CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction to DC-DC Converter:

DC-DC converters are devices which change one level of direct current/ voltage to
another (either higher or lower) level. They are primarily of use in battery-powered
appliances and machines which possess numerous sub circuits, each requiring different
levels of voltages. A DC-DC converter enables such equipment to be powered by
batteries of a single level of voltage, preventing the need to use numerous batteries with
varying voltages to power each individual component.
1.2. DC-AC Power Inversion
The goal of this module is to develop our understanding of how electronic circuits make
possible systems that are important to todays society. We will use the example of DC-AC
power inversion, where DC power is converted into AC power. We will emphasize three
systems-thinking concepts. First, we will introduce the important concept of energy
efficiency. Secondly, you will learn how a system that performs a specific function is
implemented using electronic circuitry. And we will see how a system can decomposed
into subsystems to aid both understanding and debugging. Along the way, you will
reinforce your understanding of power and energy, and continue to learn to use basic lab
instrumentation, including a function generator, oscilloscope, and multimeter.
1.3. Description of Fuzzy Logic
In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have increased
significantly. The applications range from consumer products such as cameras,
camcorders, washing machines, and microwave ovens to industrial process control,
medical instrumentation, decision-support systems, and portfolio selection.
To understand why use of fuzzy logic has grown, you must first understand what is meant
by fuzzy logic.
Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical
system, which is an extension of multivalued logic. However, in a wider sense fuzzy
logic (FL) is almost synonymous with the theory of fuzzy sets, a theory which relates to
classes of objects with unsharp boundaries in which membership is a matter of degree. In
this perspective, fuzzy logic in its narrow sense is a branch of FL. Even in its more
narrow definition, fuzzy logic differs both in concept and substance from traditional
multivalued logical systems.
In Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that is,
fuzzy logic in its wide sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained in Foundations
of Fuzzy Logic. What might be added is that the basic concept underlying FL is that of a
linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose values are words rather than numbers. In
effect, much of FL may be viewed as a methodology for computing with words rather
than numbers. Although words are inherently less precise than numbers, their use is
closer to human intuition. Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance for
imprecision and thereby lowers the cost of solution.
Another basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications, is that
of a fuzzy if-then rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have a long
history of use in Artificial Intelligence (AI), what is missing in such systems is a
mechanism for dealing with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In fuzzy logic, this
mechanism is provided by the calculus of fuzzy rules. The calculus of fuzzy rules serves
as a basis for what might be called the Fuzzy Dependency and Command Language
(FDCL). Although FDCL is not used explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively one of its
principal constituents. In most of the applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic solution is,
in reality, a translation of a human solution into FDCL.
A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in combination with
neurocomputing and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy logic, neurocomputing,
and genetic algorithms may be viewed as the principal constituents of what might be
called soft computing. Unlike the traditional, hard computing, soft computing
accommodates the imprecision of the real world. The guiding principle of soft computing
is: Exploit the tolerance for imprecision, uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve
tractability, robustness, and low solution cost. In the future, soft computing could play an
increasingly important role in the conception and design of systems whose MIQ
(Machine IQ) is much higher than that of systems designed by conventional methods.
Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that has
highest visibility at this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neurocomputing, leading to
neuro-fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic, such systems play a particularly important role
in the induction of rules from observations. An effective method developed by Dr. Roger
Jang for this purpose is called ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System). This
method is an important component of the toolbox.
Fuzzy logic is all about the relative importance of precision: How important is it to be
exactly right when a rough answer will do?
You can use Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software with MATLAB technical computing
software as a tool for solving problems with fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area
of research because it does a good job of trading off between significance and precision
something that humans have been managing for a very long time.

1.4. UsageS of Fuzzy logic

1.4.1. Why Use Fuzzy Logic?
Here is a list of general observations about fuzzy logic:
Fuzzy logic is conceptually easy to understand.
The mathematical concepts behind fuzzy reasoning are very simple. Fuzzy logic
is a more intuitive approach without the far-reaching complexity.
Fuzzy logic is flexible.
With any given system, it is easy to layer on more functionality without starting
again from scratch.
Fuzzy logic is tolerant of imprecise data.
Everything is imprecise if you look closely enough, but more than that, most
things are imprecise even on careful inspection. Fuzzy reasoning builds this
 understanding into the process rather than tacking it onto the end.
Fuzzy logic can model nonlinear functions of arbitrary complexity.
You can create a fuzzy system to match any set of input-output data. This process
is made particularly easy by adaptive techniques like Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy
Inference Systems (ANFIS), which are available in Fuzzy Logic Toolbox
software.
Fuzzy logic can be built on top of the experience of experts.
In direct contrast to neural networks, which take training data and generate
opaque, impenetrable models, fuzzy logic lets you rely on the experience of
people who already understand your system.
Fuzzy logic can be blended with conventional control techniques.
Fuzzy systems don't necessarily replace conventional control methods. In many
cases fuzzy systems augment them and simplify their implementation.
Fuzzy logic is based on natural language.
The basis for fuzzy logic is the basis for human communication. This observation
underpins many of the other statements about fuzzy logic. Because fuzzy logic is
built on the structures of qualitative description used in everyday language, fuzzy
logic is easy to use.
The last statement is perhaps the most important one and deserves more discussion.
Natural language, which is used by ordinary people on a daily basis, has been shaped by
thousands of years of human history to be convenient and efficient. Sentences written in
ordinary language represent a triumph of efficient communication.
1.4.2. When Not to Use Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy logic is not a cure-all. When should you not use fuzzy logic? The safest statement
is the first one made in this introduction: fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input
space to an output space. If you find it's not convenient, try something else. If a simpler
solution already exists, use it. Fuzzy logic is the codification of common sense use
common sense when you implement it and you will probably make the right decision.
Many controllers, for example, do a fine job without using fuzzy logic. However, if you
take the time to become familiar with fuzzy logic, you'll see it can be a very powerful tool
for dealing quickly and efficiently with imprecision and nonlinearity.

1.4.3. What Can Fuzzy Logic Toolbox Software Do?

You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software. You
can create these systems using graphical tools or command-line functions, or you can
generate them automatically using either clustering or adaptive neuro-fuzzy techniques.
If you have access to Simulink software, you can easily test your fuzzy system in a block
diagram simulation environment.
The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C programs directly. This is made
possible by a stand-alone Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads the fuzzy systems saved
from a MATLAB session. You can customize the stand-alone engine to build fuzzy
inference into your own code. All provided code is ANSI compliant.

Fig 1.1. block diagram simulation environment.

