sameensembleis called saze in southernAlbania.In recenttimes,two
clarinets,fiddleand lute as drone usuallyplay there.In Macedonia oftenthe
cornet(whichenteredthe ensemblefrommilitary music) playsinsteadof the
violin,and insteadof the lute,an accordion,throughwhichthe entiresound
structure is changed(Figures4 and 5.)
In its Epiroticstylisticvariations,thisensembleis todaypopularthrough-
out Greece and has almosteverywhere pushed out the oboe/drumensemble
and,in thepastfiveyears,eventhe bouzoukia.It can also be heardin thefash-
ionablenightclubsofAthens.The Greekdomesticcassettemarketis also ruled
by theseensembles.However,it is playedsincethe 1960s withgiantamplifiers
sinceit is actuallytoo quiet foroutdoorperformances. Throughthis,the fine
soundstructure and ornamentation techniqueare lost.Also,insteadof thelute,
electricbouzoukiand synthesizers are increasingly
being played (see Dietrich
1983:294,297).
The koumpaneiaor saze has been characterized alreadyfora longtime(and
stillbyBaud-Bovy1983:68)as being"typically Gypsy-like," buthistorical records
showa morecomplexpicture.Despina Mazaraki(1959) presenteda thorough
monographabout Greece (Epiros) thatalso containsmanyinterviews.6
As I havealreadypresentedelsewherein detail(Askari,Brandl& Maucksch
1985),a lineofdevelopment can be drawnfromtheArabictakht-to theTurkish
artmusicensembleine saz and fromthereto the Pasha residences(Brandl

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20 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

1994) and garrisonand bazaar citiesof theentireBalkan.Frofnthere,as casino

musicof officers,it has gone overtheAustrian-Hungarian border(Ser-
military
bia, Bosniato Roumania) to an exchangewithcentralEurope. War prisonerson
each side had been integratedinto the privatemusicbands of the Habsburg-
regiments- aridmostlikelythesewerenotTurksbut ratherYiftoi.Thus,itwas
nottheinfluenceof Viennesedivertimento musicthatled to thebuildingup of
the "HungarianGypsyensembles"(Srosi 1977), but ratherthatof the salon
bands of themilitary.

andhiskoumpaneia
Fig.4. loannisBatzilias (clarino, armonia
cornetto, andtam-
bourlo)at a weddingin 1977at Krokos/Kozani,
Macedonia(Greece).

Undoubtedly, thisensemblewas playedfrom1835 exclusively byYiftoi(oc-

casionallywithassociatedGadze, thatis non-Gypsies).On theotherhand,his-
- show a completelydifferent
toricalsources- above all, travelreports picture
before1835: Roma musicianswerementionedas traveling showmenand danc-
ers exclusivelyat (village)feastsoutdoorsand at annualmarketplaces, but not
in theinesaz in thecitiesand courts:as faras ethnicinformation is given,it is
moreoftenJewishmusicians(Sephardim)who are mentioneduntilabout 1800
(e.g.,Bartholdy1805), neverYiftoi(Brandl1988d).
Untilthebeginningof WorldWar II therewerelargeJewishcommunities
in northernGreece, above all in Ioannina,Larissa,Kotsani,etc. Thessaloniki
was a citythatwas up to two-thirds Jewish- all Spaniolswho had escaped from
-
Venedig,Italyand Spain to the at thattimerelatively - OttomanEm-
tolerant
pire.In Thessalonikitherewere even MuslimJews,the Mamin.Most interest-

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 21
The"Yiftoi"

