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Oilwell Drilling Technology


~
Unit 1 : Basic Concepts

Contents Page
Visual Cues
* Training Target 1.2
~~ training targets for you to achieve

* Introduction 1.3
'1rt
by the end of the unit

* Section 1 - Reservoirs and Reservoir Rocks 1.5 test yourself questions to see how

* Section 2 - Exploration Techniques 1.15


[1] III
much you understand

* Section 3 - Drilling Rig Types 1.21


[\Ii check yourself answers to let you
see if you have been thinking along
the right lines

* Section 4 - Drilling Personnel 1.33

~
activities for you to apply your new
knowledge or find things out for
* Check Yourself - Answers 1.37 yourself

[~ summaries for you to recap on the


major steps In your progress

1.1

~~
\1~ Training Target
The aim of this unit is to give you an insight into the basic concepts and techniques used in the
exploration for oil and gas. We will also look briefly at the drilling process, design features of
drilling rigs and the personnel involved in the drilling operation.

When you have completed the unit you will be able to:

Name the two main types of sedimentary rock. D


Define the rock properties of porosity and permeability. D
* Explain in broad terms the origin of petroleum. D
* Identify the types of rock structure which can form a petroleum reservoir. D
Describe the large scale survey techniques used in petroleum exploration. D
Explain the principles of three small scale survey techniques used in petroleum exploration. D
Describe the basic concepts of the drilling process. D
List the main types of drilling rig in use and the key features of each. D
* List the main personnel involved in the drilling operation and the functions of the drilling crew. D
Tick each box when you have met the target.

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Unit 1 : Basic Concepts f(~


~

Introduction

Natural petroleum is contained in underground Therefore, we can say that drilling a well is the last As the number of wells drilled into a reservoir
reservoirs. The aim is to get it from the reservoir step in the exploration stage. Once we know that increases, so does the cost but there are benefits:
to the surface in a safe and efficient manner. hydrocarbons are there, underground, it is
necessary to decide whether the amount present is * the overall rate of petroleum extraction can
There are two main stages involved in this: sufficient to justify the expense of installing usually be increased
production facilities - offshore production platforms
* finding the petroleum for example. * long term damage to the reservoir can be
* transporting it to the surface and processing minimised by avoiding points of high
it for the next phase So, a programme of appraisal drilling is planned, production at a few isolated wells.
which aims to define:
The first of these stages is called exploration, and Development or production drilling is now carried
the second production. * the size and shape of the reservoir out, giving the ideal distribution of wells over the
reservoir to achieve the best economic return for
It is worth noting here that natural petroleum is * how much hydrocarbon is in place there the whole operation. That is - the most
also referred to as: hydrocarbon, at the least cost, in the shortest time.
* how much of this oil and gas can actually
* petroleum
be brought to the surface All these different types of drilling activity
* oil and gas or
exploration, appraisal, or development - will use a
* hydrocarbons * what difficulties the operation is likely to wide range of skills contained within the area we
encounter. call Drilling Technology.
I will be using all of these expressions from time to
time. If, after carrying all this out, we still believe that it is
worthwhile proceeding, we enter the production
We are never absolutely sure whether oil or gas is stage proper.
present in a reservoir until we have:
Production facilities need to be designed and
* drilled into that reservoir installed - for example, how many wells or
* obtained a sample of the reservoir fluids at production platforms are required? There are
the surface usually a number of wells drilled into one reservoir.

1.3
I~

Before we look into the detail of the drilling operation, this unit on Basic Concepts provides you with some
background on four related topics:

* Section 1 talks about the structure of a reservoir and the types of rock which will be found there.

* Section 2 examines the various exploration techniques which need to be carried through before
the location of the first hole to be drilled is selected.

* Section 3 looks at the different drilling rig types and indicates why a particular design is selected
for a particular purpose. It also covers some basic drilling concepts.

* Section 4 considers the people who work on a drilling rig and how they relate to each other.

1A

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Unit 1 : Basic Concepts

Section 1 - Reservoirs and Reservoir Rocks

A reservoir is not a huge underground cavern Basic Geology of Reservoir Rocks


filled with fluid, as many people still imagine.
Most reservoirs are made up of sedimentary rocks. There are two principle types of sedimentary rock in
It is actually a rock system and within the pores,
which hydrocarbons are commonly found. These are:
cracks and channels of this system the reservoir
fluid - gas, oil, water or, in many cases, a mixture
* clastic (or detrital) rocks
of all three, is stored.
* biochemical rocks
In this section you will find out about:
Clastic rocks are formed by the settling out and accumulation of solid particles such as sand. These
* the basic geology of reservoir rocks particles are formed by the weathering of larger rocks.
* the types of reservoir fluid and how they got They are carried (by rivers, etc.) to the point where they are deposited. Further layers of rock particles
there
(many thousands of feet thick in some cases) may be laid down on top of this sediment layer which will
eventually form the reservoir.
* the structure of reservoirs - why they act as
reservoirs
The force exerted by these further layers (known as the overburden) together with other chemical and
physical changes result in the formation of typical clastic rocks such as sandstones and shales.

Biochemical rocks are formed by the accumulation of marine life remains - fragments of shells, coral,
skeletons and so forth. Again, application of pressure and other changes result in the formation of typical
biochemical rocks such as limestones, chalks and dolomites.

1.5
~

Figure 1 shows photographs of a typical sandstone and dolomite, taken through an electron microscope
and magnified many times. Details of individual rock particles and pores can clearly be seen.

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Properties of Reservoir Rocks To get a better visual impression of this, think of a


container full of marbles. The marbles represent
We now have a reservoir rock which is perhaps
thousands of feet below the surface. You already
know that the reservoir fluids (hydrocarbons and
individual rock particles which are greatly
magnified. Between the marbles packed in the
container you can see spaces. These are the
@] Actlvlty
water) will reside in the pores, cracks and channels pores. Added together they form the pore space.
of this system. Find two empty containers - empty
yoghurt cartons or plastic cups would be
However, our main interest in the reservoir rock is ideal - some dry sand and some water.
knowing:
Fill one container with sand and the other
how much space is available for storage of with water. Now, pour some of the water,
these fluids slowly, into the container of sand.

* how easily they will flow to the wellbore What happens? Note down here what you
see.
from where they can be transported to the surface.

These characteristics are referred to as porosity


and permeability.

Porosity
Figure 2
The space which is available between the rock
particles (known as the pore space - see figure 2) The volume of pore space, expressed as a
is one important guide as to how much percentage of the total rock volume, is called the You will need your yoghurt cartons for the
hydrocarbon may be present. porosity of the rock. The storage capacity of our next activity.
reservoir, then, depends on the total volume of the
rock (how big the reservoir is) and its porosity.

1.7
~

I hope you saw that the water disappeared into the

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sand. You will recall that I explained to you what
pore space was - the volume occupied by the
pores, cracks and channels of the reservoir rock
system. It is into this void space that our water is Test Yourself 1
disappearing.

Incidentally, it is worth noting that you could Imagine a block of sandstone as a mini-reservoir with a total rock volume of one cubic metre
estimate the storage capacity of this (or 1 000 Iitres).
mini-reservoir in the yoghurt carton by measuring
the volume of water necessary to fill to the top of If the porosity of this reservoir is 18% of the total volume of the rock, what is the maximum
the sand. volume of oil it could hold (in litres, say)?

!t{<o{ y I 1- /.'i' ir-,

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You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1 on page 1.37.


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Permeability to pass through in order to reach the well. This is Reservoir Fluids
shown in figure 3.
You should now have a mental picture of how the Scientists do not agree on hawaii and gas were
pore space in the reservoir provides storage Permeability is a measure of how easy it is for the
originally formed. The most popular idea is called
capacity for reservoir fluids - which can include reservoir fluids to make this journey. The higher
the organic theory. This supposes that these
gas, oil and water. the permeability (expressed in units called
hydrocarbons were created from the remains of
Darcies), the easier for these fluids to flow and, small plants and animals living mainly in the sea.
However, it is necessary that these fluids can flow, other things being equal, the higher the production
Their remains would be covered up by other rock
at an economic rate, through the reservoir to the rate from that particular well.
deposits washed down by rivers, sealed from the
wellbore, from where they are transported to the air and, over time, exposed to pressure and other
surface. The property which allows this flow is It is worth noting that the permeability (and
changes (in much the same way as the reservoir
called permeability. therefore ease of flow) is affected not only by the
rocks themselves).
type of rock but also by the nature of the fluid
The pore spaces in the rock must be connected passing through it. Heavy oils will usually find it
The oil and gas formed by this process, however,
together, providing a continuous channel for fluids more difficult to move through the pores of a given
did not usually stay in the same place. You know
rock than water.
from your own experience that oil floats on water.
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'. 1(" 7 I'I~ animal life and when petroleum was formed it
tended to float upwards, through the water-filled
.. ~-,.~- (~) 0 { -~,/" pores of the rock, until it could rise no higher. (We
paths taken by fluid flowing ..
through the pore space
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known as the source rock. The process of moving

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from there is called migration, and you will have

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guessed, the rock in which this petroleum comes to

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rest is called the reservoir rock. Our task is to
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find this petroleum reservoir.

Figure 3

1.9

~
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~ Activity
If you can obtain some clean, coarse grit (free from mud and clay, that is) you can try this:

Take your two empty yoghurt cartons saved from the first Activity. You also need the grit and a small quantity of oil
(light machine oil or even cooking oil will do).

Fill one container with water as before. Add about 1/4" of oil to the other container and then fill it with the grit.

Pour some of the water into the container of grit until free water is visible at the surface. Leave overnight.

When you come back to look at it, note down here what you see.

1.10

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You should see that a film of oil becomes clearly The impervious rock layer must be shaped in a You will notice from these diagrams that the
visible on the surface. This oil, therefore, must certain way, otherwise the petroleum would find its reservoir fluids contained within the rock pores
have migrated from the bottom of the container to way round the edges and continue its upward have separated (over millions of years) into distinct
the top. migration. The impervious rock layer must form a layers - gas at the top, then oil, then water as you
trap, such as a cap rock. would expect.
It has floated upwards through the water which is
filling the pores of the grit until it can go no higher. Figures 4a, 4b and 4c illustrate various types of In practice, the boundaries between the layers are
This is how natural petroleum migrates from the traps and how petroleum can accumulate under not as sharp as in the picture. This separation is,
source rock ie. the rock where it was formed, to these to form the petroleum reservoir. however, important, when we decide how far into
the reservoir rock. the reservoir we should drill before completing the
well. Unit 9 will look at this in more detail.
This small reservoir contains larger rock particles
than you would usually find in practice but the idea
is exactly the same. It does indicate very clearly
that your yoghurt-carton reservoir has both porosity
/
(to hide the oil and water) and permeability (to /
allow the oil to reach the surface). /
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The Structure of Reservoirs

You now have a mental picture of the petroleum


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after it was formed, floating upwards through rock


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pores and channels filled with water. It will stop
when it is no longer able to do this - when it
encounters a rock layer which does not contain - - porous,
any pores and channels. This layer is called an permeable
reservoir rock
impervious rock, which means not permeable.
---------. Figure 4a

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water

porous,
permeable
reservoir rock

Figure 4c

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[1] Test Yourself 2


Have a look at the sketch below. It shows two subsurface geological structures. If oil migrates upwards through the porous and permeable reservoir
rock then do you think that either of these structures could form an effective petroleum reservoir?

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And why? ,~
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You will find the answer in Check Yourself 2 on page 1.38.

1.13
I~

The task is now to find the petroleum reservoir,


and the next section looks at some of the more

~
common exploration techniques which are used
prior to the final test - drilling.
Summary
In this section we have looked at sedimentary rocks and how they were first deposited. You will
have learnt that, in order to form an effective petroleum reservoir, this sedimentary rock must
possess two properties: porosity and permeability.