Because of the integrated nature of the MATLAB environment, you can create your own
tools to customize the toolbox or harness it with another toolbox, such as the Control
System Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or Optimization Toolbox software.
1.5. OVER VIEW
Due to the rising costs and limited amount of nonrenewable energy sources, there
is an increasing demand for the utilization of renewable energy sources such as
photovoltaic (PV) modules. Integrating the power from the PV module into the existing
power distribution infrastructure can be achieved through power conditioning systems
(PCS). Typical PCS can be accomplished using a single-stage or a double-stage as shown
in Fig. 1 [1][7], [29], [30]. The double-stage PCS consists of a dcdc conversion stage
that is connected to either a low power individual inverter or a high-power centralized
inverter that multiple converters could connect to. The dcdc conversion stage of the PCS
requires a high efficiency, high boost ratio dc dc converter to increase the low dc input
voltage from the PV panel to a higher dc voltage. This voltage has to be higher than the
peak output voltage of the dcac inverter, nominally in the 380400 V range. The double-
stage design can also suppress ac line double frequency by utilizing the active ripple
cancellation technique [1]. The high boost ratio dcdc converter for such systems can be
isolated or nonisolated [1]; however, transformer-isolated converters tend to be less
efficient and more expensive due to the increased manufacturing costs.
A nonisolated dcdc converter with a high boost ratio would be advantageous for
a two-stage PCS [1] because it can be easily integrated with current PV systems while
reducing the cost and maintaining a high system efficiency. Due to the different output
voltages from the PV panel, it would be beneficial to have a system with a high efficiency
over the entire PV voltage range to maximize the use of the PV during different operating
conditions. Another important function of the dcdc converter for PV applications is
being able to implement maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The ability to
implement MPPT for an individual PV panel would ensure that a large cluster of PV
could maintain maximum power output from each panel without interfering with the
other panels in the system. The major consideration for the main power stage of the
converter in being able to implement an accurate MPPT is that the input current ripple of
the converter has to be low. Of the high boost ratio nonisolated dcdc converter
topologies published [7][25], the uses of coupled-inductor and switchedcapacitor are
attractive for use in a simple high boost ratio converter due to the fact that only a single
low voltage active switch is required for the topologies. The reason that the primary side
active switches of the high boost ratio converters have low voltage stress is because of
the transformer effect from the coupled-inductors [28]. Since there is a low voltage stress
on the active switch, the circuits can then use low voltage MOSFETs that generally have
a lowRds(on)and smaller switching periods, decreasing both the conduction and
switching losses. An earlier paper on high boost ratio nonisolated dcdc converter [8]
presented a clamp-mode couple-inductor buckboost converter. The converters leakage
energy from the coupled-inductor was recycled reducing the losses of the system.
However, the output diode stress for this converter was similar to that of a traditional

Fig. 1.2. Typical double-stage PCS architectures with high boost ratio dcdc converters
and PWM dcac inverters for PV applications. (a) Two-state PV module integrated micro
inverter. (b) Parallal PV module integrated micro converter with centralized inverter.

Fig. 1.3. High step-up dcdc converters using coupled-inductor and switched-capacitor
techniques. (a) High-step coupled-indcutor roboost dc-dc converter.(b) High step-up dc-
dc converter with coupled-inductor and switched-capacitor.

flyback converter, i.e., higher than the output dc bus voltage. Another drawback of the
converter was that there was a highinput current ripple due to the fact that there was no
direct energy transfer path when the MOSFET was OFF. Further improvements in
increasing the boost ratio of a simple dcdc converter were accomplished by combining a
boost converter with a flyback converter [9], [10], as shown in Fig. 2(a). Compared with
the converter in [8], the boost ratio was improved as a result of the outputs of the boost
converter and flyback converter being connected in series; however, the same issues that
affected the converter in [8] remained. By adding a switched-capacitor in series with the
energy transformer path, a new improved high boost ratio dcdc converter with coupled-
inductor and switchedcapacitor, as shown in Fig. 2(b), was introduced [11]. With the
switched-capacitor inserted between the primary side and secondary side of the coupled-
inductor, the boost ratio was increased and the output diode voltage stress was reduced
closer to that of the output dc bus voltage. However, the magnetic core was not fully
utilized because it functioned more as an inductor than as a transformer. Light load
efficiency of the converter is also reduced because switching losses were more dominant
under light load conditions.
For application such as PV module converter, the high efficiency over a wide load
range and input voltage range is extremely important because the performance is
weighted differently for specific load levels and input voltages in the California energy
commission (CEC) or European union (EU) standards. In this paper, a high boost ratio
dcdc converter with hybrid transformer is presented to achieve high system level
efficiency over wide input voltage and output power ranges. By adding a small resonant
inductor and reducing the capacitance of the switched-capacitor in the energy transfer
path, a hybrid operation mode [26], [27], which combines pulsewidth modulation (PWM)
and resonant power conversions, is introduced in the proposed high boost ratio dcdc
converter. The inductive and capacitive energy can be transferred simultaneously to the
highvoltage dc bus increasing the total power delivered decreasing the losses in the
circuit. As a result of the energy transferred through the hybrid transformer that combines
the modes where the transformer operates under normal conditions and where it operates
as a coupled-inductor, the magnetic core can be used more effectively and smaller
magnetics can be used. The continuous input current of the converter causes a smaller
current ripple than that of previous high boost ratio converter topologies that used
coupled-inductors. The lower input current ripple is useful in that the input capacitance
can be reduced and it is easier to implement a more accurate MPPT for PV modules. The
conduction losses in the transformer are greatly reduced because of the reduced input
current RMS value through the primary side. The voltage stress of the active switch is
always at a low voltage level and independent of the input voltages. Due to the
introduction of the resonant portion of the current, the turn-off current of the active
switch is reduced. As a result of the decreased RMS current value and smaller turn-off
current of the active switch, high efficiency can be maintained at light output power level
and low-input voltage operation. Because of the resonant capacitor transferring energy to
the output of the converter, all the voltage stresses of the diodes are kept under the

Fig. 1.4. Proposed high step-up dcdc converter with hybrid transformer
output dc bus voltage and independent of the input voltage. The efficiency of the
proposed converter was verified experimentally utilizing a 220-W prototype circuit with
an input voltage from 20 to 45 V

1.6. OUT LINE OF THESIS

A high boost ratio dcdc converter with hybrid transformer suitable for alternative dc
energy sources with low dc voltage input is proposed in this paper. The resonant
conversion mode is incorporated into a traditional high step-up PWM converter with
coupled-inductor and switched-capacitor obtaining the following features and benefits: 1)
This converter transfers the capacitive and inductive energy simultaneously to increase
the total power delivery reducing losses in the system. 2) The conduction loss in the
transformer and MOSFET is reduced as a result of the low-input RMS current and
switching loss is reduced with a lower turn-off current. With these improved
performances, the converter can maintain high efficiency under low output power and
low-input voltage conditions. 3) With low-input ripple current feature, the converter is
suitable for PV module and fuel cell PCS, where, accurate MPPT is performed by the dc
dc converter. A prototype-circuit-targeted PV module power optimizer with 2045 V
input voltage range and 400-V dc output was built and tested. Experimental results show
that the MOSFET voltage was clamped at 60 V and the output diode voltage was under
350 V. These results were independent of the input voltage level. The conversion
efficiencies from 30 to 220 W are higher than 96% and the peak efficiency is 97.4%
under 35-V input with 160-W output power.
 CHAPTER-2
DC-DC CONVERTER

A DC-to-DC converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage and produces a

DC output voltage. Typically the output produced is at a different voltage level than the
input. In addition, DC-to-DC converters are used to provide noise isolation, power bus
regulation, etc. This is a summary of some of the popular DC-to-DC converter
topologies.
2.1. BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER

In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage V in on one end of the
inductor. This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor
is OFF, the current will continue flowing through the inductor but now flowing through
the diode. We initially assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero,
thus the voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the
full OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the
transistor provided the inductor current is continuous.

Fig.2.1.Buck Converter

Fig 2.2.Voltage and current changes

To analyze the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor
current 1over one cycle. From the relation

Vx Vo = L. (1)

the change of current satisfies

di= . (2)

For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not
change. To get a simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across
transistor or diode while ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time
Vx=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus
 . (3)

This simplifies to

(4)

or

(5)

and defining "duty ratio" as

. (6)

The voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the
input and output powers must match on the average V o* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average
input and output current must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption
that the inductor current does not reach zero.
2.1.(i).Transition between continuous and
discontinuous
When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then either the
transistor T1 or the diode D1 must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage
Vx is either Vin or 0. If the inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will
not be forced to either of these conditions. At this transition point the current just reaches
zero as seen in Figure (buck booster boundery). During the ON time V in-Vout is across the
inductor thus (7)

The average current which must match the output current satisfies

(8)

Fig.2.3.Buck Converter at Boundary

If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point satisfies

(9)

Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous

Mode)
As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral of
voltage across the inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The transistor OFF time is
now divided into segments of diode conduction ddT and zero conduction doT. The
inductor average voltage thus gives

(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0 (10)

Fig.2.4.Buck Converter at Discontinuous Conduction

Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction
(11)
for the case . To resolve the value of consider the output current which is half
the peak when averaged over the conduction times
(12)
Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time
(13)
Thus from (6) and (7) we can get
(14)
using the relationship in (5)
(15)

and solving for the diode conduction

(16)

The output voltage is thus given as

(17)
defining k* = 2L/(Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the voltage
ratio of the converter.