ing forus is theirfunctionas professionalmusiciansin the citiesand at the

Pasha courts:e.g., theJewishband of MuhtarPasha in Ioannina (Bartholdy
1805). The sources(alreadySchweigger1619; but also laterindications, such as
forexamplethefamoussingerRoza EshkenazifromSmyrnaaround1920) show
thatthe professionalmusiciansin Orientalart music,and laterin the urban
coffeehouse music,the cafamn, in manycases wereJews.Thererole as mu-
sicianswas increasingly (and since 1942, completely)takenoverby the Roma,
who,untilthe 19thcentury, apparently had onlyprovidedtheprofessional "out-
door music."
The firstindicationof Roma in a courtensembleappearsin thevicinity of
thecourtofAli Pasha ofIoannina(until1822). (See Example 1 ofNikosTzaras:
"Ali Pashalitiko"from1930.) His second son, Veli Pasha, had around him a
"Morlaque" (originatingfromRagusa/Dubrovnik)mixed theaterand dance
troupe.This was reportedby PouquevilleconcerningVeli Pasha on the occa-
sion of a tripto Levadia (1820/21-11:406): "He had in his retinuea Morlaque
comediantroup,Gypsydancers,dancingbear trainers,Buretinieri or dice-box
players, and a large group of prostitutes(acrobats)withhim." Muhtar Pasha,
his olderbrother, on theotherhand,had a Jewishmusicians'group(Bartholdy
1805).
Pouqueville reports(1820/21-11:339-41)about an Albanianofficersban-
quet in the districtof Anaselitsa(Macedonia):
Attheend,young, dressedpagesservedthemicedwineingoldencups,while
richly
themusiciansmadethepalaceandthecourtsresoundwiththetonesoftheirbar-
baricinstruments themealwewerebrought
andtheircalls.... After somethingto
washwithandthemusicians madewayforthebuffoons andtheimmoral Gypsies
whoperformed, likethecourtisans ofAthensat thebanquetsofthephilosophers,
dancesin front
lascivious ofthesedignified Muslims,ofwhomsomeoccasionally
showeda smile.Finallytheyservedus pipes,followedbycoffee... (translated
from
theFrench).
On 29 July,1805,Leake (1835-IV205-6) reachedKalavryta:
Ourarrivalhavingbeenannounced to thetown,... a partyoftheprincipal inhabit-
ants,headedbyKyrK. Turturti,actingas Hodja-Bashi forhisbrother,andaccom-
paniedbytheSubashi,orAlbanian governor, preceeded bya gipsey
bandofmusic,
arriveinanhouratthechurch.... Thegipseys strikeup theirmusic,whichconsists
of twodrums,twoviolins,twotabors,a sortof oboe,withanother windinstru-
ment,and a fifeout of whichtheyproducethemostpiercing notes.The vocal
performanceswithwhichtheyaccompany it areequallydistressingto theears,to
makeas muchnoiseas possiblebeingthechiefconcern.
Afterdinner wehavesomeKleftic songs,ofwhichtheexploitsoftheSulioteheroes
arethesubject, andthoseofthecelebrated robberKartz-Andonio,whoslewtheno
lessfamousBalu-Bashi VelyGheghe,sentagainsthimbyAlyPasha.Theseheroic
songs(polemika arefollowed
tragudia) ), witha chorusofPo,
byerotic(agapitika
Po, Po. (Thisis an Albanianinterjection
ofadmiration.
Bahn,ahah,signifyassent;

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22 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