I described how petroleum was first formed in the source rock and how it migrated upwards
towards the reservoir.

The petroleum reservoir will then:

* consist of sedimentary rock having both porosity and permeability

* lie underneath an impermeable (impervious) layer (such as a cap rock), forming a


trap past which the reservoir fluids cannot leak

* contain reservoir fluids which have separated, in many cases into a gas layer at the
top, an oil layer in the middle and a water layer underneath

You now know what a petroleum reservoir is. In the next section you will learn how to find it.

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Unit 1 : Basic Concepts

Section 2 .. Exploration Techniques

In the previous section, I described how Sedimentary Basins Exploration Techniques - large
sedimentary roCKS are laid down and why the
presence of these rocks would indicate the scale
We have seen, previously, that most scientists now
possibility of oil and gas being present.
accept the organic theory of petroleum production.
Here, we must think of techniques which are
We need to know the broad geographical areas in suitable for land locations, and those which are
In other words, they believe that oil and gas were
the world where these sedimentary rocks may be applicable over water.
formed from plant and animal remains, deposited
found. This gives us a first clue as to where we
from rivers and seas, covered with further layers of
should drill.
rock sediment and subjected to high pressures, Land
high temperatures and so on.
These areas can be very large and techniques are Geologists have found that they can sometimes
required to pinpoint more accurately the likely identify subsurface structures like faults and domes
If this is the case, our sedimentary basins, or
subsurface structures where oil and gas could by viewing ground contours at the surface. You will
geographical areas where large quantities of
accumulate. You already know that these are see this more clearly by looking again at
sedimentary rock are found, will be located where
called traps and will be familiar with the basic figures 4a, band c and noting that these
old river systems have deposited large quantities
types. subsurface shapes can, to some extent, be
of sediment into ancient seas. The locations of
these seas are well known by geologists, based on mirrored at ground level.
In this section, you will find out about:
a wide range of other evidence.
Aerial photographic surveys are a most effective
* sedimentary basins However, knowing that a petroleum reservoir could means of gaining this broad impression. Domes
be contained within a sedimentary basin which and outcrops often stand out clearly, perhaps by
* exploration techniques - large scale may be hundreds of miles across is not much help changes in the vegetation. Figure 6 on the next
to an oil company. They want to know where to page shows an aerial photograph which illustrates
* exploration techniques - small scale some of these characteristics.
drill the first well - precisely.

Therefore, we require other techniques which will


pinpoint more accurately the most favourable
location for drilling.

1.15
I~

..---'~... "' ... ~ pr!" _ _ "IAUI_ _

The use of 3-dimensional photography increases


the ease with which surface characteristics can be
picked out from aerial photographs.

Nowadays, in addition, photographs from orbiting


satellites are increasingly used for this type of
exploration work.

Aerial surveys are often accompanied by field


surveys - geologists on the ground investigating in
more detail some of the structures picked out from
the air. They may be looking for the size and shape
of a dome, or the slope and rock type of an
outcrop. Again, figures 4a, band c demonstrate
how this information might be useful in selecting a
location to drill.

Water

Over water, the same type of information is


needed, but other techniques are required.

Sonar (reflected sound wave) surveys can be used


to plot the contours of the seabed, while divers are
sometimes employed to carry out a field survey
underwater.

!Figure 6

1.16

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maximum
Exploration Techniques ~ small gravitational
pull
scale

- --
gravity ~
meter > ~
<,
record <,
At this stage, explorers for oil would want some
confirmation that what they saw on the surface --- r-
actually indicated a trap-type structure
underground.

They would also need some hint of the depth of


any likely structure. It would be very difficult to plan
an effective drilling programme if the target rock
formation could be at 5 000 feet or 15 000 feet.
gravity
meter
response
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=
obtaining this information:

*
gravity surveys
* magnetic surveys
seismic surveys
layer of
~ ""'~---~"'"
dense roc~
~7~..;:--~~
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- ~
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~'-....--.....~~
Gravity Surveys t-= - -

~"-'=-~-<=-~
structure
~~-=--=--=.,

Gravity surveys, as the name suggests, measure


differences in the pull of gravity from one
underground rock layer to another. Dense rocks Figure 7
will have a higher gravitational pull. Figure 7
shows, in simple form, how a gravity meter
A cap rock will be present in some petroleum reservoirs (look at figures 4a, band c again) and, as this
responds to layers of dense rock and how the
may well be more dense than the underlying reservoir rock, a gravity survey could be a useful tool to
results are recorded.
detect it.

1.17
~

Magnetic Surveys On land

In this type of survey, a magnetometer is used to * by explosive charge


measure the strength and direction of the local * by thumper truck, which drops a heavy weight onto the ground
magnetic force. The presence of underground , by Vibrator, where a vibrating surface is kept in contact with the ground
rocks containing, particularly, iron will distort the
normal pattern of the earth's magnetic field in that Figure 8a shows a seismic survey on land.
area. This distortion can be measured and
recorded to give a picture of structures containing
magnetic minerals.

~
survey
Seismic Surveys truck

exploSiv;.,. ~ I I I I
The word seismic means relating "to earthquakes charge " I , I /

and this gives a clue to the principle of this


technique. /

A shock wave is set off at the surface and travels


down through successive rock layers. At the
boundary of each one, part of the wave energy is "
\~ /
/ / // /
/
/
- - - ----------
reflected back to the surface where it is picked up
by sensitive instruments called geophones (on =-~:~~\~"
-~ =--~~~
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land) or hydrophones (on water). -~---~ " ,
=~
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The shock waves themselves can be generated in


c \\ \
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Figure 8a

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Over water In both cases, the shock waves travel through


different types of rock at different speeds and
* by compressed air charge, which offers less threat to marine life than explosives therefore will arrive back at the surface at different
times. It obviously takes a computer to analyse the
You can see this set-up in figure 8b. large number of signals being received at the
surface, but a remarkably accurate picture can be
built up of subsurface formations in terms of both
shape and physical characteristics.

compressed
Looking back over this section, you will notice that
air
survey
charge all of the techniques described are carried out on
vessel hydrophones
/ or above the surface, although they do give us
~ some good indications of what lies below.

/
/
When the drilling site is selected and the well is
/ actually being drilled, however, we find ourselves
/ directly in contact with deeper and deeper

""-,~"-~~~- ' .: ~~
subsurface rock formations.

==-~~~~~~~=~~=,/
//

--~~:-~==~~=-=-===;-:=;::~-=-==:= ~ This gives us new opportunities for looking at, and


getting information from, these rock layers. I will
describe these opportunities for you in detail when
we come to Unit 9 - Formation Evaluation.

Figure 8b

1.19
I~

~ Summary
In this section I described for you how sedimentary basins were originally formed. You will have
learnt that they can be very large and we need some other way of homing-in on the first drilling
location.

First, a broad survey of the area can be carried out by:

* aerial photography land


* satellite photography land
* field geologists land
* sonar techniques water

Then a precise location for drilling can be chosen with the help of three techniques:

* gravimetric surveys measures differences in the gravitational pull of various


rocks
* magnetic surveys measures differences in the magnetic properties of

various rocks

* seismic surveys measures differences in the speed of sound through

various rocks

We now know where to drill. In the next section you will look at some basic steps in the drilling
operation and the rigs used to do the job.

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Unit '1 : Basic Concepts ~


I

Section 3 - Drilling Rig Types

By using the appropriate exploration techniques


described in the last section, it should now be
possible to select a location to drill. A particular
type of rig will be chosen to meet the location and
depth requirements of this exploration well.

As you will have learnt from the introduction to this


unit, different types of well will be drilled at different
stages of the oilfield development. Exploration, fixed semi
appraisal and development drilling were land jack-up platform submersible
drilfship
mentioned and each of these will influence the
design of the rig to be used.

Location will also have a significant influence.


Arctic, jungle or desert conditions? Drilling from
land or water? And so on.

In this section we will look at the main types of


drilling rig designs:

land rigs

or, to drill from water,

* jack-up rigs
* platform rigs
* semi-submersibles
* drillships

Figure 9 shows the typical locations in which these


various rig types operate. Figure 9

1.21
".-'
~
c'

In Unit 2 you will look at Drilling Systems and Basic Drilling Concepts 1 The first section of hole is drilled using a large
Equipment. It will become clear, whatever the rig diameter bit (see figure 11), This hole is
design, it must carry out the same basic function The drilling of any well is carried out in a number of drilled to a relatively fl?ILgw depth before
to make a hole in the ground. clearly defined stages. At each stage the actual drilling is stopped and the drill string and bit
hole is drilled using a drill bit. A typical drill bit is are removed from the hole.
It will also comprise these five basic systems: shown in figure 10,

* hoisting system

* rotating system surface drill stri~g

* circulating system
,'.::':
,'.':':;:
* power system ',,:'
-'_'__ 1st section of
. 'hole drilled with
* blowout prevention system large diameter bit

I said that all drilling rigs have the same essential


job - to make a hole in the ground. ...
.. '.': .
'.:'
>(

Before we look at the different types of rig,


therefore, I feel we should have a brief look at
some basic drilling concepts. This will allow you to drill bit

picture more clearly the various stages of the , 1 (say,

drilling operation.
~<.~S 26" diameter)

Figure 10
.: .:..?
The bit is connected to the bottom of an assembly
of pipes called a drill string. As the hole is
deepened more lengths of drill pipe are added until
the total depth of that stage is reached. Figure 11

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2 Steel pipe called a casing string is lowered At a pre-determined depth, drilling is once again
into the hole. Its function is to stop the drilled stopped and this section of hole is lined with
hole from collapsing as it is deepened. casing. This casing is also cemented in place
as shown in figure 13 below.
(You will look at other functions of casing in surface

more detail in Unit 5 Casing and

Cementing). ,'1 st section' I,~~

of hole
3 The diameter of the casing string is smaller (26" dta.)
1st section
than that of the drilled hole. This means that of hole
there is a gap between the outside of the casing
I "
and the inside of the hole. This ring shaped cement filled
anriulus annulus
space is called the annulus. ~. .'
:- filled with " ','II" ,
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formations behind the casing, the annulus is (20" dia.) - '
f> &. ,.'
filled with a cement slurry.
i J.'
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Figure 12 shows the status of the hole at this ,.II'~ A

,~,~ :,.
stage. .-.: 2nd section
of hole (17 1/ 2 " dia.)
'....<\

"
111-41_ _ cement filled
.~: ."
annulus
Figure 12
2nd casing
iAI
sIring (13%" dia.)

4 When the cement has set, drilling can continue.


A drill bit which will fit inside the casing is
connected to the drill string and more hole is
drilled. Figure 13

1.23
I~

--'--~---

""""
This sequence of drilling, then lining the hole with
casing which is cemented in place, continues until
the total depth of the well is reached. Figure 14 ..0
~t..~ ~ction
e :
1
of hole
shows a well drilled to its total depth. ~:.
,,;1---- cement

Bear in mind, when you look at drawings of wells,


that they will be grossly out of proportion. If we
"r" 1st casing'

tried to illustrate a 10 000 feet deep well which was


12 inches in diameter, using a scale of 1 in 12, we III ~I; : ,
would require a sheet of paper the height of the ~:,II ;
Eiffel Tower!
~
+_~2nd section
of hole
f.:.:
'dll:~cement
'e -:111,
lit"
b Ijl'. 2nd casing
<\ I
14 ,.
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f

.'.. ,.;~Iast section of


:
~
.~
hole drilled to
total depth (121// dia.l
..
.~\~
. "
~ .;,
'.

;f...--.-cement

lu-l'r;./ II~~
fin~1 ca~~~. ..