Fig .2.5. Output Voltage vs Current charactertics

As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio
depends only on the duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends to
increase the output voltage of the converter towards Vin.

2.2.BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER

The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when
a higher output voltage than input is required.

Fig.2.6.Boost Converter Circuit

While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows
through the diode giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor current
always remains flowing (continuous conduction). The voltage across the inductor is
shown in Fig. 7 and the average must be zero for the average current to remain in steady
state

(18)

This can be rearranged as

. (19)

and for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures

.. (20)

Fig.2.7.Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be
higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense
of the output voltage.

2.3. BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Fig.2.8. Buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter V x =Vin when the
transistor is ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over
a period the average voltage across the inductor is zero.
 .. (21)

which gives the voltage ratio

(22)Vo

and the corresponding current

.. (23)

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can vary between
lower or higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a
reversal of sense of the output voltage.

Fig.2.9.Waveforms for buck-boost converter

2.4. CONVERTER COMPARISON

The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC converters is summarised in Fig. 10.
Notice that only the buck converter shows a linear relationship between the control (duty
ratio) and output voltage. The buck-boost can reduce or increase the voltage ratio with
unit gain for a duty ratio of 50%.

Fig.2.10.Comparison of Voltage ratio

2.5. CUK CONVERTER

The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy between input
and output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage balance across the inductor.
The CUK converter uses capacitive energy transfer and analysis is based on current
balance of the capacitor. The circuit in Fig. below(CUK converter) is derived from
DUALITY principle on the buck-boost converter.
 Fig.2.11.CUK Converter

If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially ripple free we
can examine the charge balance for the capacitor C1. For the transistor ON the circuit
becomes

Fig.2.12.CUK "ON-STATE"

and the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode conducts and the
current in C1 becomes IL2.

Fig.2.13.CUK "OFF-STATE"

Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise ,the net current is zero

(24)

which implies

.. (25)

The inductor currents match the input and output currents, thus using the power
conservation rule

(26)

Thus the voltage ratio is the same as the buck-boost converter. The advantage of
the CUK converter is that the input and output inductors create a smooth current at both
sides of the converter while the buck, boost and buck-boost have at least one side with
pulsed current.

2.5. ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS

In many DC-DC applications, multiple outputs are required and output isolation
may need to be implemented depending on the application. In addition, input to output
isolation may be required to meet safety standards and / or provide impedance matching.
The above discussed DC-DC topologies can be adapted to provide isolation between
input and output.

Flyback Converter
The flyback converter can be developed as an extension of the Buck-Boost
converter. Fig (a) shows the basic converter; Fig (b)(replacing inductor by transformer)
replaces the inductor by a transformer. The buck-boost converter works by storing energy
in the inductor during the ON phase and releasing it to the output during the OFF phase.
With the transformer the energy storage is in the magnetisation of the transformer core.
To increase the stored energy a gapped core is often used.

In Fig (c) the isolated output is clarified by removal of the common reference of
the input and output circuits.

Fig.2.14.Buck-Boost Converter

Fig 2.15.Replacing inductor by transformer

Fig.2.16.Flyback converter re-configured

Forward Converter
The concept behind the foward converter is that of the ideal transformer
converting the input AC voltage to an isolated secondary output voltage. For the circuit in
Fig. (forward converter), when the transistor is ON, Vin appears across the primary and
then generates

(27)

The diode D1 on the secondary ensures that only positive voltages are applied to
the output circuit while D2 provides a circulating path for inductor current if the
transformer voltage is zero or negative.

Fig.2.17.Forard Converter transistor is ON state

Forward Converter
 The problem with the operation of the circuit in Fig above(forward converter) is
that only positive voltage is applied across the core, thus flux can only increase with the
application of the supply. The flux will increase until the core saturates when the
magnetising current increases significantly and circuit failure occurs. The transformer can
only sustain operation when there is no significant DC component to the input voltage.
While the switch is ON there is positive voltage across the core and the flux increases.
When the switch turns OFF we need to supply negative voltage to rset the core flux. The
circuit in Fig. below shows a tertiary winding with a diode connection to permit reverse
current. Note that the "dot" convention for the tertiary winding is opposite those of the
other windings. When the switch turns OFF current was flowing in a "dot" terminal. The
core inductance act to continue current in a dotted terminal.

Fig.2.18.Forward converter with tertiary winding

CHAPTER-3
PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV)

3.1.INTRODUCTION

Photovoltaics (PV) is the name of a method of converting solar energy into direct
current electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a
phenomenon commonly studied in physics, photochemistry and electrochemistry.
A photovoltaic system employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells to
supply usable solar power. The process is both physical and chemical in nature, as the
first step involves the photoelectric effect from which a second electrochemical process
takes place involving crystallized atoms being ionized in a series, generating an electric
current. Power generation from solar PV has long been seen as a clean sustainable energy
technology which draws upon the planets most plentiful and widely
distributed renewable energy source the sun. The direct conversion of sunlight to
electricity occurs without any moving parts or environmental emissions during operation.
It is well proven, as photovoltaic systems have now been used for fifty years in
specialized applications, and grid-connected PV systems have been in use for over twenty
years. They were first mass-produced in the year 2000, when German environmentalists
including Euro solar succeeded in obtaining government support for the 100,000 roofs
program.

Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and

sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells
were manufactured, and the levelised cost of electricity from PV is competitive with
conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions. Net
metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated
electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. With current
technology, photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 to 2.5
years in Southern and Northern Europe, respectively. Solar PV is now,
after hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms
of globally installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be
ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the
roof or walls of a building (either building-integrated HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics"photovoltaics or
simply rooftop).

In 2014, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to at least

177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of global electricity demands. Due to
the exponential growth of HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics"photovoltaics, installations are
rapidly approaching the 200 GW mark about 40 times the installed capacity of
2006. China, followed by Japan and the United States, is the fastest growing market,
while Germany remains the world's largest producer, with solar contributing about 7
percent to its annual domestic electricity consumption. Photovoltaics are best known as a
method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun
into a flow of electrons.

The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher
state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The
photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexander- Edmond Becquerel in 1839. The
term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current
through the device is entirely due to the transducer light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic
devices are some type of photodiode.
 Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light which can be used to
power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics
was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority
of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case
an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid
power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside
emergency telephones, remote sensing, and catholic protection of pipelines. Photovoltaic
power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a
photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include
monocrystalline HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon"
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium
gallium solenoid/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays
(array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable
energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced
considerably in recent years.

Solar photovoltaics power generation has long been seen as a clean

energy technology which draws upon the planets most plentiful and widely distributed
renewable energy source the sun. The technology is "inherently elegant" in that the
direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or
environmental emissions during operation. It is well proven, as photovoltaic systems
have now been used for fifty years in specialized applications, and grid-connected
systems have been in use for over twenty years. Cells require protection from the
environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is
required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form
photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency
telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples
as arrays.

Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under

standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt-peak" peak). The actual power output at a particular
point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value,
depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other
factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower
than many other industrial sources of electricity.
3.2. ECONOMICS

There have been major changes in the underlying costs, industry structure and
market prices of solar photovoltaics technology, over the years, and gaining a coherent
picture of the shifts occurring across the industry value chain globally is a challenge. This
is due to: "the rapidity of cost and price changes, the complexity of the PV supply chain,
which involves a large number of manufacturing processes, the balance of system (BOS)
and installation costs associated with complete PV systems, the choice of different
distribution channels, and differences between regional markets within which PV is being
deployed". Further complexities result from the many different policy support initiatives
that have been put in place to facilitate photovoltaics commercialization in various
countries.

The PV industry has seen dramatic drops in module prices since 2008. In late
2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules dropped below the
$1.00/W mark. The $1.00/W installed cost, is often regarded in the PV industry as
marking the achievement of grid parity for PV. Technological advancements,
manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, mean that further price
reductions are likely in coming years.

Financial incentives for HYPERLINK

"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics"photovoltaics,
such as feed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers to install and
operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered
incentives in order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of
scale needed to compete where the cost of PV-generated electricity is above the cost from
the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial energy
independence, high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which
cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people
use and buy moreas manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and
price is expected to drop in the years to come.

Solar cell efficiencies vary from 6% for amorphous silicon-based solar cells to
44.0% with multiple-junction concentrated photovoltaics. Solar cell energy conversion
efficiencies for commercially available photovoltaics are around 1422%. Concentrated
photovoltaics (CPV) may reduce cost by concentrating up to 1,000 suns (through
magnifying lens) onto a smaller sized photovoltaic cell. However, such concentrated solar
power requires sophisticated heat sink designs, otherwise the photovoltaic cell overheats,
which reduces its efficiency and life. To further exacerbate the concentrated cooling
design, the heat sink must be passive, otherwise the power required for active cooling
would reduce the overall efficiency and economy.

Crystalline silicon solar cell prices have fallen from $76.67/Watt in 1977 to an
estimated $0.74/Watt in 2013. This is seen as evidence supporting Swanson's law, an
observation similar to the famous Moore's Law that states that solar cell prices fall 20%
for every doubling of industry capacity. As of 2011, the price of PV modules has fallen by
60% since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates,
putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of
electricity in a number of sunny countries; an alternative and consistent price decline
figure of 75% from 2007 to 2012 has also been published, though it is unclear whether
these figures are specific to the United States or generally global. The levelised cost of
electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an
expanding list of geographic regions, particularly when the time of generation is
included, as electricity is worth more during the day than at night. There has been fierce
competition in the supply chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy
for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation
sources in the next few years. As time progresses, renewable energy technologies
generally get cheaper, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:

The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power,
and the more attractive it becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-
scale solar power can now be delivered in California at prices well below $100/MWh
($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those running on low-cost natural
gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets where the
cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates. As of 2011, the cost of PV
has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail
price of solar cells as monitored by the Solar buzz group fell from $3.50/watt to
$2.43/watt over the course of 2011.

For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt were achieved. A module

price of 0.60 Euro/watt ($0.78/watt) was published for a large scale 5-year deal in April
2012. By the end of 2012, the "best in class" module price had dropped to $0.50/watt, and
was expected to drop to $0.36/watt by 2017. In many locations, PV has reached grid
parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices
(though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without
their distribution and other costs). However, in many countries there is still a need for
more access to capital to develop PV projects. To solve this problem securitization has
been proposed and used to accelerate development of solar photovoltaic projects. For
example, SolarCity offered, the first U.S. asset-backed security in the solar industry in
2013.

Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak
demand (precedes it) in electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. More
generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton, which would raise the
price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most locations.
The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling
about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts
in the large markets of Germany and Italy, strong growth seems likely to continue for the
rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for 2011
exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.

In the case of self consumption payback time is calculated based on how much
electricity is not brought from the grid. Additionally, using PV solar power to charge DC
batteries, as used in Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Electric Vehicles, leads to
greater efficiencies. Traditionally, DC generated electricity from solar PV must be
converted to AC for buildings, at an average 10% loss during the conversion. An
additional efficiency loss occurs in the transition back to DC for battery driven devices
and vehicles, and using various interest rates and energy price changes were calculated to
find present values that range from $2,057.13 to $8,213.64 (analysis from 2009).

For example, in Germany with electricity prices of 0.25 euro/kWh

and Insolation of 900 kWh/kW one kWp will save 225 euro per year and with installation
cost of 1700 euro/kWpmeans that the system will pay back in less than 7 years.

3.3. APPLICATIONS
3.3.1.Photovoltaic systems
A photovoltaic system, or solar PV system is a power system designed to supply
usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several
components, including solar panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into
electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as
mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems range from small, roof-top
mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities from a few to several tens
of kilowatts, to large utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays,
most PV systems are grid-connected, while stand-alone systems only account for a small
portion of the market.

3.3.2.Rooftop and building integrated systems

Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into
them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the ground. Rooftop PV systems are most
often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof
structure or on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from
the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building. Building-integrated
HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building-
integrated_photovoltaics"photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into the roof
or walls of new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of
electrical power. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are sometimes used as well.

Provided there is an open gap in which air can circulate, rooftop mounted solar
panels can provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep
accumulated heat in at night. Typically, residential rooftop systems have small capacities
of around 510 kW, while commercial rooftop systems often amount to several hundreds
of kilowatts. Although rooftop systems are much smaller than ground-mounted utility-
scale power plants, they account for most of the worldwide installed capacity.

3.3. 3.Concentrator photovoltaics

Concentrator HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics"photovoltaics (CPV) is a
photovoltaic technology that contrary to conventional flat-plate PV systems uses lenses
and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly efficient, multi-junction (MJ)
solar cells. In addition, CPV systems often use solar trackers and sometimes a cooling
system to further increase their efficiency. Ongoing research and development is rapidly
improving their competitiveness in the utility-scale segment and in areas of high
solar insolation.
3.3.4.Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector"collector (P
VT) are systems that convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. These
systems combine a solar PV cell, which converts sunlight into electricity, with a solar
thermal collector, which captures the remaining energy and removes waste heat from the
PV module. The capture of both electricity and heat allow these devices to have
higher energy and thus be more overall energy efficient than solar PV or solar thermal
alone.

3.3.5.Power stations
Many utility-scale solar farms have been constructed all over the world. As of
2015, the 579-megawatt (MWAC) Solar Star is the world's largest photovoltaic power
station, followed by the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm and the Topaz Solar Farm, both with
a capacity of 550 MWAC, constructed by US-company First Solar, using CdTe modules,
a thin-film PV technology. All three power stations are located in the Californian desert.
Many solar farms around the world are integrated with agriculture and some use
innovative solar tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to
generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel
costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

3.3.6.Rural electrification
Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers
away from grid power are increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a
rural lighting program has been providing solar powered LED lighting to replace
kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few months'
supply of kerosene. Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off
grid. More complex applications of off-grid solar energy use include 3D
printers. RepRap 3D printers have been solar powered with photovoltaic
technology, which enables distributed manufacturing for sustainable development. These
are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar,
though the lack of profitability has relegated such endeavors to humanitarian efforts.
However, in 1995 solar rural electrification projects had been found to be difficult to
sustain due to unfavorable economics, lack of technical support, and a legacy of ulterior
motives of north-to-south technology transfer.
3.3.7.Standalone systems
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty
devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power liquid crystal displays make
it possible to power such devices for several years between battery changes, making PV
use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing
use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power
prohibitively expensive. Such applications include solar lamps, water pumps, parking
meters, emergency telephones, trash compactors, temporary traffic signs, charging
stations, and remote guard posts and signals.