andso doesthedrawingup oftheairthrough

thelips,whichAlyPashaoftenuses
in conversation.)
The Albaniangovernor
thenrises,andleadsthedancewithbare
feet.
The repertoire of songsat thebanquetincludedboth contemporary heroic
ballads,kleftika to
, Hadj antoniand othertribalchiefsoftheChristian -Albanian
Suliots7and love songs,agapitika.FirstLieutenantLeake (who otherwiseis not
veryenthusiasticabout music) also observedwell the stimulating hissingand
the calls of the audience.
Whatis interesting hereis theinformationabouttheensemblecomposition
of theRoma musicians:The designationtabor, whichhas a double meaningin
travelreports,meansapparently nottambour= drum,sincethisis alreadylisted,
but rathertheTurkishtanbur,thatis,a lute.We also havethreeaerophones:two
oboes- indeed,zurnades - or one, and a trumpet-like
instrument,and in addi-
-
tiona "fife" probablya nei flute,two drums,thatis eithertwo daoulisor a
largedaouli and a daireframedrum,as well as a violin(Leake otherwisewould
use thetermfiddleifit had been anotherstringinstrument). Fromthiswe can
deduce two ensembles:
1. Probablya davul-zurnasensembleor a mehterhanewith 1 or 2 oboes, 2
drumsand perhapsa kindof trumpetplayedat thewelcoming(ceremony)
outdoors,
2. One probablyheardan inesaz combinationwithnei flute,violins,2 lutes
and
(tanbur) daireframedrum at banquetsand dances.
Withthiswe would have earlyevidencethatthe Roma had already(partially)
takenoverthe ine saz fromtheJewsaroundAli Pasha in the smallgarrison
cities,and theseensemblesthenbecame known15 yearslateras koumpaneia.
This courtcultureof Ali Pasha (Ali Pashalitika,Ioannitika),in whichJews
and Roma essentially participatedside-by-side,represented on the one hand a
synthesis of Western influencs(above all, fromItaly)with Constantinopolitan-
Fanarioticart poetryand music,and regionalGreek and southernAlbanian
folktraditionson the otherhand. In its interethnic tolerance,it surpassedthe
reforms of thesultanmade 30 yearslaterand maybe regarded - in viewof the
reawakenedfireof nationalchauvinismof recenttimesin the Balkans- as a
modelforthisregion.Not least,it is theYiftoiwho can be thankedforthis.
Now we have ascertainedthenthefollowingtwo points:
1. The Jewsweregiventhesamelegal rightsas theMuslimsthroughtheTan-
zimatReformsof 1835 and could thenchangeto morehighlyregardedpro-
fessions.They thenfoundit no longernecessaryto take up the not well-
regardedprofessionof musicianand turnedto morelucrativepursuits.It is
conspicuousthatfromthispointon in Greece (and Albania),8Armenian-
Jewishmusicians'and singers'namescan be foundin thecafamansand in
Asia Minor,and also fromthesamepointof time,Yiftoiare named.Jewish
singersand musiciansin Arabcountrieslastedlonger,fromwhichtheywere

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 23
The"Yiftoi"

Ex. 1.Ali PashasongoftheYiftoi

(accordingto
Baud-Bovy and 1983-II:Ex.
1983-1:69 61).

thenexpelledbetween1949and 1955 (withthefounding ofIsrael,theNasser

reforms and theBathgovernment in Irak). In thesecountries,however,the
Roma musiciansplayeda muchsmallerrole.
2. At thesame time,it strikesthe unbiasedobserverthatthe so-calledJewish
"Klezmer"music,9morecorrectly in compositiontheSpaniolicmusicbands,
is so similarto thelocal (non-Jewish)repertoire and playingstyleof theso-
called "Gypsy"musicthatone could be mistakenforone another.The ques-
tionarises,then,who took overthisstylefromwhom.

Preciselyforthis ensembleis exchangethroughinternational trade rela-

tionships to western Europe typical in its style(European scales) and in the
instruments used (clarinet, as
violins), wellas in its and
transregional transnational
repertoire.With all the professionalism and adaptabilityto new stylesof the
BalkanRoma,it is farless probablethattheyalreadyaround 1800 would have
to answerto Westerninfluences:theirbusinessrelationships were not yetso
extensive.But theAromoun- Armenian -Jewish traders
had alreadymuchearlier
proveable trade relationswith the West (Italy,Germany, Russia),and therefore
the possibilityto introducesuch innovations.It maythusalso be conjectured
(thisis proveablein the area of violins;see Askari,Brandl& Maucksch1985;
Brandl1988d) thatthe basic modernismof the koumpaneiaensemblescan be
tracedtoJewishinfluencesand thatthistraditionofprofessional adaptabilityto
theneeds of thetimeon thepartof theYiftoiwas continued.
Also the questionof the so-called "Gypsyminor"withthe majorsecond
(cp. Baud-Bovy1983:69-70),whichSrosi(1977:26-7) and Dietrich(1983:291)

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24 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

have alreadyshownto be Europeanized makmscales, shows itselfin a new

light:The Jewishlinkis theso-called"Frygish"scale (Slobin 1982:184),which
matchesthe "Gypsyminor."
Puttingtogethertheestablishedfacts,it can be shownwitha certaindegree
of probabilitythatthisensemblewas firsttakenoverby the Roma duringthe
early 19thcenturyand was dominatedbeforethatby IberianJews.As sup-
portedby the above mentionedquote fromModon, Jewsand Roma lived as
directneighborsto one anotherand thisis also shownto be thecase forIoannina
and forGaiata and Pera. Both styleshave mixedwitheach otherto thedegree
thatit is todaysimplyimpossibleto determine whatin themusicis Jewishand
whatis Roma,aboveall sincealmostall availablesoundrecordings ofkoumpaneias
are made by Roma musicians.This questionis onlyinteresting forhistorians
and nationalists.