Figure 14

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[] Test Yourself 3
Below I have given you a selection of bit sizes, casing sizes and hole depths which are out of
order:

Bit Sizes 171/ 2 " 26" 8 1/ 2 " 121/ 4 "

Casing Sizes 20" 7" 133/ 8" 95/ 8"

Hole Depth 11 500' 4500' 9500' 1 500'

Use this information to fill in the missing details in the drilling programme below:

Drilling Programme

Bit Size Casing Size Hole Depth

lS
2.\:J'
(i l

Stage One j,

L!"I[ )
Stage Two

Stage Three
'\."

Stage Four

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 3 on page 1.39.

1.25
I~

Land Rigs

Land rigs vary enormously in size - in their capacity


to lift, circulate fluids and generate power.

Masts

For lighter work, cantilever masts (also known as


jack-knife derricks) are common. Figure 15 shows
a typical one.

Masts of this type are assembled on the ground


from large welded sections fastened together with
pins. They may then be raised to the vertical
position by using the rig's own power unit and
hoisting line. Small masts may be truck mounted,
\
while some are telescopic. The rigging-up time
for masts tends to be less than for conventional
derricks.

pin
Rigging-up time is the time it takes to assemble a
/connection
mast into the vertical position, on-site from all its
components. It also includes the time to install the
power unit, all the cables and the piping.
raising leg
,/

figure 15

1.26

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Derricks

There is no really clear-cut distinction between a


mast and a derrick. Sometimes the words are used
interchangeably.

To keep things simple, we will regard a derrick as


the framework-tower type of support usually
associated with oilwell drilling. Figure 16 shows a
common arrangement.

Typically, derricks are assembled on-site by bolting


individual pieces together. The rigging-up time for
this method is, of course, longer than for a
cantilever mast.

We will look at the differences between masts and


derricks in more detail in Unit 2.

- - substructure

Figure 16

1.27

---------------_.

Jack-Up Rigs

A jack-up rig consists of a movable platform which


can be jacked up and down the (usually) three
supporting legs. Figure 17 shows one of the
standard designs

These provide a common means of drilling in


water, where the water depth is relatively shallow
say, 50 to 350 feet

Jack-ups will be floated out to location and the legs


then lowered independently until they are bedded
securely and the platform is level and above wave
height.

It is clear that their use would be restricted when


there are strong currents or an unstable seabed.

Figure 17

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- -,-------------------------------------------
Platform Rigs

A platform is a fixed installation offshore from


which development drilling and petroleum
production is carried out. A steel platform design is
shown in figure 18, as an example.

The deck, supported by a steel jacket in this case,


carries equipment and accommodation modules
and a helicopter pad. It will also support one or
more drilling rigs and associated equipment.

~ -------- >

~~
steel
jacket

Figure 18

1.29
m&

- _.- -_. -- -

Semi-Submersibles In this case, a deck is supported by a tubular A semi-sub can operate in deeper water than a
structure, and by two hulls to provide buoyancy. jack-up. Its maximum operating water depth
depends on the type of mooring system employed.
A semi-submersible is a floating drilling rig. A
typical layout is shown in figure 19 below. Again, the deck carries equipment and Some semi-subs use anchors with wire and chain
accommodation modules, a helicopter pad and a to hold them on station. Others use dynamic
drilling rig. positioning which is a system of computer
controlled thrusters, to maintain their position. We
Semi-submersibles can move easily from one will look at mooring systems in more detail in
location to another either by being towed or under Unit 6. Modern semi-subs using anchors may, in
their own power. exceptional circumstances, drill in water up to
3 000 feet deep.
They are mainly used, therefore, for exploration
and appraisal drilling where this ease of Semi-subs using dynamic positioning systems are
movement is essential. capable of drilling in even deeper waters, up to
6 000 feet deep.
When on location, the semi-sub (as it is often
helipad
called) takes on water ballast (into the two hulls,
etc). This will lower the structure in the water and
lower the centre of gravity.

~ In this position it is shielded from the effects of


rough water at the surface and achieves a high
'-'-----.~ degree of stability.
-----....
~~
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1.30

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Drillships
These are ships specially built or converted for deep sea drilling. Their main
features are: []
Test Yourself 4
* the ability to drill in almost any depth of water
* greater mobility than semi-subs or jack-ups You plan to drill three exploration wells in the following depths of
* dynamic positioning equipment can be fitted, as with semi-subs water. What type of rig would you select to drill each of these wells.
* greater storage capacity than other rig types
not as stable as semi-subs or jack-ups while drilling
* 4500 feet t ril
Figure 20 will give you an overall impression of the layout.

* 280 feet -) JV;" ",. U {? ~ i.~

derrick _

* 1 500 feet t.efl": I S'';<>i'<J"' e( In bIer

~-
~.
- --

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 4 on page 1.39.

Figure 20

1.31
I~

[g Summary

To begin with, we looked at some basic drilling concepts. I will go into these in more detail
in later units. For now, however, you have an overall impression.

The various types of drilling rig were then described. I talked about two types of land rig
a mast and a derrick.

Then we considered drilling from water and looked at jack-ups, platform rigs,
semi-submersibles and drillships. The differences between these rig types were
highlighted.

We will now take a look at the personnel who operate these rigs.

1.32

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Unit 1 : Basic Concepts


~
Section 4 . . Drilling Personnel

The way in which rigs are crewed up will, of Figure 21 gives a typical picture of:
course, vary greatly from one situation to another. operating (0;1) company personnel
There are common features and these are the * drilling contractor personnel, and
ones I wish to concentrate on. * the types of service companies

involved in the drilling operation, and how they


Drilling Operations ~ Personnel relate to each other.

operating drilling
company contractor

t - t
I company rep. toolpusher
1-- r---
OIl
~ubsea engineering ) I

~--

f_
service tourpusher
Ileurn engineer companies I
ling ,engineer
site' geologist
r- driller
chief mechanic
J
I rig mechanic
--I __ -.J asst. driller
motor man
derrickman
n 19
roughneck
v g responsible to
roustabout

fishing ---- liaison with


well servicing
Figure 21
1.33
I~

The company representative on site (perhaps Toolpusher: In overall charge of rig operations, implementing the drilling plan and compliance with
called the company man or drilling supervisor) all safety requirements. Reports to the company representative.
ensures that the drilling programme is carried out
in a safe and efficient manner. Tourpusher: Assistant to the toolpusher. Will be in charge of a particular shift (often the night shift).
Responsible to the toolpusher for implementing the drilling plan and for safety, and
He reports to, and is employed by, the operating reports to him.
company which holds the licence to drill the hole.
He will have operating company specialists on site Driller: In charge of the drilling process and operations. Responsible for compliance with the
to assist him. drilling plan and for the drilling crew. Reports to the tool/tourpusher.

Service company personnel report to the company Assistant Driller: Assists the driller. Usually responsible to the driller for the operation of bulk storage
man, but must liaise very closely with the drilling equipment (for handling mud chemicals, etc.) and for the mud flowline system.
team. Reports to the driller.

Members of this drilling team are listed opposite, Derrickman: Responsible for the storage and movement of tubulars in the derrick and monitoring
together with their main tasks and reporting links. the mud systems. Reports to the driller.

Roughneck: Works on the rig floor. Responsible for general rig floor activities under the direction
of the driller/assistant driller. Reports to the driller.

Roustabout: A member of the general workforce, assisting with the movement of materials,
cleaning, painting, etc. Reports to the roustabout foreman (not shown on figure 21).

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[1] Test Yourself 5


In this unit we have been through some of the major steps in a typical exploration programme.

I would like you to think back over what you have learnt and list as many of the steps in the programme as you can.

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 5 on page 1.40.

1.35
I~

. ----------------------------------------

l!1 Summary

In this section we have looked at a typical drilling operation and described the people and
activities which make it happen. I have indicated how they link together into an efficient team.

Finally, I have listed the essential members of the drilling crew and detailed their main tasks.

You have now completed the first unit about Basic Drilling Concepts in this Drilling Technology
open learning programme.

Go back to the Training Target at the beginning of this unit and check that you can tick all of the
boxes. If you are unsure of anything, read over the relevant sections again and have a chat with
your tutor if necessary.

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Unit 1 : Basic Concepts


~

Check Yourself .. Answers

Check Yourself 1

The maximum amount of oil which our mini-reservoir can hold is the pore volume of the reservoir.

We can calculate this by multiplying

total rock volume x porosity

or 1 cu. metre (1 000 Iitres) x 18% = 180litres

Our block of sandstone, therefore, could hold a maximum of 180 litres of oil.