3.3.8.Floatovoltaics
In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, CA pioneered the world's first
"floatovoltaic" system by installing 994 photovoltaic solar panels onto 130 pontoons and
floating them on the winery's irrigation pond. The floating system generates about
477 kW of peak output and when combined with an array of cells located adjacent to the
pond is able to fully offset the winery's electricity consumption. The primary benefit of a
floatovoltaic system is that it avoids the need to sacrifice valuable land area that could be
used for another purpose. In the case of the Far Niente Winery, the floating system saved
three-quarters of an acre that would have been required for a land-based system. That
land area can instead be used for agriculture. Another benefit of a floatovoltaic system is
that the panels are kept at a lower temperature than they would be on land, leading to a
higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The floating panels also reduce the amount
of water lost through evaporation and inhibit the growth of algae.

3.3.9.In transport
PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to
provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide
auxiliary power in boats and cars. Some automobiles are fitted with solar-powered air
conditioning to limit interior temperatures on hot days. A self-contained solar
vehicle would have limited power and utility, but a solar-charged electric vehicle allows
use of solar power for transportation. Solar-powered cars, boats and airplanes have been
demonstrated, with the most practical and likely of these being solar cars. The Swiss solar
aircraft, Solar Impulse 2, achieved the longest non-stop solo flight in history and plan to
make the first solar-powered aerial circumnavigation of the globe in 2015.

3.3.10. Telecommunication and signaling

Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication applications such as local
telephone exchange, radio and TV broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic
communication links. This is because, in most telecommunication application, storage
batteries are already in use and the electrical system is basically DC. In hilly and
mountainous terrain, radio and TV signals may not reach as they get blocked or reflected
back due to undulating terrain. At these locations, low power transmitters (LPT) are
installed to receive and retransmit the signal for local population.

3.3.11.Spacecraft applications
Solar panels on spacecraft are usually the sole source of power to run the sensors,
active heating and cooling, and communications. A battery stores this energy for use
when the solar panels are in shadow. In some, the power is also used for spacecraft
propulsionelectric propulsion. Spacecraft were one of the earliest applications of
photovoltaics, starting with the silicon solar cells used on the Vanguard 1 satellite,
launched by the US in 1958. Since then, solar power has been used on missions ranging
from the MESSENGER probe to Mercury, to as far out in the solar system as
the Juno probe to Jupiter. The largest solar power system flown in space is the electrical
system of the International Space Station. To increase the power generated per kilogram,
typical spacecraft solar panels use high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed
rectangular multi-junction solar cells made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other
semiconductor materials.

3.4.Advantages
The 122 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentifulalmost 10,000
times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by
humans. This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not be long before solar
energy will become the world's primary energy source. Additionally, solar electric
generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable
energies.

Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are
manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are
under development and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from
producers. PV installations can operate for 100 years or even more with little
maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the initial capital cost of
building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing
power technologies.Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing
transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately 7.2%
in 1995).

Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has
been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for
improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already have
efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells and efficiencies are
rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling. In some states of the
United States, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost if the
home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city
of Berkeley developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by
adding a tax assessment that is transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels. Now
known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 30 U.S. states have duplicated this
solution.

There is evidence, at least in California, that the presence of a home-mounted

solar system can actually increase the value of a home. According to a paper published in
April 2011 by the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory titled An
Analysis of the Effects of Residential Photovoltaic Energy Systems on Home Sales Prices
in California:

The research finds strong evidence that homes with PV systems in California have
sold for a premium over comparable homes without PV systems. More specifically,
estimates for average PV premiums range from approximately $3.9 to $6.4 per installed
watt (DC) among a large number of different model specifications, with most models
coalescing near $5.5/watt. That value corresponds to a premium of approximately
$17,000 for a relatively new 3,100 watt PV system (the average size of PV systems in the
study)
 CHAPTER- 4
MATLAB

4.1. Introduction to Matlab:

Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. The name mat
lab stands for matrix laboratory. It integrates computation, visualization, and
programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed
in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math and computation Algorithm
development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis,
exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics Application
development, including graphical user interface building.
Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would
take to write a program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

4.2. History of Matlab:

 Cleve Barry Moler, the chairman of the computer-science department at the
University of New Mexico, he is a mathematician and computer programmer specializing
in numerical analysis. Started developing MATLAB in the late 1970s. He designed it to
give his students access to LINPACK and EISPACK without their having to learn
Fortran. It soon spread to other universities and found a strong audience within the
applied mathematics community. Jack HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Little"Little, an engineer, was exposed to it during
a visit Moler made to Stanford University in 1983. Recognizing its commercial potential,
he joined with Moler and Steve Bangert. They rewrote MATLAB in C and founded Math
Works in 1984 to continue its development. These rewritten libraries were known as
JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was rewritten to use a newer set of libraries for matrix
manipulation, LAPACK.
Strengths of Matlab:
MATLAB is relatively easy to learn.
MATLAB code is optimized to be relatively quick when performing matrix
operations.
MATLAB may behave like a calculator or as a programming language.
MATLAB is interpreted, errors are easier to fix.
Although primarily procedural, MATLAB does have some object-oriented elements.
Other features:
2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data
Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces
Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages, such as C, C++, FORTRAN, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel

Block diagram of Mat lab components

Fig.4.1.Block diagram of Mat lab Components

4.3. MATLAB and engineering:

MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control

engineering, Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also
used in education, in particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and
is popular amongst scientists involved in image processing. However, many researchers
mostly from Computer Science background feel that MATLAB should be used only for
 mathematical analysis necessary in image processing and not for implementation of
image processing software. Moreover, MATLAB should not be used to simulate
computer architectures, systems software and computer networks unless while solving
some numeric problem.

4.3.(A). Toolboxes in Matlab:

(i) Simulink

(ii) Fuzzy

(iii) Genetic algorithm

(iv) Neural network

(V) Wavelet

(i) Simulink:
Introduction:

Simulink is a software add-on to mat lab which is a mathematical tool developed

by The Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in Natick. Mat lab is
powered by extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a tool used to visually
program a dynamic system (those governed by Differential equations) and look at
results. Any logic circuit, or control system for a dynamic system can be built by using
standard building blocks available in Simulink Libraries. Various toolboxes for different
techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, DSP, Statistics etc. are available
with Simulink, which enhance the processing power of the tool. The main advantage is
the availability of templates / building blocks, which avoid the necessity of typing code
for small mathematical processes.

Concept of signal and logic flow:

In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by

lines connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks
dynamic / static).Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks,
which could be scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected from
one block to another, can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is processed
and transferred only at discrete times, since all computers are discrete systems. Thus, a
 simulation time step (otherwise called an integration time step) is essential, and the
selection of that step is determined by the fastest dynamics in the simulated system.

Fig.4.2.Simulink library browser

Connecting blocks:

Fig.4.3.Connectung blocks.

Sources and sinks:

The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a
dynamic system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave, a
step, a repeating sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test
disturbance effects, and can use the random signal generator to simulate noise. The clock
may be used to create a time index for plotting purposes. The ground could be used to
connect to any unused port, to avoid warning messages indicating unconnected ports.

The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most
cases, we would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The
data could be displayed or even stored to a file. The stop block could be used to stop the
simulation if the input to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3 shows
the available blocks in the sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be
terminated, to prevent warnings about unconnected signals.

Fig.4.4.Sources and sinks

Continuous and discrete systems:

All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems. Simulink
allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration blocks, delay
blocks etc.
 Fig.4.5. continous and descrete system

Non-linear operators:

A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate non-
linear systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very
difficult to arrive at an analytical solution for a system having non-linearities such as
saturation, signup function, limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are
analyzed using iterations, non-linearities are not a hindrance. One such could be a
saturation block, to indicate a physical limitation on a parameter, such as a voltage signal
to a motor etc. Manual switches are useful when trying simulations with different cases.
Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in programming.

