Hist 1210 Un-assessed Essay February 2015 Student 200852643

Does the empire of Trajan and

Hadrian deserve to be seen as a
Golden Age?
It can often be challenging to define what is meant by a Golden Age,

however, it is necessary in the answering of this thesis, especially when

agreement of when the Golden Age of the Roman Empire was, is not

universally shared. Comparing to the Golden Age of the Byzantine Empire,

when the economy was booming, the military was strong and the arts

were well developing, gives scope and direction when deciding if the

rulership of Trajan and Hadrian established a Golden Age.1 The

achievements of Trajan and Hadrian will be assessed in relation to social

peace, economic advancement, military might, political stability and

cultural development, to determine whether their military campaigns and

public buildings attributed to the success and peak of the Roman Empire.

Trajan offered a brilliant military mind, as shown by his conquests of Dacia

and Parthia which led to economic success. Furthermore, he developed

infrastructure and welfare through financial aid and the building of roads,

bridges and other public works. Hadrian on the other hand was not as

militarily sound, yet by focussing on the maintenance of the borders, the

argument arose that he helped contribute towards the longevity of the

Golden Age. Counterarguments will be provided, by comparing the

successes of Trajan and Hadrian to a fellow good emperor; Marcus

Aurelius.

1
Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (New York: Scribner, 1980).

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Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), was referred to as optimus princeps, the

greatest ruler, by the senate.2 A successful soldier-emperor, he oversaw

the greatest military expansion in Roman history. Perhaps the most

famous of all empires according to Paul Petit, and the most influential for

modern technology, the Roman Empires greatest expansionist period can

be attributed to Emperor Trajan, who ruled from 98AD until his death in

117AD.3 His expansion was catalysed through resounding campaigns and

victories in wars against Dacia and Parthia. The Roman Empire was

experiencing a lull in prosperity caused by Emperor Neros failures in

economic policies during the 1st century.4 For example, the increased

military spending and unwise decisions regarding public spending, in the

opinion of Moses Finely were attributes which left the Roman economy in a

period of contraction.5 However, Emperor Trajan showed initiative and a

willingness to progress by sourcing other ways of income for the empire.

For instance, they discovered rich gold mines in Dacia. There were

multiple reasons for the wars with Dacia, however the gain of physical

materials seems to be the deciding dynamic. For instance, the depth of

Dacian iron resources enabled them to have higher quality of swords,

which aided their military and posed a threat to Roman armies, as well as

the technological advantages which Rome had typically enjoyed. There

was a fear that Dacia may arm enemies of Rome or consider invasion or

raiding operations themselves. Thus, by 100AD, Emperor Trajan viewed

2
Christopher Scarre, Chronicle Of The Roman Emperors (London: Thames and Hudson,
1995), page 98.
3
Paul Petit, Pax Romana (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
4
Arthur E. P. Brome Weigall, Nero, Emperor Of Rome (London: T. Butterworth, 1930).
5
M. I Finley, The Ancient Economy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).

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Dacia as a threat which needed to be quelled.6 The elimination of

opponents was important to Roman prosperity, and as mentioned in the

introduction, it could be reasoned that a Golden Age could be achieved

by military prowess. Therefore, Trajan launched an anticipatory campaign.

In 101AD, the Romans invaded Dacia, destroying most things in their

path. No quarter was offered, and a year later, at Tapae, King Decebalus

was defeated, leaving Trajan victorious with speed and prowess. Further

demonstrations that this period was a vanguard of manufacturing and

technology in the world include the construction of a bridge to aid the

Roman advance. Trajans bridge demonstrated Romes abilities and power.

For centuries to come, through the crisis of the third century and beyond,

it remained the largest bridge in the world.7 According to Stephen Dando-

Collins, the pinnacle of the Roman Empire was reached under Trajan, thus

suggesting that during his rule, a Golden Age was unfolding.8 However,

there were challenges to the Roman superiority, as Dacia engaged in a

second war with Rome. This war was more bloody, however, superior

resources; economic and military, meant that the Dacian capital was

razed. This second victory facilitated the Roman capture of Dacian gold

mines. This victory was important as it literally established a golden age;

funding Roman exploits for years with the direct injection into the treasury.