1.37
~

Check Yourself 2
Oil has now migrated to our two possible reservoirs.
You can see this below:

~~~~
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/1 In the first sketch, oil has accumulated under the caprock, which has prevented it migrating further. This could therefore be an effective petroleum
:'j
reservoir. In the second drawing, the impervious rock layer has a break in it, due to faulting, and this has allowed oil to leak out and upwards. The
structure would not, therefore form an effective petroleum reservoir.

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Check Yourself 3 Check Yourself 4
Drilling Programme To drill in 280 feet of water a jack-up would be suitable, as long as
the seabed provided a sound footing for the jack-up legs and local
Bit Size Casing Size Hole currents were not too strong.
Depth
To drill in 1 500 feet of water, a semi-submersible is likely to be
Stage One 26" 20" 1 500' used which uses either anchors or dynamic positioning systems to
maintain its position.
Stage Two 17 1/ 2 " 133/ 8 " 4500'
To drill in 4 500 feet of water, a dynamically positioned drillshlp is
Stage Three 12 1/ 4 " 95/ 8 " 9500' the more likely choice.

Stage Four 8 1/ 2 " 7" 11 500'

If your answers are not the same as these, try working through the
section again.

1.39
I~

~
Check Yourself 5
The major steps in a typical exploration programme are roughly as * On the basis of this evidence you can decide where to drill.
follows: However, the drilling rig must be selected and to do that you need to
answer a few more questions:
* By consultation with geologists, you would know where the major

sedimentary basins are located in the geographical area of - are you drilling on land?

interest to you. - or over water?

- if over water, in what depth are you drilling?


The next stage which we have not talked about is how to obtain - how deep does the hole need to be?
permission for all the work we intend to carry out on the project. How
this is done varies enormously from one country to another and is often a * Your rig is selected. You must ensure that it is crewed up properly
matter for legal experts to handle. I suggest we leave it to them. and all the service company personnel you require will be on hand at
the correct time.
* Assuming permissions have been granted, an aerial or satellite

survey, possibly combined with a ground survey will be carried out

over land locations. Over water, a sonic survey may be called for. Let drilling commence.

* This work will narrow the area down and allow more detailed

surveys using gravitational, magnetic or seismic techniques. The

use of seismic methods is a high probability in any modern

exploration programme.

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ontents
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Page

Training Target
2.2

Introduction
2.3

Section 1 - The Hoisting System


2.4

2.12

S~l<;;Hon 3 - T.ne Circulating System 2.28

2.38

* Section 5 - The Blowout Prevention (BOP) System 2.41

* Check Yourself - Answers 2.54

2.1
~

r.f!
tli!il\
~ Training Target

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to:

* List the five basic drilling rig systems. D


* Summarise how each system operates. D
* Identify the components of each of the five systems. D
* Explain the function of the components identified. D
* Describe in simple terms the construction of the components. D
* Outline the relationship of each system in the overall drilling process. D
Tick each box when you have met the target.

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Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment


~
I l', F"i crown block


Introduction
You saw in the first unit of this programme that In this unit we will go through each of the systems
there are a number of different types of drilling rigs listed. We will look at the individual components in
in common use. It doesn't matter what type of rig the system and see how they contribute to the
you think about, it has one function only: overall drilling process.

to make a hole in the ground Although the equipment is basically the same on all
rigs, floaters (semi-subs and drillships) have some
In order to perform this function safely and special equipment which is not found on land ) - II I travelling block
efficiently, the rig has a number of components installations. We will be looking at specialised
which can be grouped together in four basic floating drilling rig systems and equipment in
systems. These systems are the: Unit 6. In this unit we will concentrate on fl" \I! , drilling hook
conventional equipment such as you would find on
* hoisting system a land rig or on a fixed platform offshore. power unit

* rotating system Figure 1 shows a simplified line drawing of a

typical rig with its systems and components.


BOPs -I I If-7-.
* circulating system

As we go through the unit system by system, we

* power system will gradually build up the complete picture of the mud conditioning
drilling installation which you see in figure 1. equipment
In addition to the four I have listed above, there is
a further system which must be considered in any
discussion of rig components. This system,
although not essential to the drilling process, is
critical for rig safety. It is the:

* blowout prevention system

drill collars

Figure 1
drill bit
2.3
I~
Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment
~ water table

Section 1 - The Hoisting System

As you will shortly see, holes are drilled with long The Derrick

lengths of pipe - with a drill bit at the end - which in

a deep hole can weigh two hundred tons or more. The derrick is the tall, towerlike structure which

This considerable weight has to be suspended in most people think of as an Oil Rig.

the hole, raised and lowered. A hoisting system


Ft:dJEl:sE--finger board
accomplishes this task. A standard (pyramid shaped) derrick consists of

four steel supporting legs standing on a square


,If you think about it, the hoisting system performs base. This base is known as the substructure
the same function as a crane. On a drilling rig, and the top of this substructure is the drilling rig
however; the boom of the crane is fixed in the floor. The supporting legs are joined together with
vertical position and is called the derrick (or mast). steel cross bracings which stiffen the structure and
give the necessary load bearing strength.
This derrick is the first component in the hoisting
system. Let's list all the components in the system The height of the derrick does not affect its load
and then look at each of them in turn. bearing capacity but will limit the length of drill pipe
sections which may be removed. As you will see
The Hoisting System Components later, it is necessary from time to time to pull all the
drill pipe out of the hole. The top of the derrick
* derrick must be high enough above the rig floor for the
pipe sections to be taken out of the hole and
* drawworks temporarily stored within the rig structure.

* drilling line Derrick heights vary from around 90 feet on small


land rigs, to over 150 feet on some large offshore
* crown block
installations. This height is measured from the rig rig floor ,v" '" "Fl 1, A iL/'l
floor.

* travelling assembly (travelling block and


hook) Figure 2 shows a simplified drawing of a derrick. - - substructure

Figure 2

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You will see that there are two platforms


incorporated in the structure. These are labelled:

* the water table

* the finger board (also called the monkey


board)

The water table is a working platform at the top of

~:\\
the derrick which enables maintenance to be
carried out on the equipment there.
f,,-<\i,::~ . r"
The finger board is another working platform
which is located approximately 90 feet high in the
derrick. This is where one of the rig crew (the
derrickman) works when drill pipe is being pulled
from the hole.

You will recall at the start of this section I made - I

reference to a derrick or mast.

Figure 3 shows a simplified drawing of a mast.

A mast performs the same function as the derrick


but is usually much lighter in construction. It is
used on land drilling operations and is capable of mast
being transported between locations as a complete rigged
unit or in a couple of sections. down

mast Figure 3
erected

2.5

_.._----
I~

Drawworks be rotated using power from the rig power system. The drawworks usually has a second spool, known
Wireline (drilling line) is reeled onto the drum and as a sand reel, fitted behind the main drum. The
If we continue our analogy of a crane and hoisting from there passes through a system of pulleys wire from this spool passes over a single pulley
system, the winch of the crane is equivalent to the (crown and travelling blocks). A hook is fixed at and can be used for running tools into and out of
drawworks of a drilling rig hoisting system. the lower end of the pulley system. As with the the hole. The sand reel is sometimes called a
winch of a crane, when the operator, in this case coring reel, however, it is not used much these
The main purpose of this piece of equipment is to the driller, rotates the drum in one direction, the days. Independent wireline units are used for this
lift pipe out of and lower it back into the hole. drilling line is reeled onto the drum raising the purpose.
movable pulley and hook. If the drum is allowed to
The drawworks is located in the middle of the back rotate in the other direction the hook will descend, Incorporated into the drawworks are the catheads.
edge of the rig floor. pulled down by the suspended load. Since the drill These are used together with large spanners or
pipe is connected to the moving pulley, the pipe tongs to make or break the threaded connections
How it Works can be raised or lowered. between individual joints or pipe.

Its principle feature is a spool, or drum, which can You will see in Unit 3 how these operations are
actually carried out. We will also look at some
alternative equipment used in these operations.
r\ ~ '. secondary spool
~ . ~))S$$%%%\~ (sand reel)

driller's console
I
main drum
(workstation)

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The Brake System

~
An important feature of the drawworks is the brake system. This allows the driller to control the
tremendous load of the drill pipe or casing suspended from the pulley system. There are at least two
Activity brake systems on most rigs. One is a mechanical friction device which uses two bands passing over
brake drums. The bands are connected to a large brake handle located at the side of the drawworks.
This is operated by the driller to halt the descent of a loaded pulley system. The other brake is either
hydraulic or, more commonly these days, electrically operated. This auxiliary brake is used to control the
Look again at figure 4 and identify the rate of descent of the load. It helps to reduce the wear on the primary friction system.
main drum and catheads of the
drawworks. Figure 5 shows the friction type brake mechanism.

Make sure that you understand how this


brake bands over
system works. brake drums

Your tutor should be able to help you if


you are unsure.

brake

handle-

Figure 5

2.7
I~

Gear System The Drilling line, Crown Block and


Travelling Assembly
An integral part of the drawworks is the gear
(transmission) system. A clutch, high and low crown block
The last three items in our list of hoisting system sheaves
speed gears together with a foot operated throttle,
components together make up the pulley system
allow a wide range of hoisting speeds to be used.
which I have referred to on a number of occasions
already.
Control
The drilling line is a multistrand wire rope which is
The driller's workstation is at the brake handle of
secured to the drum of the drawworks. Its
the drawworks. From this position he must be able
diameter varies according to the type and size of
to control the rig and oversee the activities of his
rig, but on a large semi-submersible it might be as
drilling crew. Instruments give him indications of
much as 13/ 4 " in diameter.
the status of equipment and machinery, and
operating controls are all within easy reach of the
From the drum of the drawworks the line passes ~
driller. We will look at most of this equipment when
over one of the pulleys (sheaves) of the crown =jl
we consider the drilling operations in the next unit. :=
block which you can see in figure 6.
I=
Look again at figure 4 and note the driller's
~
This fixed multi-sheaved assembly is located at the = =
workstation by the brake handle.
top of the derrick and is surrounded by the working 1

~rilling
J
platform which you will remember we called the
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water table.
line

The sheaves themselves are up to 5 feet in


diameter and are free to rotate on heavy duty
II
bearings.
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From the crown block the drilling line passes to and I will explain how the elevator is used in the next
round a sheave contained within a moving set of unit.
sheaves known as the travelling block.
Connected to the bottom of the travelling block is The drilling line then passes over another sheave
crown
the drilling hook and these two items comprise on the crown block and down again to the travelling block
the travelling assembly. The hook may be block. The number of passes the drilling line
integral with the travelling block or may be makes between crown and travelling blocks give an
removable. eight, ten or twelve line suspension.

Figure 7 shows a travelling assembly. Take a After making its final pass over the crown block the
look at this now. Note the two ears on the hook. drilling line goes down to the base of the rig where
Two forged steel rods called links can be attached it is clamped on a drilling line anchor, sometimes
to the ears. The links support an item of called the deadline anchor. The drilling line is not
equipment called an elevator which is used when terminated at the deadline anchor but continues on
all the pipe is being pulled from the well. to a reel of spare line.
deadline
A careful record is kept of the work done by the anchor
line. This is measured in units of ton-miles. (If a
drilling line
line has moved a one ton load a distance of one
mile, it has received one ton-mile of usage). After
a pre-determined number of ton-miles have been
recorded, the line is slipped and cut. This means
that the anchor is slackened and fresh line is
slipped into the system from the spare line spool.
travelling
block A corresponding length of wire is then cut off at the
drawworks end of the line.

drilling
Figure 8 shows the hoisting system in simplified
hook form.
ears ~,J Q.../Ar.

Figure 7 Figure 8

2.9
~

[] Test Yourself 1
In the following list of components some are part of the hoisting system and some are not.
Tick either yes or no in the boxes provided.
Yes No

1. Travelling Block CJ 0
2. Drawworks 0 0
3. Drilling Line LJ lJ
4. Rotary Table 0 [J
5. Derrick D D
6. Drill Bit D U
7. Crown Block 0 D
8. Deadline Anchor D D
9. Drilling Hook D U
10. Drilling Collars 0 D