Fig 4.6.simulink blocks

Mathematical operations:

Mathematical operators such as products, sum, logical operations such as and, or,
etc. can be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication becomes easy
with the matrix gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan inverse (at an) are
also available. Relational operators such as equal to, greater than etc. can also be used
in logic circuits.

Fig.4.7.Simulink math blocks

Signals & data transfer:

In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from one
portion to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That signal
 could be dumped into a GOTO block, which is used to send signals from one subsystem
to another.

Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes matrix
(column/row) visualization easier.

Fig.4.8.signals and systems

Making subsystems:

Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the parent
block where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends on the
purpose of the block. In general one will use the standard subsystem but other
subsystems can be chosen. For instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block, which
is enabled only when a trigger signal is received. Open (double click) the subsystem and
create input / output PORTS, which transfer signals into and out of the subsystem. The
input and output ports are created by dragging them from the Sources and Sinks
directories respectively. When ports are created in the subsystem, they automatically
create ports on the external (parent) block. This allows for connecting the appropriate
signals from the parent block to the subsystem.

Setting simulation parameters:

Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique to

solve a differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system or a
discrete system based on the blocks inside. The simulation start and stop time can be
specified. In case of variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be specified.
A Fixed step size is recommended and it allows for indexing time to a precise number of
points, thus controlling the size of the data vector. Simulation step size must be decided
based on the dynamics of the system. A thermal process may warrant a step size of a few
seconds, but a DC motor in the system may be quite fast and may require a step size of a
few milliseconds.

Fig.4.9. Setting Simulation Parameter

 CHAPTER-5
SIMPOWER SYSTEM

5.1. Introduction:

SimPowerSystems software and other products of the Physical Modeling product

family work together with Simulink software to model electrical, mechanical, and
control systems.

SimPowerSystems software operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore,

before starting this user's guide, make yourself familiar with Simulink documentation.
Or, if you perform signal processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control
system design tasks), see the Signal Processing Block set documentation.

5.2. The Role of Simulation in Design:

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and

electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this
discipline are constantly improving the performance of the systems. Requirements for
drastically increased efficiency have forced power system designers to use power
electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts that tax traditional analysis
tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst's role is the fact that the system is
often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through simulation.

Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not

the only use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of
power electronics and control systems to achieve their performance objectives.

SimPowerSystems software is a modern design tool that allows scientists and

engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems. It uses the
Simulink environment, allowing you to build a model using simple click and drag
procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit topology rapidly, but your analysis of the
circuit can include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other
disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with
the extensive Simulink modeling library.

Since Simulink uses the MATLAB computational engine, designers can also use
MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPowerSystems software belongs to
the Physical Modeling product family and uses similar block and connection line
interface.

5.3. Sim power systems Libraries:

SimPowerSystems libraries contain models of typical power equipment such as

transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven ones
coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power
Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Qubec, a large North American
utility located in Canada, and also on the experience of cole de Technology Suprieure
and Universit Laval. The capabilities of SimPowerSystems software for modeling a
typical electrical system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who want to
refresh their knowledge of power system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.

The SimPowerSystems main library, powerlib, organizes its blocks into libraries
according to their behavior. The powerlib library window displays the block library
icons and names. Double-click a library icon to open the library and access the blocks.
 The main powerlib library window also contains the Powergui block that opens a
graphical user interface for the steady-state analysis of electrical circuits.

5.3.1. Nonlinear Simulink Blocks for Simpower systems Models:

The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the powerlib library are stored in a special
block library named powerlib models. These masked Simulink models are used by
SimPowerSystems software to build the equivalent Simulink model of your circuit. See
Improving Simulation Performance for a description of the powerlib models library.

Diagram of Simpower system

Fig.5.1.Diagram of Simpower system

5.4. Applications of Matlab:

MATLAB is a data-manipulation software package that allows data to be analyzed and

visualized using existing functions and user-designed programs. MATLAB is a
numerical computing environment and programming language. MATLAB allows easy
matrix manipulation, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms,
creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs in other languages. Although it
specializes in numerical computing, an optional toolbox interfaces with the Maple
symbolic engine, allowing it to be part of a full computer algebra system.

Some of the mat lab applications listed are:

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

Genetic algorithm data mining

Speech recognition using VQ method

Channel Estimation and Detection in DS-CDMA

Analysis of iterative channel estimation and multi-user detection in multi path DS-
CDMA channels

Time-domain signal detection

Time-domain signal detection based on second-order statistics for mimo-OFDM systems

 Spacetime block coding

Spacetime block codes for mimo channels

Blind channel estimation

Basic circuit designing and analyzing of results:

Click on the file and select new model file and a file will be appeared:

Fig.5.2.Basic Circuit designing and Analyzing of results

Now a block and right click on it, the block will be appearing in the new model
file (untitled) For example consider a sine wave in the source block and in order to
obtain or to view the output place the scope block. Join those two blocks. Now a simple
circuit is ready, now set the simulation time in the tool bar (default it is set to 10.0),
simulate the circuit by clicking on the simulation icon (PLAY BUTTON). Simulation is
completed now by double clicking on the scope u can view the output, press the auto
scale button and o/p will appear clearly.

5.5. PROPOSEDCONVERTERTOPOLOGY AND

OPERATIONANALYSIS
Fig. 3 shows the circuit diagram of the proposed converter. Cin is the input
capacitor;HTis the hybrid transformer with the turns ratio 1:n;S1 is the active MOSFET
switch;D1 is the clamping diode, which provides a current path for the leakage
inductance of the hybrid transformer whenS1 is OFF, Cc captures the leakage energy
from the hybrid transformer and transfers it to the resonant capacitor Cr by means of a
resonant circuit composed ofCc, Cr, Lr, and Dr; Lr is a resonant inductor, which operates
in the resonant mode; andDr is a diode used to provide an unidirectional current flow
path for the operation of the resonant portion of the circuit. Cr is a resonant capacitor,
which operates in the hybrid mode by having a resonant charge and linear discharge.
The turn-on ofDr is determined by the state of the active switchS1. Do is the
output diode similar to the traditional coupled-inductor boost converter and Co is the
output capacitor.Ro is the equivalent resistive load. Fig. 4 illustrates the five steady-state
topology stages of the proposed dcdc converter for one switching cycle. Fig. 5 shows
the key voltage and current waveforms for specific components of the converter over the
switching cycle. For the waveforms represented in Fig.5,g1represents the driver signal for
the active MOSFET switchS1;is1 is the current of the MOSFETS1;iCr is the current of
the resonant capacitor Cr; iC cis the current of clamping capacitorCC;iin is the primary
side current of hybrid transformer;io is the current through the output diode;vs1 and
vDoare the voltage waveforms of the active switch MOSFETS1 and the output diodeDo,
respectively. For simplicity, we assume that the dc input voltage is a stiff voltage source
with a constant voltageVin, the load is a resistor and all the switch and diodes are ideal
devices. The five operation modes are briefly described as follows.
[t0,t1], [see Fig. 3(a)]:In this period, MOSFETS1is ON, the magnetizing inductor
of the hybrid transformer is charged by input voltage,Cr is charged byCc, and the
secondary-reflected input voltage nVin of the hybrid transformer together by the resonant
circuit composed of secondary side of the hybrid transformer,Cr,Cc,Lr, andDr. The
energy captured byCc is transferred toCr, which in turn is transferred to the load during
the off-time of the MOSFET. The current in MOSFETS1is the sum of the resonant
current and linear magnetizing inductor current as shown in Fig. 5. There are two
distinctive benefits that can be achieved by the linear and resonant hybrid mode
operation. The first benefit is that the energy is delivered from source during the
capacitive mode and inductive mode simultaneously. Compared to previous coupled-
inductor high boost ratio dcdc converters with only inductive energy delivery, the dc
current bias is greatly reduced, decreasing the size of the magnetics. Second, the turnoff
current is decreased, which causes a reduction in the turn-off switching losses.
[t1,t2], [see Fig. 4(b)]: At timet1, MOSFET S1 is turned OFF, the clamping
diodeD1is turned ON by the leakage energy stored in the hybrid transformer during the
time period that the MOSFET is ON and the capacitorCc is charged which causes the
voltage on the MOSFET to be clamped.
[t2,t3], [see Fig. 4(c)]:At timet2, the capacitorCc is charged to the point that the
output diode Do is forwarded biased. The energy stored in the magnetizing inductor and
capacitor Cr is being transferred to the load and the clamp diodeD1 continues to conduct
while Cc remains charged.
[t3,t4], [see Fig. 4(d)]:At timet3, diode D1 is reversed biased and as a result, the
energy stored in magnetizing inductor of the hybrid transformer and in capacitor Cr is
simultaneously transferred to the load. During the steady-state operation, the charge
through capacitor Cr must satisfy charge balance. The key waveform of the capacitor Cr
current shows that the capacitor operates at a hybrid-switching mode, i.e., charged in
resonant style and discharged in linear style. [t4,t0], [see Fig. 4(e)]:The
MOSFETS1is turned ON at time t4. Due to the leakage effect of the hybrid transformer,
the output diode current io will continue to flow for a short time and the output diode Do
will be reversed biased at timet0; then the next switching cycle starts. The boost ratio Mb
can be obtained by three flux balance criteria for the steady state. The first flux balance
on the magnetizing inductor of hybrid transformer requires that in steady state