5. The Payment

The paymentis made as a rulein two stages:The hostworksout a stable

contract(includingboard and accommodations)fora feastlastingseveraldays
as the basic financing.In addition,largerbills of money(currently1,000 to
5,000 drachmas)are thrownto themusiciansduringtheperformances of song
and dance or are put intothejacketsof thesingersor dancersas theyperform.
The three-day incomefroma weddingamountsto about 1 to 1and a halfmonths'
incomeof a farmerforeach musician10 (see Dietrich1983:293).The best man
mustpay themost.As a rulethemusiciansthendivideup themoneyaccording
to a setrule:themastoras, theclarinetist
or thefirstoboist,and thedavulplayer
receivethemost,and thelutistreceivestheleast.
A specialcustomin Albaniais thenapoleonedance,whichderivesfromthe
gold coin "Napoleon d'or,"bywhichthemusicianreceivesa moneybillstuckto
his foreheadand mustplayuntilthebill fallsoff.At thebeginningof thefeast,
thisis verysoon but in the course of the event,because of sweating,the bill
remainsrelativelylong on his forehead.The same customexistsas well on the
Greek side, as we have observedin 1977 at a weddingin Krokosnear Kozani
(see Figure5).

6. The Role ofWomen as Dancers

As forthe "severalthousand"AlbanianRoma, Hugo Bernatzik(1930:13)

in theircustomsand languagefromtheir
thoughtthey"could be distinguished

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 andtheMusicofGreece 25
The"Yiftoi"
Brandl.

Fig.5. IoannisBatzilias(clarino)at a weddingin 1977

at Krokos/Kozani,Macedonia (Greece).

compatriots on theBalkanpeninsula.Similarto theRussianGypsies,theyform

a casteof daricersand musicianswithoutwhichthefestivities of thewell-to-do
MuslimAlbanianswould hardlyby possible."
Bernatzik(1930:43) describesthe receptionof a hodja in the house of a
father-in-law at the Lake of Lushnje duringthe Bairomfeastas follows:"The
is
hospitality authentically Albanian.Here theremustbe coffeeand halwa,the
Turkishsweet.On top ofthis,a band ofGypsiesmakeear-deafeningmusicwith
fiddle,guitar- but actuallyonlya kindof guitar- and drum."

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26 thevorld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