11. Shale Shaker D D
12. Drawworks Drum D U
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1 on page 2.54.

') 1 ()

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~ Summary

In this section we have looked at the


The drilling line is attached to the main drum of In the next section we will be looking at the
components of a drilling rig hoisting
the drawworks and from there it passes to the top equipment used to apply weight to and rotate
system.
of the derrick. It then makes a number of passes the drilling bit.
between the crown block and travelling block
While working through this section you below, to give an eight, ten or twelve line
have learned what the function of the suspension. The line is then clamped by the dead
hoisting system is and the individual line anchor at the base of the derrick.
components which make up this system.
You saw that the drilling hook is attached to the
You saw that the components are: underside of the travelling block, forming the
travelling assembly.
" the derrick
We likened this whole system to that of a crane,
* the drawworks with the derrick representing the crane's boom in
the vertical position. The driller lifts the drill pipe or
* the drilling line other load by engaging a clutch and spooling line
onto the drawworks drum. The load is lowered by
* the crown block releasing the brake on the drawworks drum,
allowing the load to pull the travelling assembly
* the travelling assembly down.

2.11

~
Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment

Section 2 - The Rotating System

Just like any drilling operation whether it be in The Drill Bit Drag Bits
wood, steel or other material, some type of cutting
tool has to be rotated whilst weight is applied to The drill bit is probably the most critical item of a A drag bit is very rarely seen these days. It was
make the hole. In oilwell drilling operations the drilling operation. It must be capable of making one of the earliest types of bit and it cuts by the
cutting tool is the drill bit and in this section we will hole in rocks which vary from very soft clay-like shovelling action of blades on the formation. I
look at the equipment used to turn the bit, i.e. the material to extremely hard granites. Since one bit don't intend to say any more about drag bits but I
rotating system. would not be suitable for these widely differing have included an illustration of one, as figure 9.
conditions, there are a number of different designs
A rotating system can be thought of as having available.
three main sub-systems:
They can be broadly classified into the following
* drill bit categories:

* drill string drag bits


*
* rotating mechanism * tri-cone roller bits

The actual transmission of the rotating action to the


drill bit can be carried out in a number of ways. I
will first of all describe what we could call the
* diamond bits
tj\
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* polycrystalline diamond bits

L~
conventional system. At the end of this section we :.:>
will look at some alternative rotating mechanisms.
H'/

" .....

Figure 9

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Tri-cone Roller Bits let's look at a typical bit arrangement. Diamond Bits

Tri-cone roller bits are the most commonly used As the name suggests, this type of bit has three Diamond bits use industrial diamonds as their
drill bits at present. A large variety of designs are cones which are free to roll on bearings. The cutting structure. They drill by the scraping action
available to cope with the different formations cones incorporate the cutting structure. This of the diamonds which protrude from a metal
encountered. Figure 10 shows a typical tri-cone consists of teeth cut into the cone, or inserts matrix. The design of diamond bits varies greatly
roller bit. pressed into holes in the cone surface. For soft in the shape of the body, the size and setting of the
formations the teeth are long and widely spaced. diamonds. Figure 11 shows a diamond bit.
This gives a digging or gouging action. Short
stubby teeth which are closer together provide a
chipping or crushing action. This is more suitable
for hard formations.

Drilling fluid helps to lubricate the bit and carry


away cuttings from the bottom of the hole. It exits
the bit through holes called jet nozzles. The
jet nozzles are replaceable so that the orifice size can
nozzle I /, (0 be altered to match the fluid pressure and volume
requirements. '

Figure 10 Figure 11

2.13
~

Polycrystalline Diamond Bits The drilling action of the bit is a shearing one. As

each polycrystalline cutter rotates on a different

Recently, polycrystalline diamond bits have

found a lot of favour. These bits consist of a hard


faced steel body in which are inserted cutters.
path from its neighbour, it shears the rock rather

like the action of a lathe. This means that the bit is

more suitable for soft to medium non-brittle


[1] Test Yourself 2
The cutters are discs of synthetic diamond and are formations.
arranged in rows spiralling outwards and upwards The following 3 sentences describe
from the bit centre to the outside which you can Replaceable nozzles are fitted in the body of the
different drilling bits. Decide if the bit
see in figure 12. bit. Drilling fluid flows round the bit and past flow
described is more suitable for a soft,
channels cut in the bit's body.
medium or hard formation.
When used under the right conditions,
1. A tri-cone bit with short cutting inserts
polycrystalline diamond bits have greatly improved
which are close together.
penetration rates whilst reducing operating weight
on the bit. In general this also means longer bit life
f-te'll.;\
with a consequent reduction in overall drilling
times.
2. A bit with a hard faced steel body and
synthetic diamond cutters inserted.
SCFl- {<, {I!\k,e-\1.U W 1

3. A bit with three rollers where each


roller has long widely spaced teeth cut
into it.
~f.t

cutters of

synthetic diamonds

You will find the answers in


Check Yourself 2 on page 2.54.
Figure 12

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-------- under-reamer

Other Drilling Tools In the tools illustrated, the cutting action is by


rotating cones (as with the tri-cone bit) which
Before we leave the subject of bits, we should look protrude out from the central stem.
at other special purpose drilling tools. These are
under-reamers and hole openers. Both these tools perform similar functions but the
cones of the under-reamer are mounted on
These tools, when used, are placed immediately collapsible arms.
above a bit to enlarge or maintain the hole size. hole-opener
The arms are extended during the drilling operation
I have shown examples of these tools in figure 13. by the pressure of drilling fluid circulating through
the tool.

When no fluid is being circulated the arms retract


allowing the tool to pass through a smaller section
of hole.

Remember that hole size was discussed in Unit 1.

collapsible
arms

Figure 13

2.15
~

The Drill String As the hole is deepened, extra lengths of drill pipe are added to the drill string as required.

Individual joints of drill pipe are about 32 feet long on average. The diameter varies but some frequently
During this programme you will come across a used pipe diameters are 4 '/2'" 5" and 5 1/z". These dimensions are always measured on the outside
number of strings. The drill string is one. In
diameter. Figure 14 shows a length of drill pipe.
Unit 6we will be looking at casing strings, and
you will probably see the term tubing string. In
this context a string consists of a number of
individual lengths of pipe joined together.

The drill string is made up of lengths of drill pipe,


plus the bottom hole assembly.

The bottom hole assembly consists of a number of box end


pin end
items placed just above the bit. We will look at this
shortly, but first let's concentrate on the drill pipe. . :':":/:'.

Drill Pipe

Drill pipe is tubular steel pipe with threaded end


connections called tool joints. It is used as:

* a shaft to rotate the bit,

* a conduit to convey drilling fluid to the Figure 14


bottom of the hole and
The tool joints are screw threads used to join two lengths of pipe together. The threads themselves have
* a tool to run in and pullout the bottom a round profile with a pronounced taper for ease of connection and disconnection. One end of the pipe is
hole assembly and bit. a male thread usually called the pin end, the other is female and is referred to as the box end.

When drill pipe is being connected, the box end always points up so that the pin can be stabbed into it.

2.16

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drill string
Bottom Hole Assembly Having a string of heavy drill collars enables just in tension
part of the weight of the collars to be applied to the
The bottom hole assembly consists of a number bit. In this way the lower portion of the collars is in whole of
of pieces of equipment which are placed just above compression with its weight resting on the bit. The drill string in
upper portion plus the entire drill pipe section compression
the bit. These are:
remains in tension, supported on the hook of the
drill collars travelling assembly.

* stabilizers The number of drill collars required will depend on


* various subs the weight on the bit necessary for optimum drilling
rate under prevailing conditions. It is usual practice
Drill collars to have 10 to 30 percent excess drill collar weight
over the amount applied to the bit.
Drill collars are basically heavier weight drill pipes.
They have larger outside diameters (up to 10") and The maintenance of hole direction in a vertical hole
smaller inside diameters. A string of drill collars relies on the pendulum effect of the drill string.
has several tasks to perform, i.e. This effect is the tendency of the drill string to hang
in a vertical position due to the force of gravity.
* provide the necessary weight to the bit Having heavy drill collars increases the pendulum
effect and strengthens the tendency for the drill
hold the drill string in tension string to remain vertical.
help maintain hole direction
In figure 15 I have shown how the drill collars keep
Let's consider these tasks. You may think the drill the drill pipe in tension and provide weight to the bit
pipe can provide the weight on the bit and hold the for drilling.
part of weight of
string tension. Imagine a hole being drilled which drill collars on bit
is several thousand feet deep. If the weight of the with lower portion of
drill string was allowed to rest on the bit, the whole collars in compression

drill string would be in compression. This means


the string would buckle and twist, with the danger
that the pipe might break (twist off). Figure 15

2.17
I~

Heavy Weight Drill Pipe (HWDP)

Before we leave the subject of drill pipe, I should


mention heavier weight drill pipe. Joints of this pipe
are placed between normal drill pipe and the drill
collars. They act as a cross-over between the rigid
[!] Test Yourself 3
drill collars and the flexible drill pipe. This helps to For a particular section of hole, the optimum weight on bit should be 50 000 Ibs. Drill collars of 8"
prevent failure at the cross-over point. diameter with a 3" bore are being used. These collars weigh 4 410 Ibs per joint.

The drilling fluid in the hole has a buoyancy factor of 0.833 which means that only 83.3% of the

actual collar weight is available as weight on bit.

If 25% excess drill collar weight over weight on bit is used, how many drill collars are required in this
bottom hole assembly?
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You will find the answer in Check Yourself 3 on page 2.55.

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Stabilizers Subs

Stabilizers are short lengths of pipe with fins or Subs - in the drilling industry, the word sub
ribs which are the same size across as the bit refers to any short length of pipe,
diameter or slightly less. collar and so on which has a specific
function.
The fins may be aluminium or rubber but more
often are steel with tungsten carbide inserts on the Crossover subs - are designed with different
edge. threaded ends to enable
different sizes or types of
They are located between the collars and also help drill pipe or collar to be
to maintain a straight hole by keeping the collars connected together.

centralized. Also, by a scraping action, they ... spiral
ribs
Shock sub- a shock sub may be placed just
maintain a full hole diameter.
above the bit. It has a steel

Figure 16 shows two stabilizers, one with straight
ribs and one with spiral ribs. ...0. spring or rubber packing to
absorb the impact of the bit
bouncing on hard formation .

straight
ribs Bit sub - this is a short sub with a box on each
end. It connects the bit to the
drill collars and ensures that the
collars and drill pipe are always run
with the pin end facing down.

So the bottom hole assembly is the current


arrangement of tools incorporated into the collar
section of the drill string. It may consist of any
arrangement of the items mentioned above, and
possibly other specialised drilling tools.
Figure 16

2.19
I~

[!] Test Yourself 4

The following statements relate to components in a bottom hole assembly.


Tick which of these statements are true or false.

True False

1. A bit sub is used to connect the drill bit to the drill collars, it has a pin
connection at each end. D ~

2. Stabilizers help maintain the,hole direction in a vertical hole. c:J D


3. Drill collars allow all the weight of the drill string to be applied to the bit. lJ ~
4. Crossover subs are used to connect the bit to the drill pipe. D rn
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 4 on page 2.56.

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The Rotating Mechanism


This is the last sub-section in our rotating system.
In a conventional system the rotating mechanism
consists of the following components:

kelly and kelly bushing

* swivel

* rotary table and master bushing kelly

Kelly and Kelly Bushing

During normal drilling operations, the top of the drill


string screws into a square or hexagonal sectioned
pipe called the kelly. In fact, a small sub called the
saver sub Is placed between the drill pipe and the
kelly. This helps to prevent wear on the threads of
the kelly which is screwed on and off more than
any other joint in the whole string. You will see wily
this is so in Unit 3.
kelly
bushing
The kelly is a hollow forged steel rod approximately
40 feet in length. It's outer cross section is either
square or hexagonal in shape over the greater part
of it's length. At each end the kelly has a round
shape of the same diameter as the tool joint of the
drill pipe or saver sub. Look now at figure 17
which shows a kelly with its kelly bushing attached. Figure 17

2.21

---
~

Connected to the kelly but free to slide up and In the next section of this unit we will be looking at
down over its whole length, is the kelly bushing. the drilling fluid circulating system.
This piece of equipment has an internal profile the
same as the outside of the kelly. Rollers are fitted You will see that the fluid enters the drill string