Second, according to flux balance on the resonant inductor during on-time

The last flux balance that governs the circuit is voltage-second balance of the
magnetizing inductor in the hybrid transformer for the whole switching period.

By substituting (2) into (3), the boost conversion ratio can be obtained

The conversion ratio is similar to the conventional boost converter except that the
turns ratio termnis added, so the traditional duty ratio control method that is applied for a
standard boost converter can also be applied to the proposed converter.

Fig. 5.3. Operation modes of the high boost ratio dcdc converter with hybrid
transformer. (a)t0-t1.(b)t1-t2.(c)t2-t3.(d)t3-t4.(e)t4-t5

Fig. 5.4 Key waveforms for different operation stages

5.6. ANALYSIS ANDADVANTAGES OF THE

PROPOSEDCONVERTER
A. Fixed Voltage Stresses of the Power Devices
Voltage stresses for all the power devices of the converter are determined in this
section to select power devices with the proper rating and all the results are with respect
to the output dc
voltage. From the circuit diagram oft0tot1andt1tot2in Fig. 4, respectively, the voltage
stresses for MOSFETS1and clamping diodeD1are obtained.

From the circuit diagram oft0tot1andt2tot3in Fig. 4, one obtains the voltage stress of
diode resonant diodeDr and output diodeDo

From (5) and (6), it is obvious that all the voltage stresses of the switches are independent
of input voltage and load conditions. In other words, all the voltage stresses of the
switches are optimized based on the output voltage and the turns ratio of the transformer.
The resonant periodTr and the resonant frequency are given by
 If the constant on-time controlTonis used, chooseTon=1/2Tr so that the resonant
diode can turn OFF at zero-current condition and conduction loss can be minimized. In
the experimental implementation of the hybrid transformer, the leakage inductance of the
hybrid transformer should be considered, so that the total resonant inductance is
expressed as follows.

whereLlrs is the secondary side leakage inductance and Llrp is the primary side
inductance of the hybrid transformer. The

Fig. 5.5. Waveforms for energy transfer analysis

resonant capacitance Cr is composed by Cr andCc in series. Normally, we chooseCr Cc
so that the voltage stress of the MOSFET can be clamped well. The optimal operation
mode is the constant PWM on-timeToncontrol with variable frequency, however,
traditional PWM control method is applicable to the proposed converter as described in
[26] and [27].

B. Analysis of Energy Transfer

The simplified waveforms for energy transfer analysis are shown in Fig. 6. In
order to analyze the energy transfer feature from the low voltage dc energy source to the
high-voltage dc bus, it is necessary to solve the equivalent circuit in Fig. 3(a) subject to
the initial conditions imposed by the previous PWM OFF-time interval given by

Where v Cr is the ripple of the resonant capacitorCr. The resonant solutions are
obtained as

whereRNis characteristic impedance given by

For PWM off-time interval, the discharge equations of the resonant capacitorCr1are
given by

whereILmsecis the average linear magnetizing current referred to secondary side of the
hybrid transformer, Io is the average output current, sPo is the output power, and Vo is the
output voltage. From (14)(17), the relationship between and linear magnetizing current
and sinusoidal resonant current can be expressed as
 Accordingly, the average primary side sinusoidal resonant current of hybrid transformer
is given by

Substituting (18) into (19) yields

The average input current Iin can be obtained from (4) by power balance

For the optimal mode operation, the relationship between the resonant frequency and the
switching period is

Substituting (22) into (20) yields

The resonant contribution indexkr of energy transfer by sinusoidal resonant

current can be defined as the ratio between the average input resonant currentLLrprito the
total input current Iin

In order to optimize the operation of the proposed converter,kr needs to be increased, this
will reduce the turn-off losses of the MOSFET and decrease the size of the magnetic core
used. The curve of the resonant energy transfer contribution indexKr at different input
voltage conditions is shown in Fig. 7. The operating conditions for the curve in Fig. 7 are
for when the output voltageVoequals 400 V, the turns ratio of the hybrid transformer
nequals 40:9, and an input voltage range from 20 to 45 V. For a given power and fixed
output voltage, the resonant energy transfer contribution index increases along with the
increase in input voltage. This feature helps improve the converter efficiency over a wide
input voltage range by decreasing the conduction losses which are more dominant at low-
input voltages and reducing the switching losses that are more dominant at high-input
voltages.

Fig. 5.6. Kr versus Vin curve.

Fig. 5.7. Input current comparison between resonant mode and linear mode.
(a) Resonant mode. (b) Linear mode.
C. Advantages Over Conventional Nonresonant High Step-Up
Converter
Current popular methods used to achieve high boost ratio for nonisolated dcdc
converters consist of using coupled-inductor and switched-capacitor techniques [8][23].
The converter presented in this paper utilizes hybrid-switching technique [26], [27]
combing PWM and resonant power conversions to achieve a high boost ratio while
maintaining a high efficiency. The advantages gained from using the hybrid-switching
operation will be illustrated in this section.
The input currents for the resonant sinusoidal charge mode and the PWM linear
charge mode are comparatively illustrated in Fig. 8. The proposed converter works using
the resonant sinusoidal charge mode, while a conventional nonresonant converter [11]
works using the linear charge mode. For a fixed output power and given input voltage,
the average input currents Iin for these two converters shown in Fig. 8 are equal. Areas
AandB(see Fig. 8) show the capacitive energy transferred by the hybrid transformer of
the proposed converter with resonant mode and linear energy transferred by the coupled-
inductor of the converter in [11]. The switching losses for a dcdc converter are directly
proportional to the switching current given by the fixed conversion voltages. As shown in
Fig. 5, the MOSFET is turned ON at time t =t4, the raising rate of the primary current is
limited by the leakage inductor of the hybrid transformer alleviating the turn-on losses.
The main switching loss then becomes the turn-off switching losses. For the resonant
mode

Fig. 5.8. Two-phase extension for proposed converter

charge of the proposed converter, the turn-off switching currentI1, as shown in Fig. 8(a),
consists of only the magnetizing current as a result of resonant operation. For the
conventional nonresonant converter [11], the turn-off switching currentI3, as shown in
Fig. 8(b), is the sum of the magnetizing current and the switched-capacitor charge
current, which is dependent on the leakage inductance of the coupled-inductor. For a
given capacitor value of the switched-capacitor, increasing the leakage inductance can
reduce the raising rate of the primary side current to reduce the turn-off current; however,
the conversion ratio will decrease because of the reduced coupling factorkof the coupled-
inductor [11]. As a result, the leakage inductance design of the coupled-inductor has a
tradeoff between the conversion ratio and a higher turn-off switching current. With the
introduction of a resonant operation mode into the PWM converter for the proposed
converter, the primary peak currentI2, as shown in Fig. 8(b), is smaller than the peak
current I3of its switched-capacitor counterpart. Since the resonant mode is employed as
opposed to the switched-capacitor mode, the capacitance of the charge capacitorCr can be
greatly reduced.
Hence, utilizing the resonant mode allows the use of smaller sized magnetic
components and lower profile charge capacitors for Cr which can have a low capacitance.
This is perfect for an application where a low profile PV-module-integrated dc dc
converter is needed. The leakage inductance of the hybrid transformer can also be
effectively utilized as part of the resonant minor loop simplifying the design of the
transformer for the proposed converter.