The Gypsyensembledescribedherecould haveconsistedofa violin,a davul

drum)or a daire,as well as a long-neckedlute:
(double-headedcylindrical
GroupsofGypsieslive,undisturbed butdistained, betweenand amongall these
family clans,tribesandethnic, groups.Theydo thatwhichtheydo alloverEurope:
Theylive,and no one knowsactually on what,theywanderaroundand do not
knowthemselves to where(somehavesupposedly becomesettled), theycarry out
all kindsofbusinesses as an excuseto beg,theyaredirty, harmless,a bitthieving,
romantic andall-in-all charming. Theirwomencandancelikemasters, buttheau-
thoritieshaveforbidden theirdancesbecausetheofficials takeadvantage of this
opportunity to spendlargeamounts ofmoney, withwhichtheycanactually cover
theirgrabbing intothepubliccoffers. In honorofmypresence, theproscription on
dancing wasliftedforone dayin Elbassan.The femaleGypsiesdancedas though
possessed, someevenperformed theold Turkish bellydance.The Gypsieshitthe
tambourine and I madephotographs. Butotherwise, theearlierdayswithdance
feastsareoverwith.ButtheGypsiesstillwantto live,andso thewomenandgirls
selltheirlove.Theydidthisearlieras well,as provenbythemanyblondsamong
them.Butnow* thefemaleGypsiesin Albanianareforcedto do thiscontinuously
andexclusively ... (Bernatzik 1930:68;translated fromtheGerman).
He emphasizedthatthey - contrary to normalpractice - were"racially"strongly
mixedbecause theyoftenmarriednon-Gypsies.11
An illustration fromElbassan (Bernatzik1930:111. 58) showsa dance of two
womenand in thebackgrounda saze: clarinet(notin focus),lute and violin.A
different ensembleclearlyplaysin anotherillustration (Figure6, ibid.:111.59)
the
(comparing players), in which one can see the neck of thelute,the clarinet
is in focusand the drumcan be clearlyrecognizedas a davul.In addition,two
womeneach playa daire(withjingledisks).One can see thebow of a violin.In
anotherillustration {ibid.:I11.60) we see the tsifteteli of a girl.To theleftof the
dancer, another girl holds a daire with jingledisks, without playingit.
In viewofthepreference ofOttomanTurksand Albaniansfordancingboys
(and in thiscontext,homosexuality), reportsaboutRoma dancingboysare con-
spicuously absent from the travel reportsof the early19thcentury(Bartholdy,
Pouqueville,Hobhouse,Hughes,Hahn). This lack extendsevento theauthors
whosereportsare heavilyweightedwithprejudicesagainsttheGypsies,such as
thoseof theFrenchmanPouqueville.Instead,it is emphasizedthatthedancing
boysare mainlyof (island)Greek and Jewishor Armeniandescent.12 Concern-
ing the Yiftoi,it is onlyreported that women and girls dance in public and, in
contrastto thedancingboys,who are alwaysdescribedin thecontextofhomo-
sexualactivities, prostitution is notmentionedin thereportsdatingfrombefore
1930. What is mentionedis a "lasciviousness" - real eroticness - in the dance
movements, which applies generally to Oriental female dancingand whichis
notnecessarily an exclusiveor specialtraitof Roma dances.
Concerning thesereports, one shouldnotforgetthat,leavingasidethepreju-
dicesagainsttheRomathattheybroughtwiththemfromtheirhomelands,most
travelers had beforetheireyesthecourt-bourgeoise dances such as theminuet,

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 27
The"Yiftoi"

Fig.6. Romafemaledancers
fromElbassan(Bernatzik
1930:111.
59).

contradances, etc.The eroticgesturesand bodymovements of thetsifteteli

(hip
dance) and otherOrientaldances musttherefore have been shockingto them,
above all whenthesedances tookplace on the stagesof coffeehouses.
Contraryto the assertionabout typical"Gypsy-like"prostitution,we also
havethestatement ofVossen(1983:49) thatthestrictseparationofwomenfrom
the Gadze in sexual matterswas liftedonlyin situationsof greatdistressand
thatprostitution rarelyoccurred.But Bernatzikhimselfmakeshis observation
relativein view of the treatmentof women thatemergesfromthe following
anecdoteof his:
Once a farmer saidto me:"AllahcreatedtheseGypsiesas a uselesspeople,their
lazinessstinksto theskies.""MayHe blessyouforyourhardwork,"I replied.
"Certainlyyouwillnowtakeovertheheavyburdenfrom yourwife." "I amSqiptar,
ina shocked
sir,"heyelled voice,"andwhyhaveI thenmarried?"(Bernatzik
1930:69;
translatedfromtheGerman).

7. The Yiftoias Musicians Between Disrepute and Honor

In Greece theYiftoiare evaluatednegatively on thebasis of prejudice,just

as in otherEuropean countries,and as a rule are treatedbadlyby the Greek
populationand theirauthorities.This changesat themomentone needsthemas
musicians:"Yiftoi"as a synonym forexcellentmusiciansis forGadze musicians
as well a designationof honorand everybride'sfatherpaysa considerablesum

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
28 theworld 38(1)- 1996
ofmusic