to ensure that the kelly can move freely through the through the swivel. The inlet is referred to as the
bushing even when the bushing is turning. The gooseneck because of its shape. The pressure of
bottom of the kelly bushing has four drive pins or a the fluid at this point can be very high, so the
square section which locate in corresponding holes swivel has high pressure seals built into it.
in the rotary table bushing.

We will come back to the rotary table shortly. Rotary Table and Master Bushing
At the top of the kelly is fitted a valve called a kelly These are the final items in our rotating
cock. This can be closed to prevent any backflow mechanism. The rotary table has two main
of drilling fluid up the drill string. We will look functions:
further at this item in the final section of this unit.
* to rotate the kelly and hence the drill string

The Swivel * to support the weight of the drill string


when it is not supported by the hoisting
The kelly assembly is permanently attached to a system
swivel. During drilling operations the swivel is
suspended by a handle, or bail, from the hook of The second function we will be covering in detail
the travelling block. The hook does not rotate but when we look at drilling operations in the next unit.
the kelly does. The swivel therefore has two
sections, one rotating and one non-rotating. The For now we will just look at the way the rotary table
swivel has to be capable of supporting the total turns the kelly.
weight of the drill string whilst the lower part
rotates. This means that very heavy duty bearings
are incorporated into its body. Figure 18 shows a
swivel. figure 18

2.22
ill

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Rotary Table

The table itself consists basically of a disc which is


located in the middle of the drilling rig floor. It is
capable of being rotated from an electric motor
connected to the rotary table by a shaft.
master bushing
Alternatively, older units may be rotated by a drive
holes for
mechanism consisting of a drive sprocket and drive pins of~
chain. The drive sprocket is part of the drawworks. kelly bushing

Master Bushing

In the centre of the rotary table is a hole which


accommodates a further bushing. This one is
called the-master bushing. It is into the master
bushing that the drive pins of the kelly bushing fit.
--
rotary table

So, when the rotary table is spun, the master


bushing transmits the rotary motion to the kelly
bushing which in turn spins the kelly and drill string.

Figure 19 shows the rotary table and master


bushing. It also shows the relationship between
them and the kelly.

Figure 19

2.23
~

[] Test Yourself 5
Match the items on the left with the correct section of the rotating system on the right by drawing
connecting lines. I have done the first one for you.

swivel bail ...

tri-cone roller +----


drill collar +--__ ... drill bit

synthetic diamond insert +----~

kelly bushing .-~_.. .. drill string

gooseneck .-.-.

stabilizer .

master bushing ..

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 5 on page 2.56.

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Other Types Of Rotating These tools are used extensively in directional


drilling operations, although their use is not limited
Mechanism to this application. We will be looking at directional
drilling in Unit 8 where I will go a little deeper into
At the start of this section I said that we would look the operation of the downhole motor and turbine.
at some alternative rotating mechanisms. We can
do that now.
Top Drive System
Although the kelly, kelly bushing and rotary table
are by far the most common method used to turn This is used instead of the rotary table, kelly and
the drill bit, two other systems are sometimes kelly bushing. Unlike the downhole motor however,
used. These are: it rotates the-whole drill string.
* downhole motors and turbines It turns the drill pipe from an electric motor
assembly which is connected to the rig's
* top drive systems conventional swivel. The system provides the
rotating power of the rotary table up in the derrick.

'Downhole Motors and Downhole Using a top drive unit enables drilling to be carried
Turbines out using stands of drill pipe. A stand consists of
three joints of pipe connected together, making a
These are tools which allow the drill bit to be total length of 100 feet. This reduces the number
rotated without rotating the whole drill string. of connections to be made during drilling.
Drilling fluid being pumped down the drill string
provides the energy to drive the motor or turbine.
A drive shaft is connected from the motor to the
bit so, when drilling fluid is being circulated, the
motor or turbine is rotated and so is the bit.

2.25
_----------------

[1] Test Yourself 6


Read through the following sentences and fill in the missing words from the list below.

system has tree


A rotating h . su bsystems, ten
main h drill blIt, t he (frill U(iiNc,~~ and t he rotating
. mec h '
arusrn.

There are a number of different drill bit designs available such as drag bits, J.~.l..~!;::;: ...:.,:.'... So.. , diamond bits and polycrystalline diamond bits.
\) f\~tr I,C {,III"!:'
..................\. .' (( an d h
a e openers i '
are sometimes pIace d abave a biIt to en Iarge or maintain
.. a h a eisize.
'

[ , ( II( ('. II (.) r....


d ' Istnng,
Inan I' ). () ; -.'> are use d to h0 Id t he strinng .In tensi
ension and main
. t atn ioh t on b'
It.
. weiq

In a convl3nt rona I rota t'Ing mec hani


arusm t he rotary tabl e t urns t h e i,v-\.,.1.
:.. I! . ;.'
.'.-:.. (( :.'.>... .. ,whiIC h t ransrnits
Hi. . t he rotary motion
. tot h
e
(\(,/\;..::c;'
.................... stnng
and from there to the drill and biIt.

... ... (2, \0\-('1" . .


Dnlling flUid enters the dnll stnng Via the : : In the swivel.

Choose the missing words from:

kelly bail top drive under reamers


bit sub gooseneck tri-cone roller bits drill string
stabilizers drill collars kelly bushing

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 6 on page 2.57.

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lL.41

I~

~ Summary
In this section we have been looking at the equipment used to actually drill a hole. This
consisted of a cutting tool, equipment to apply weight to the tool and equipment to rotate the
tool. You saw that the cutting tool, which is called the drill bit, must be capable of making hole
in a variety of different rocks. To do this, several types of bit are available, from a simple drag
bit to sophisticated polycrystalline diamond bits.

We looked at the drill string next and I explained the function and construction of drill pipe and
the components of the bottom hole assembly.

Finally, we considered the rotating mechanism. I pointed out that there are a number of ways
of turning a bit but the most common system utilised a swivel, kelly, bushing and rotary table.
We looked at the way this system operates to transmit a rotary motion from the rotary table
through to the drill bit. At the end of the section we had a brief look at a couple of alternative
methods of rotating the bit.

In the next section we will move on to the circulating system and you will see how drilling fluids
are pumped and conditioned.

2.27

Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment


~

Section 3 - The Circulating System

On a number of occasions already, I have mentioned the term drilling fluid, without saying much more I have listed below the individual components of
about it. This term in fact covers a range of liquids (and sometimes gases) which perform a number of the circulating system:
functions during the drilling operation.
* mud pits
Initially, the primary function of the drilling fluid was to clean, cool and lubricate the bit and to carry cuttings
from the hole. Nowadays much more is expected of this fluid as you will see in Unit 4. * mud pumps

The drilling fluid is more commonly called drilling mud or simply mud and I will use this term during the * standpipe and rotary hose
rest of the section.
* swivel
When drilling is in progress, mud is continuously pumped down through the drill string, and out of the jet
nozzles in the bit. Since the diameter of the bit is larger than that of the drill string, an annular space is left * shale shaker
around the drill string as drilling progresses.
* mud conditioning equipment
The mud returns to the surface through this annulus carrying with it the cuttings from the bottom of the
hole. Figure 20 on the next page shows the complete
circulating system.
At the surface, the cuttings are sieved from the mud. The mud is further cleaned as necessary and then
pumped back down the hole again.

In this section we will look at the equipment used to pump the mud and condition it at the surface. In
other words the circulating system:

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stand ,
.J--------------------------------------
I - - - l - - - - swivel
pipe
Mud Pits
mud pumps rotary
hose
These are simply a series of interconnected tanks
in which the mud is initially prepared and stored,
The end tank from which the pumps take their
I kelly suction is known as the active pit. A mud mixing
hopper is located by the active pit. This is used to
mud mixing hopper \
add chemicals to the mud when its weight and
consistency needs to be changed.
--.r-- suction
line At the other end of the line of tanks is the pit which
receives the mud as it flows from the hole. This is
known as the settling pit or sand trap. The
underside of this tank is usually sloped. This
means that any solid particles which settle to the
bottom, gravitate towards valves. The valves are
opened periodically to dump the accumulated
solids. Between the active pit and the settling pit
are other tanks in which mud is stored and
conditioned. We will look at the conditioning
equipment shortly.

Mud Pumps
At the heart of the circulating system are the mud
pumps. Their function is to circulate the mud
under pressure from the active pit, through the drill
string, to the bit, and return it up the annulus to the
return
flow

settling pit.
Figure 20
line

2.29
~

action of a double acting pump


discharge discharge
There are usually two pumps on a drilling rig. They
are always of the positive displacement type. In
other words plunger pumps rather like a bicycle
pump.

The pumps are either: +={: Ao. n ... -., r: t :.::, Af?-.~ I!; .. f: t
* duplex, double-acting
or
* triplex, single-acting
suction suction
A duplex pump has two cylinders. Each cylinder
has two suction and two discharge valves. As the
piston moves through the cylinder it is discharging
mud in front at the same time as mud is filling the action of a single acting pump
cylinder behind. discharge

A triplex pump has three cylinders with each


cylinder having only one suction and one discharge . .,", . ..... " .:.1 I'... . . '_", .: '. " ~: OJ."

;r~
valve. The cylinder is filled as the piston moves
back and is discharged as the piston moves
:~ :.: ~ "';1 I'~ :.~ t
forward.

For one complete cycle of each piston a triplex


pump discharges one cylinder full of mud. In a
' r:;
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duplex pump however, because it is double acting,


two cylinder volumes are discharged for every
cycle of each piston.
...
suction

Figure 21 shows the pump action for each type.


Figure 21

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In my list of the components of the circulating


Standpipe and Rotary Hose system the swivel came next. However, as I have
already described the swivel as part of the rotating
After leaving the pumps the mud is piped to the mechanism, we will move on to the following
gooseneck of the swivel. The connecting component, the shale shaker.
pipework consists of high pressure piping from the
pump, the standpipe and the rotary hose. This
pipework must be capable of handling large
volumes of mud under high pressure but keep
Shale Shaker
pressure losses to a minimum.
Before looking at this item, think again about the
The pumps discharge mud to a manifold, an path of the mud after the swivel. It is travelling
assembly of pipes and valves which permits down through the hollow kelly, the hollow drill pipe
isolation of pumps for maintenance and repair. and collars and out through the jet nozzles in the
bit. From there it is going to return to the surface
The extension of the piping in the derrick consists via the annulus and flow into the settling pit.
of a vertical pipe firmly clamped to the derrick. The
On its return journey from the bottom of the hole,
pipe is known as the standpipe.
the mud will be carrying rock particles cut by the
bit. Before the mud can be pumped back down the
From the top of the standpipe the mud is passed to
hole, these cuttings must be removed by the shale
the swivel. During normal drilling operations the
swivel will be slowly moving down while the shaker.
standpipe is of course stationary. This means that Figure 22
The shale shaker which is shown in figure 22 is
the connection between the two must be flexible.
mounted above and at the rear end of the settling
The rotary hose provides this flexible link. If you
pit. It consists of a sloping, wire mesh screen
look back to figure 20, you can see the
which is made to vibrate. Mud returning from the
relationship between the pumps, standpipe and Fine particles of sand and silt however will pass
rotary hose in the circulating system. hole flows through a pipe and passes over the
through the shale shaker. These must be removed
screen. The liquid mud falls through the screen
in special desanders or desilters. We will look at
and into the settling tank. Larger particles are
some of this equipment now in the final part of this
trapped on the screen from where they are shaken
circulating system section.
to the bottom edge to be collected for disposal.

2.31
~

Mud Conditioning Equipment

The properties of the mud must be very carefully


controlled in order that it can do its job properly.
Chemicals may be added as we have seen
already. Unwanted substances such as sand and
silt, or sometimes gas, may have to be removed.

Hydrocyclones are used as desanders and


desilters. Mud is pumped into the hydrocyclone
via a tangentially fitted inlet. This causes the mud
to whirl round the cone shaped vessel creating high
centrifugal forces. The suspended solids are
driven towards the wall of the hydrocyclone and
downwards in an accelerating spiral. The liquid
moves inwards and upwards as a spiralling vortex.

The solids, i.e. sand or silt are discharged from the


variable opening at the bottom of the unit, whilst'
the liquid overflows from the top.

If you look at figure 23 you will see this action


illustrated.

t solids outlet

Figure 23

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Another type of separation unit used for mud which spins at a high speed. Inside is a screw From time to time, high pressure low volume gas
conditioning is the centrifuge. This is used for conveyor which moves the coarse particles accumulations may be encountered whilst drilling.