D. Two-Phase Interleaved Extension

In order for the proposed converter to be used in higher power level conversion
applications, the interleaving method applicable to the traditional high boost ratio PWM
dcdc converter [16] can be employed, as shown in Fig. 9. This gives the advantages of
standard interleaved converter systems such as low-input current ripple, reduced output
voltage ripple, and lower conduction losses. The difference between standard interleaved
converters and the proposed interleaved converter is that the clamping capacitorCc can
also be shared by the interleaved units reducing the total number of components in the
system. Using the

TABLE 5.1
DESIGNPARAMETERS

5.1.phase-shift method of control, the current ripple through the clamping capacitor Cc is
reduced as a result the capacitance needed for Cc is also reduced.

5.7. EXPERIMENTALVERIFICATIONS

In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed converter, a prototype circuit

with the photograph shown in Fig. 10 targeted at the PV module power optimizer
applications was built and tested. Tables I and II list the design parameters and
components selection for the converter. From the analysis of the circuit, two control
methods can be adopted for the proposed converter. The first method is utilizing a
variable frequency control, which is accomplished by using a fixed Ton control and
varying the Toff internal to obtain the desired gain. Another control method is the
traditional PWM converter control by adjusting the duty cycle of the switch for a fixed
frequency to obtain the desired boost gain. Although the fixed Ton control is optimal,
however, in real control implementation, PWM control with fixed switching frequency is
preferred because of its simplicity. In the experiment, the proposed converter was
designed to convert the low dc voltage, Vin with the voltage varying from 20 to 45 V, to a
constant high dc output, Vo=400 V. To maintain a low voltage stress on the active
switchM1 and reasonable duty cycle range, the turns ration of hybrid transformer was
chosen to be 40:9. The calculated voltage stress for switch S1 using

TABLE .5.2.
COMPONENTS SELECTION

Fig. 5.9. Experimental waveforms of current of the resonant capacitorCr1, voltage of

switchM1, and input current with Po =220 W,Vo =400 V,Vin = 30 V, andfs =88 kHz.

was about 60 V and voltage stress for output diode using (6) was 340 V. The resonant
contribution index kr =0.35was when D=0.5. The duty ratio range calculated by (4) for
an input PV module voltage range of 2045 V is 0.280.68, which is kept within a
reasonable range. Fig. 11 highlights the experimental waveforms of the resonant
capacitor current, input current and voltage of the MOSFET with Po=220 W, Vo=400 V,
and Vin =30 V. As seen from Fig. 11, the switch voltage Vds is clamped at 60 V and the
resonant capacitor is charged by sinusoidal resonant mode and discharge by linear PWM
mode, while the input current is composed of linear current and resonant current. Figs.
1214 show the experimental waveforms of voltage of MOSFET switch, voltage of the
output diode and current of the resonant capacitor Cr, and input current with the input
voltages of 20, 30, and 45 V under different output power level. Experimental waveforms
from Figs. 1214 show that all the voltages of the MOSFET are clamped at
approximately 60 V and the voltages of the output diode are clamped under 350 V
without any voltage overshoot matching the earlier calculations. The input current is
continuous at continuous-conduction mode operation with low-RMS and low-ripple
values decreasing the conduction loss. The turn-off current of MOSFET is reduced with
the hybrid sinusoidal-linear waveform. Discontinuous conduction mode occurs at light
power output and accordingly the turn-on loss can be slightly reduced with low turn-on
voltage

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Fig. 5.10. Experimental waveforms of switch voltage, output diode voltage, input current,
and current of resonant capacitor of the proposed converter with 20-Vinput and 400-V
output under different output power level: (a) 30 W, (b) 110 W, (c) 160 W, and (d) 220 W

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Fig. 5.11. Experimental waveforms of switch voltage, output diode voltage, input current,
and current of resonant capacitor of the proposed converter with 30-Vinput and 400-V
output under different output power level: (a) 30 W, (b) 110 W, (c) 160 W, and (d) 220 W
Fig. 15 summarizes the conversion efficiencies for different input voltages under
different output power levels. All the conversion efficiencies from 30 to 220 W are higher
than 96% and the peak efficiency is 97.4% under 35-V input with 160-W output power
level. The weighted CEC efficiency was also calculated for different input voltages and
shown in Fig. 16. The CEC efficiencies over the 2045 V input voltage range were over
96.5% due to the relatively flat conversion efficiency curves for all input voltages as
shown in Fig. 15.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Fig. 5.12. Experimental waveforms of switch voltage, output diode voltage, input current,
and current of resonant capacitor of the proposed converter with 45-V input and 400-V
output under different output power level: (a) 30 W, (b) 110 W, (c) 160 W, and (d) 220 W.

Fig. 5.13. Conversion efficiency versus output power for different input
Voltages

Fig. 5.14. Weighted CEC efficiency at different input voltages

CHAPTER 6

SIMULATION MODEL AND RESULT WITH FUZZY

CONTROLLER

The relevant study of the simulation model of DFIG based wind energy
conversion system with the fuzzy controller and results obtained under various wind
conditions.

6.1 SIMULATION MODEL:

The proposed model is designed in simulink tool of matlab 2009b as in fig 6.1

Fig .7.1.

prop
osed

extension
 CHAPTER- 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
SCOPE

6.1. CONCLUSION
A high boost ratio dcdc converter with hybrid transformer suitable for
alternative dc energy sources with low dc voltage input is proposed in this paper. The
resonant conversion mode is incorporated into a traditional high step-up PWM converter
with coupled-inductor and switched-capacitor obtaining the following features and
benefits: 1) This converter transfers the capacitive and inductive energy simultaneously to
increase the total power delivery reducing losses in the system. 2) The conduction loss in
the transformer and MOSFET is reduced as a result of the low-input RMS current and
switching loss is reduced with a lower turn-off current. With these improved
performances, the converter can maintain high efficiency under low output power and
low-input voltage conditions. 3) With low-input ripple current feature, the converter is
suitable for PV module and fuel cell PCS, where, accurate MPPT is performed by the dc
dc converter. A prototype-circuit-targeted PV module power optimizer with 2045 V
input voltage range and 400-V dc output was built and tested. Experimental results show
that the MOSFET voltage was clamped at 60 V and the output diode voltage was under
350 V. These results were independent of the input voltage level. The conversion
efficiencies from 30 to 220 W are higher than 96% and the peak efficiency is 97.4%
under 35-V input with 160-W output power.

6.2. FUTURE SCOPE

The controller is modified and implemented in FUZZY LOGIC

CONTROLLER
The simulation outputs of FLC is most steady state and response with fast response when
compare to traditional controller.

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