fora famouskoumpaneiaforhisdaughter's wedding.Atthefeast,theyaretreated

withabsoluterespectand flattery. The people throwmoneyat themwhenthey
arein a good mood,butthisseldomlastslongerthanthefeast.Todaymostgood
ensembleshave recordingcontractsand enjoywiththesethe protectionof in-
ternationalcopyright laws. This offersa certainamountof satisfactory guaran-
tee fortheirexistence,also in theregionalframework. This is howeverless true
forthe davul-zurnasensembles,whose membersare mostlydependentupon
agriculturalsideworkin orderto guaranteetheirsurvival.Their musicalmo-
nopolyis onlyin the officialculturalpoliciesnot acknowledged.
The Roma areindeedsignificant to thetraditionalmusicoftheGreekmain-
land and thePeloponnesto a degreethatcannotvaluedhighenough.The Yiftoi
are indispensableas professional instrument makersin Greece. Numeroushos-
tile nationalisticfolkmusic proponents - similarlyas in westernEurope- ac-
cuse the Roma musiciansof destroying "authentic"Greek folkmusicthrough
theirvirtuosity, or by playing"Turkish"music (althoughnone of themhas an
idea ofwhatTurkishmusicactuallyis). In spiteoftheseattacks,itis theYiftoiin
Greece who are to be creditedwiththefactthattraditional musicon themain-
land has survivedat all and not- such as in the bouzoukiamusic- transformed
into a facelessand colorlessformof pop music.Of coursetheyhave modern-
ized themusic,but a musicaltraditionthatdoes notchange,dies out. Above all
it is the koumpaneiawhichguaranteesthecontinuedsurvivalof theown main-
land Greekmusicalidiom.(This does not howeverapplyto theislands!)
At thesametime- and heretheRoma continueuninterrupted thetradition
of theJewishmusicians - theysave Greekmusicfroma tightnationalistic cor-
setin thattheyareactiveinterethnically as musiciansand providetheAromouns,
theAlbaniansand otherminorities withmusic.The musictraditionof a nation
survivesonlywhenit activelycomesto termswiththemusicof itsneighbors.
Above all, however,it was the Roma who saved the Ottomanine saz art
music- I am consciouslyavoidinghere the word "Turkish"because Ottoman
musicwas predominantly interethnic and onlytheaudienceswereTurkish.This
theyaccomplished afterthe fallof court musicand poetryat the courtof Ali
Pasha by bringingit, in Greek-Aromoun-Albanain stylisticvariants,into the
regional folkmusic.
[Finalversion
received:23 February1996]

Notes
1 InAlbania
these
areabovealltheArlie Around
andtheGurbeti. 1970 numbered
they around
50,000.
InGreece
there
arereportedlybetween
10,000 Roma
and50,000 Romioyiftoi,
(Turkoyiftoi, Tsinganoi)
toVossen
(according 1983:159-60).
2 AGeorgianAthos
monk intheyear
described ofa group
1000thearrival which
of"Atsinkanos," he
In1322Symon
andthieves."
as"magicians
characterized Sineonismentions
Romaasinhabitants
of
tents inKreta
andcaves (Vossen 1983:22).

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 Brandl. andtheMusicofGreece 29
The"Yiftoi"

3 Anti-semitism
arose inTurkeyfirst
under KemalAtatrk andtheYoung Turks, astheytookover
nationalism
from theWest.
4 Concerning theproscription music
against amongtheMuslims, seeKurt
andUrsula Reinhard
(1984-
Thisapplies
1:163). howeveralsotostrict
orthodoxChristians.
5 Possibly there
were inSmyrna,
Yiftoi etc., inthecafs
asmusicians before
1900:allinformation
dates
from before
this
time!
6 Thisbookisonly innewGreek
available anditwould
(2ndprinting) beworthwhile tohave
ittrans-
latedintoGerman orEnglish.
7 Itiswellknown that AliPashalikedsongsabout
hisopponents tobesungathiscourt.
8 Precise onthis
research pointislacking.
9 Thisisa completelyincorrect for
designation theBalkans
because theJewishmusicians andin
there
theNearEastwere notAshkenazim butratherSephardim (seeSalmen1991:16).
10 Thisisactually
notmuch that
considering theweddingsandfeaststakeplace,asa rule,
between
August 15thandSeptember 28th,andthatthemusicians
have onlyfewengagements therest
during
oftheyear.Thefamous koumpaneiashaveitbetter,
sincetheycanplaytherestofthetimeinnight
clubsinAthens.
11 Itistrue - next
that tothemarriagestatus
ofRoma withGadzos - that
alsoinmost mar-
countries,
riagewithRoma social
signifies devaluation.
12 Kurt andUrsulaReinhard ontheother handhaveobserved Roma dancingboys inTurkey(1984-
11:124-25).

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