salvaging materials which are to be kept in the mud towards the discharge. This gas can enter the mud causing it to become
system. It consists of a rotating cone shaped drum gas cut.
Figure 24 shows one of these units.

..
inlet

clay ~ ~
Iiquid~~~
discharge - ~

coarse solid
discharge

Figure 24

2.33
~

Two types of degasser units are provided to


separate gas from drilling mud.

[1] Test Yourself 7


mud gas separators

vacuum degassers

Think of two possible problems which may result from the mud becoming gas cut. The first of these units usually consists of a vertical
vessel through which the gas cut mud can be
circulated.
*
f':,t
, ,
Gas is released from the mud in the separator and
is led away to be disposed of through a flare.

The gas free mud can then be returned to the pits.


This type of unit is suitable for handling high
pressure gas and mud which flows from a well
when a kick takes place.
* ~F~ f.,'\. C/"", iC,,~ i C\ 't: ( (" Ie"

You will be introduced to kicks in Unit 7 when we


cover well control.

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 7 on page 2.58.

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Vacuum degassers are more commonly used to


vacuum pump
separate entrained gas. This can be seen as foam
bubbles on top of the mud in the pits.

This type of degasser is a horizontal barrel which is


located above a mud tank from which it takes the
mud. The mud enters the vessel and overflows
from a tray down a pair of inclined plates. A
vacuum is created in the vessel which helps to
release gas from the mud. The gas is withdrawn
by the vacuum pump and vented to a safe place.
The conditioned mud flows from the bottom of the
degasser to be returned to the mud pits.

If you look at figure 25 you will see how the mud


flows through one of these units.

inclined
plates

.'!

Figure 25

2.35
----------_.------.

I~

[1] Test Yourself 8


When drilling mud is being circulated it is taken from the active tank or pit and finally returns to the
tank. In between, the mud passes a series of pieces of equipment. Number the following items in
their correct sequence in the circulating path. I have done the first one for you.
Piece of Equipment Sequence
a Mud pits IT]
b Stand pipe 0
c Mud pumps 0
d. Kelly UJ
e Swivel [D
f Drill pipe CJ
9 Drill bit [J
.'

h Annulus 0
Shale shaker LJ
j Drill collars CJ
"

k Rotary hose GJ
Mud conditioning equipment [IJ

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 8 on page 2.58.

2.36

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I~

~ Summary

In this section we have concentrated on the I explained that the pumps take the mud from the
equipment used to circulate drilling fluid pits and pass it to the swivel via the standpipe
(mud) through the drill string and back to the and rotary hose. The mud flows down through
surface. the hollow kelly, drill pipe and collars and jets out
through nozzles in the bit. It returns to the
You saw that the individual components of surface up the annulus where it flows over a
the system consisted of: vibrating screen, the shale shaker. After cuttings
have been removed at the shaker, mud
* mud pits
conditioning equipment is used to remove sand,
silt and gas, etc. Finally, the mud flows back into
mud pumps
the active pit to be picked up by the pumps once
more.
* standpipe and rotary hose
In the three sections we have looked at up to now
* swivel
we have covered the major items of equipment
used to drill a hole. In the next section we will
shale shaker
look at the system which provides the power
necessary to operate the equipment.
* mud conditioning equipment

2.37
Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment
I~

Section 4 - The Power System

A number of the items of drilling equipment which we have looked at up to now require to be driven in During drilling, great weights have to be lifted, large
some way. volumes of mud at high pressures have to be
pumped and the whole drill string has to be turned.
This requires a great deal of power but power is
also required for other machinery and equipment of
the rig, such as the shale shaker, mud conditioning
equipment, air compressors and so on.

[]] Test Yourself 9 On a jack-up rig, power is required for operating


the jacking equipment. On a semi-submersible rig
power is required for the ballasting system. In
addition to that required for the operations,
Think about the systems we have covered, and write down the three major components that
electrical power is needed for heating and
would require some kind of driving mechanism. ventilation, cooking, etc.

/i
,
~
Altogether, we are looking at a considerable power
~ ~'\ S
" i, \
*
demand.

In this section we are going to restrict ourselves to


)
a discussion of the actual rig power requirements.
* The workings of different types of engines and
electrical power generators are also beyond the
scope of this unit. We will just look at the subject
in fairly general terms.
:v'

During this section we will look at power


requirements and types of power systems.
You will find the answer in Check Yourself 9 on page 2.58.

2.38

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Power Requirements Power Systems

Thinking again about the drawworks, rotary table In the early days of rotary drilling, steam power purposes each motor has to be powered by its own
and mud pumps, I have already said that they need was used exclusively. It is hardly ever found these generator. This makes it necessary to run as
a lot of power. But how much? days and we can forget about it in this unit. Steam many generators as the maximum number of
was succeeded by internal combustion engines motors running at anyone time.
On a large offshore rig the total requirement for the using natural gas or Iiquified petroleum gas as fuel.
three components could be easily 4 500 H.P. More recently, diesel engines have become more An A.C.lD.C. system is more efficient. It uses
(Horse Power). popular as drilling engines and offshore these are standard machines to generate alternating current
almost invariably used. which is then fed into a common distribution
This is further divided up between the components system. A.C. power is then drawn from this
as follows: The rig components can be driven directly from distribution system. It has to be converted to
these engines using chains or belts to transmit controlled direct current for use with conventional
" drawworks and rotary 3 000 H.P. power. Most offshore rigs, however, use a D.C. motors. The devices which convert A.C. to
combination of diesel engines, generators and D.C. are called S.C.R.s which is short for Silicon
* mud pumps 1 500 H.P. electric motors to drive the drawworks, etc. Controlled Rectifiers.

I have lumped together the drawworks and rotary For now, let us concentrate on these so-called As I pointed out earlier, the generation, distribution
table because they are usually driven from the diesel/electric systems. and use of electricity is a vast subject and is
same power source. beyond the scope of this programme. Therefore, I
On an electric rig, the drawworks, mud pumps, don't intend to try to go any deeper into the power
To give you an idea of what this means, a etc are driven by direct current (D.C.) electric systems on a rig in this unit.
drawworks with a 3 000 H.P. input would be motors. D.C. motors are used rather than
capable of lifting a load of over one million pounds alternating current (A.C.) motors because it is not
with 10 line suspension. practical to control the speed of A.C. motors.
Some older electric rigs use a complete D.C.
To provide this power, a number of different system. This means that the prime movers (the
systems have been used over the years and this is diesel engines) drive D.C. generators, with the
what we will look at now. D.C. electricity powering the motors. One
drawback of this system is that for control

2.39
-----------------"-~=-------., ._------_._--------

cg. Summary

In this very brief section you have seen that


modern drilling rigs require a great deal of
power to drive the various components.

You have also seen that this power


requirement can be met in a number of
ways but most common these days is the
diesel/electric system.

? 40

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Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment

Section 5 . . The Blowout Prevention (BOP) System

Most people associated with the oil industry have An influx of formation fluids is called in drillers'
heard the term blowout. It conjures up pictures of terms, a kick. It is when a kick gets out of control
a drilling rig with a column of oil shooting high
above the derrick. Although blowouts do happen
from time to time, they are relatively rare
occurrences. However, the risk of a blowout is
that a blowout occurs.

In Unit 7 we will be looking much more closely at


the subject of pressure control in a well. In this
[] Test Yourself 10
ever present during drilling operations. A drill crew section I just want to describe the equipment used
must always be ready to take steps to combat the to contain and bring under control, a potential What would you say were the three main
threat of such a hazard. Before we talk about the blowout. i.e. the blowout prevention system. functions of the BOP system.
blowout prevention system we should be clear
about what a blowout really is. Blowout Prevention * (1\0\( .~ t,'::" \-j~, f r.
Blowouts The escaping fluids could flow up the annulus
when drill pipe is in the hole. Or, if the drill string is
We could define a blowout. as being an out of the hole then the fluids could simply flow
uncontrolled escape of oil, gas or other well fluids through the open hole. The blowout prevention ,
to the atmosphere. It occurs when fluids under system must be capable of making the well safe '* V (};,f" '\.,\ /'f v' i" I',' \-,

pressure are released during the drilling operation under any circumstances.
and which the various containment systems fail to
check. When the flow has been shut off, the well must be
made ready to allow drilling operations to continue.
As you will see in later units, pressure is being This usually means releasing any fluids which have
exerted by fluids in the rock formations through entered the well bore and pumping in new mud. I i~-h) ~'.i)i\. e
which a drill bit makes a hole. Normally, the
pressure being exerted by the column of drilling
fluids is sufficient to contain the formation fluid
pressures. If, however, for any reason the
pressure of the drilling fluid column drops below You will find the answer in

that of the formation fluids, these fluids will enter


the well bore.
Check Yourself 10 on page 2.59.

_J
2.41
~

Sub-Systems The valves themselves are known as blowout


preventers or simply BOPs. I will use this
The system which performs these functions can be abbreviation during the rest of this unit. ~, bell nipple
split into three sub-systems which are the: I
The stack is positioned beneath the rig floor
blowout preventer (BOP) stack directly under the rotary table. Since it must be annular type
* BOP
capable of withstanding very high pressures it must
have a very secure base. You will see in Unit 5
* BOP operating system
that one of the casing strings provides this
foundation. For the time being, it is sufficient to
* choke and kill equipment
say that the bottom item in the stack is bolted ) ram type
securely to a base unit. \. _ oJ BOP
In this section I will take you through each of these
sub-systems. You will see a typical equipment
layout, how it is constructed and how it operates. Since a blowout could threaten at any time during
the drilling operation no one BOP could cope with J ram type
every situation. The stack therefore is built up of a t oJ BOP
Once again let me emphasise that we will be
looking at equipment that you are likely to see on a variety of BOPs each of which has a specific
land based rig or fixed offshore platform type rig. function. The actual number of preventers and _ _ _ _ drilling

Although a BOP system on a floater performs their arrangement depends on the degree of spool

exactly the same function, there are differences in protection considered necessary. In figure 26 I
layout, etc. We will cover this in Unit 6 when we have illustrated just-one of the many possible BOP
stack arrangements J ram type
look at Floating Drilling in more detail. ~ oJ BOP
Starting at the bottom you will see a casing head.
The Blowout Preventer Stack This is the base unit on which the first BOP in the m casing
head
stack is mounted. The casing head itself is
The BOP stack can be described as an assembly attached to the top of a string of pipe called the
of valves and fittings. It is designed to close the surface casing. You will come across this again in
top of a well and seal in any undesirable high Unit 5.
pressures should a blowout threaten during drilling
operations. Figure 26

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Types of BOP The rams themselves are described as either: Pipe rams are intended to close the top of the hole
when drill pipe is in the well. They have a
* pipe rams semi-circular cut out in the face of each ram and
Apart from the drilling spool and bell nipple, which I
or sealing rubbers built into these faces. When a pipe
will discuss later, all the other items are BOPs.
* blind rams ram is operated the ram faces are pressed against
or each other. This forms a pressure tight seal
You will notice that they are of different types.
* shear rams around drill pipe in the hole and shuts off the
These are:
annulus.
* Ram Type BOPs.

and
Figure 27 shows an outline bird's eye view of a
* Annular Type BOPs. pipe ram type BOP and indicates its operating
principle.
Let's look at each of these units, starting with the pipe rams
ram types.

Ram Type BOPs


piston
rod
Ram type BOPs consist of a body which houses a
pair of rams. When these rams are retracted into
the body cavity the BOP is open. In this position a
vertical bore exists through which the drilling
equipment can pass.

The rams are connected via piston rods to pistons


acting in hydraulic cylinders. When hydraulic
pressure is applied to the pistons, the rams are
pushed towards each other. This makes the well
safe.
drill pipe
Figure 27

2.43
~

Blind Rams

[] Test Yourself 11
Supposing though there is no drill pipe in the hole
at all. It would be pointless to close a pair of pipe
rams, leaving a hole through the middle.

Blind rams can protect the well in this situation.


Can you think of a potential problem which may occur if there is only one set of pipe ram BOPs Blind rams have no cutout in the faces. When they
in a stack. are operated a seal is made between the two ram
faces and closes off the open hole.
Suggest a solution to the problem.

)( ct i' tf .(V t F e <, '",.n I' "'" ('or' ~: f s-


I. ~) F Shear Rams

1) ri t{{ r o \ ". ,'" Co r: eif " ~,


Some BOPs are fitted with rams which are capable
l'C\ 1/\1 r \~\~\ t'.\ . I: of cutting the drill pipe and making a seal. These
t. , (i i
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units are called shear rams. They would of course


only be used in a dire emergency. Often, the blind
and shear action is combined in one BOP which
is then called a blind/shear ram BOP.
J)1t b\ ~-f~ '''t:' {" '. ~ it ~,.,

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 11 on page 2.59.

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~ Activity
Figure 28 shows a more detailed drawing of a ram type BOP. Take a look at this now and satisfy yourself that you can work out how the unit
operates. Your tutor will be able to help you, if necessary.

piston rod

piston

sealing
rubbers

BOP body
Figure 28

2.45
~

Annular Type BOPs

In any BOP stack the upper unit is an annular


type BOP. These preventers use a ring of
toughened rubber packing material to make a seal.
In its relaxed state the hole through the packing
ring is equal in diameter to the bore of the BOP
When the preventer is operated, hydraulic pressure
pushes a tapered piston upwards. This movement ring of
squeezes the packing ring in towards the centre. "" ~. ,)" .." I packing material
As the packing ring deforms it makes a seal around
most sizes and shapes of pipe in the hole.

This type of preventer will not only close around


any size of drill pipe, it will close around a kelly or
even open hole.
piston with
If you look at figure 29 you will see how an annular internal taper
preventer works.

hydraulic pressure
admitted here will
push piston up and
squeeze packing to
form seal

Figure 29

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------------------------------------------------------------
Drilling Spool

There are two more items in the BOP stack which


I haven't yet mentioned. The first of these is the
drilling spool. This is a fitting placed between two
@3 Activity
of the preventers which has a through bore at least
as large as the BOP bore. Two side outlets are
incorporated to which are connected flowlines I suggest that you look again at figure 26. Identify all the components of the BOP stack and
known as the choke and kill lines. We will look at make sure that you know what each one does and how it works. If you are not sure how these
these shortly. elements work, your tutor or a colleague should be able to help you.

Bell Nipple

Finally, on top of the stack is mounted the bell


nipple, sometimes called the flow stack. It
consists of a piece of pipe connected by a flange to
the top of the annular BOP. It has the same bore
as the drilling spool and the BOPs and at the top it
is flared or tapered. During drilling operations the
top of the bell nipple is the top of the well bore.
When drilling tools are being lowered into the hole,
the bell shape guides them and prevents them
hanging up at this point.

A side outlet from the bell nipple diverts the


returning drilling fluid through a return flowline to
the shale shaker. A fill up line connected to the
bell nipple allows the mud in the hole to be topped
up. This has to be done when drill pipe is removed
and the mud level in the hole drops. J

2.47
~

The BOP Operating System From the tank, pumps take the fluid and develop The accumulators, pumps and oil reservoir are
the pressure necessary for preventer operation. usually built into skid mounted assemblies. These
The pumps are driven by either air or electrically also include piping and control valves which direct
You have seen that BOPs, both ram and annular
,. types are actuated by hydraulic pressure. This
powered motors. the flow of oil to each preventer. The complete
assembly is located at some distance from the
equipment is only of value if it can be operated
The BOPs must be capable of being operated even well. In order that the driller can react quickly to
quickly and conveniently in an emergency. Also,
if there is no power to drive the pumps. any emergency, a control console is placed close
the preventers must be capable of being operated
to hand on the rig floor.
if the rig power is lost.
Accumulators are used to store energy which can
then be used to actuate the preventers when rig The control console contains the operating levers
A typical operating system which can do this would
power is unavailable. for each preventer. It has a display of each BOP in
consist of the following items:
its correct position relative to the actual stack.
An accumulator is basically a pressure vessel. It is Each lever normally stands in a neutral position.
* hydraulic oil reserve
divided into two compartments which are separated To actuate a BOP the driller simply moves the
by a diaphragm or a piston. The hydraulic oil lever to the close or open position. This action
* pump(s)
occupies one compartment whilst the other is filled directs air pressure to actuating cylinders. These
with an inert gas under pressure. Nitrogen is the in turn operate the control valves on the main unit.
* accumulator(s)
most commonly used gas.
Figure 30 on the next page is a line diagram
* control console
When a control valve is opened, the pressure of showing the layout of a basic BOP operating
the compressed gas forces the hydraulic oil system.
* connecting pipework
through the connecting pipework to the preventer
piston.
The reservoir is simply a tank which contains a
reserve of hydraulic oil used to close (or open) the
The pump/accumulator units are usually designed
preventers. It is part of a closed system, i.e. the oil
so that the fluid charges are automatically
returns to the tank when the preventers are
maintained at the desired pressure. There should
re-opened.
be sufficient fluid in the accumulators to close each
preventer at least once.

2.48

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--...--

The Choke and Kill Equipment Having such a layout allows mud to be pumped into the annulus when preventers are closed above the
drilling spool. I will discuss the operation of the choke and kill system in much more detail when we look
at pressure control in Unit 7.
In any BOP system there must be provision for
allowing: remote operated
choke

* controlled release of well pressure

* pumping into the annulus when the


preventers are closed

The first of these provisions is catered for by the


choke manifolding. Figure 31 shows you the
basic layout of the choke manifold.

This consists of a connection to the side outlet of


the drilling spool fitted with one or more valves.
From there a flowline passes to a branched
manifold. At the manifold, mud flowing from the
well under pressure can be diverted through one of
a number of chokes to the pits.

The chokes are orifice valves which are used to


maintain back pressure on the well as fluid is
released. The variable orifice (opening) in the
choke is opened or closed to maintain the desired
pressure.

Connected to the side outlet of the drilling spool


adjustable
opposite the choke, is the kill connection. From a choke
valve (or valves) at this connection a flowline leads
back to the rig mud pumps. Figure 31

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[!J Test Yourself 12

Describe in your own words a BOP stack which has 3 preventers.

Your answer should name each component and describe the function of these components.

You will find the answer in Check Yourself 12 on page 2.59.

2.51

[!] Test Yourself 13


In this unit we have looked at 5 systems
which together make up a complete drilling
installation. I have listed a number of
I hOi:',ng system drawworks li .. i' !E\;p! I r

Br (II( ,
components from these systems. Fill in the
table to match the components to the system
they are part of. I have done the first one for KeIll) Io'Jrdi ~'\'
I'v ,t--'.'.'q :: b _ ."
I(AJ1 \f t'l ( i'
you. rotating system
If
shale shaker v C: bit sub v (

swivel v master bushing J


rirf
1

SCR 'v i' qC:,rrl ! r{{ S"\ to' , (J'", , (


stand pipe (: >

drawworks v saver sub v F circulating system


kelly bushing ~ accumulator ,i!:i
generators -c/ deadline anchor d
choke v' drilling spool' "l
links \ centrifuge' - { (';; /
\)f'/\ f'f
elevator blind ram v I-powe, system
desilter brake

{ 1) I J{r..A,h)(' c\rt! 1
r
blowout prevention system (. !

You will find the answer in


Check Yourself 13 on page 2.60.

2.52

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=: Db __

~ Summary

In this section we have looked at the In order to be able to perform these functions the We will also return to the subject of blowout
equipment used to contain and bring under system consists of: prevention equipment in Unit 7 when we will cover
control a potential blowout. This equipment pressure control in more detail.
is called the Blowout Prevention System. a blowout preventer stack having a
number of preventers, both ram type You should now be able to go back to the Training
You saw that the functions of the system can and annular preventers Target set at the beginning of this unit and check
be listed as enabling the drilling crew to: that you can tick all of the boxes. If you have any
an operating system which enables the problems, look at the appropriate section again or
* close the top of the hole driller to close and open the preventers arrange a meeting with your tutor, who should be
remotely able to help you.
* release any fluid under controlled
conditions a choke and kill system, used to release
fluids under controlled conditions and allow
* permit the pumping of new mud into the pumping of new drilling fluid into the
the hole well when preventers are closed

Throughout the section we have concentrated on


conventional land or production platform type of
equipment. In Unit 6 we will be looking at BOP
equipment which is used in floating drilling
applications.

2.53
~
Unit 2 : Drilling Systems and Equipment

Check Yourself - Answers

~
Check Yourself 1 Check Yourself 2
1. Yes 9. Yes 1. hard formation

2. Yes 10. No. The collars are part of the drill string 2. soft to medium formation
which itself is part of the rotating system.
3. Yes 3. soft formation
11. No. We will look at a shale shaker in
4. No. The rotary table is part of the Section 3. It is a component in the circulating
rotating system which we will look at in system.
Section 2.
12. Yes
5. Yes

6. No. This is also part of the rotating


system.

7. Yes

8. Yes

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Check Yourself 3
To obtain 50 OOOlbs weight on bit with fluid buoyancy factor of 0.833 will Therefore the total weight required is the weight of the drill collar + the
require: excess weight

= 60 000 + 15 000
50000 = 60 024 Ibs actual collar weight
0.833 = 75 000 Ibs

Let's say 60 000 Ibs If each joint weighs 4 410 Ibs the number of joints required

If 25% excess weight is required, this will be: = 75 000


4410
60000 x 25 = 15000 Ibs
100 = 17 joints

255
~

~
Check Yourself 4 Check Yourself 5

1. False A bit sub is used to connect the swivel bail +

bit to the collars but it has box


connections, not pin connections tri-cone roller +

at each end.
drill collar +
+ drill bit
2. True
synthetic diamond insert +--
3. False Drill collars allow just part of the
weight of the collars themselves kelly bushing drill string
to be applied to the bit. This
means that the drill pipe is held gooseneck +

in tension.
stabilizer
:+ rotating mechanism
4. False Crossover subs are used to
connect different sizes of drill master bushing
pipe or collars.

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Check Yourself 6
The words missing from the sentences are shown in bold type below. Of the remaining words, a top drive is one of
the alternative rotating systems, a bit sub
A rotating system has three main subsystems, the drill bit, the drill string and the rotating connects the bit to the collars, and stabilizers
mechanism. help to maintain a straight hole of full diameter.
A bail is simply a handle by which the swivel is
There are a number of different drill bit designs available such as drag bits, tri-cone roller bits, suspended from the drilling hook.
diamond bits and polycrystalline diamond bits.

Under reamers and hole openers are sometimes placed above a bit to enlarge or maintain a hole
size.

In a drill string, drill collars are used to hold the string in tension and maintain weight on bit.

In a conventional rotating mechanism the rotary table turns the kelly bushing, which transmits the
rotary motion to the kelly and from there to the drill string and bit.

Drilling fluid enters the drill string via the gooseneck in the swivel.
~

~
Check Yourself 7 Check Yourself 8 Check Yourself 9
If gas cut mud is recirculated a number of The correct sequence is: I'm sure that you wrote the same components
problems may arise. These will include a as me, i.e.
reduction in mud weight (or density), giving Mud pits IT]
rise to pressure control problems, which
[I] * the drawworks
Stand pipe
you will see in Unit 7.
Mud pumps ~ * the rotary table
Also, the mud pumps will have difficulty in
dealing with mud which is gas-cut. Kelly ~ * the mud pumps
Swivel @]
Drill pipe o
Drill bit ~
Annulus ~
Shale shaker ~
Drill collars [!]
Rotary hose [TI
Mud conditioning equipment ~

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Check Yourself 10 Check Yourself 12
The 3 main functions of a BOP system are as follows: Your answer should have included the following.

* Close the top of the hole. Two of the BOPs will be ram type preventers. One would be fitted with
pipe rams to close round drill pipe in the hole, the other would be fitted with
* Release any fluid under controlled conditions. blind / shear rams. This preventer could close the well with nothing in the
hole or in an emergency could cut the drill pipe and make a seal. The
* Permit the pumping of new mud into the hole. uppermost preventer would be an annular type. This unit could close
around any size of drill pipe, a kelly or even empty hole.

Between the two ram preventers would be a drilling spool. The choke and
kill lines would be connected to the drilling spool. The choke and kill lines
Check Yourself 11 allow controlled release of well pressure and permit pumping into the
annulus when the preventers are closed.
A pair of pipe rams can only make a seal around one particular size of
pipe, ie. the diameter of the cut out in the face of the ram must match Finally on top of the stack is the bell nipple. The mud return flowline is
the diameter of the pipe. If different sizes of pipe are used, the rams connected to this nipple which also has a connection for a fill up line. The
must De changed for ones with the correct size of cut outs. Often more top of the bell nipple is flared to guide the drilling tools into the hole.
than one set of ram type BOPs is used with different sized rams to
accommodate two different sizes of pipe. If you have missed any of these components, go through Section 5 again
and satisfy yourself that you are now familiar with them.

2.59
~

-------------------------_ --------------------------------------------_. .....

~
hoisting system drawworks, links, elevator, deadline anchor, brake
Check Yourself 13
Your table should look like the one opposite.
rotating system I
swivel, kelly bushing, bit sub, master bushing, saver sub

circulating system shale shaker, stand pipe, desilter, centrifuge

power system generators, SCR

blowout prevention system choke, accumulator, drilling spool, blind ram

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