Trajan, by todays standards was brutal, showing no quarter and enslaving

100,000 Dacian citizens. However, the threat was removed and allowed

6
Donald Wasson and Mark Cartwright, 'Trajan', Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2015
<http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/> [accessed 24 February 2015].
7
Raymond Henry Lacey, The Equestrian Officials Of Trajan And Hadrian (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1917).
8
Stephen Dando-Collins, The Great Fire Of Rome (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2010),
pages 36-39.

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Rome to flourish further, also providing Trajan with a geographical flank

for an invasion of Parthia. Adrian Goldsworthy saw the strategic

positioning of Roman borders as a reason for its prosperity, his argument

is contributory for the school of thought which believes that this period

was a Golden Age.9

Seven years after the final defeat of Dacia, Trajan embarked on a military

conquest for the final time. Despite health problems and revolts, he

managed to annex Armenia and Mesopotamia, thus extending the scope

of the Roman Empire to their furthest corners. However, geographic

expansion was not the only part of his development of the empire. He was

one of the most prolific builders, busying himself with vast projects. The

societal view of their emperor was demonstrated through writings, which

were often complimentary of him. Furthermore, Trajans column, Trajans

Forum and the Alcantara bridge are all physical representations of his

legacy; outstanding feats of architecture, which deserve to be contributing

factors towards the dubbing of the Golden Age. He was an emperor who

voiced his concerns with good governmental rule as well as public welfare,

following through with his manifesto, he instituted domestic policies;

similar to those which would only be enjoyed by citizens of Europe over 18

centuries later. He provided for the children of the poor, restored

knackered roads and enhanced infrastructure by building aqueducts,

bridges, public baths as well as a port at Ostia. Despite the fact that Rome

did not deteriorate after his death, (which some attribute to the leadership

of Hadrian), emulation of his accomplishments was stunted. This leads

9
Adrian Keith Goldsworthy, In The Name Of Rome (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
2003), pages 123-125.

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modern historians, such as Steven A. Epstein to claim that his reign should

rightfully be seen as the most beneficial to Roman society.10

Other aspects of Trajans rule which gained him popularity in modern

society as well as Roman society include characteristics of philanthropic

rule. His treatment of minorities has been lauded, in particular of the

Christian faith. He often wrote letters to Pliny asking for advice, in

comparison to Emperor Nero, who brutally executed thousands of

Christians for public entertainment. Trajan offered entertainment on a

large scale as well. He funded a three month long gladiatorial festival,

paying equal attention to entertainment as he did to other serious issues.

However, his overall legacy can be seen as a balanced one, with his civil

and military duties being the basis of praise. The devaluation of the

currency to allow for military spending was rewarded with successful wars

against Dacia and Parthia, and his various buildings were acclaimed. Many

historians can agree that it was his actions that enabled Hadrian to

contribute towards the longevity of the so-called Golden Age.

Emperor Hadrian ruled from 117AD-138AD, and attempted to mirror the

success of Trajans architectural feats. Despite being labelled as a more

aggressive ruler, he still contributed towards increasing the splendour of

the empire. For instance, he built cities, like Hadrianopolis, and perhaps

his most famous venture; Hadrians Wall across Britain, designed to keep

barbarians at bay.11 Also christened a good emperor, Hadrian was visibly

more interested by philosophy than war. He did not increase the size of

10
Steven A Epstein, Wage And Labor Guilds In Medieval Europe (Chapel Hill: The
University of North Carolina Press, 1991), page 107.
11
Thorsten Opper, The Emperor Hadrian (London: British Museum, 2008).

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the empire, which had peaked during Trajans reign, however by

reorganizing spending, he was able to rectify tax situations and defend

the weak against those with more economic capabilities. Historians such

as Mary T. Boatwright reasoned that Trajan induced the Golden Age and

Hadrian enforced it.12 This was done by constant travelling throughout the

empire, and by protecting the borders, as shown by the building of

garrisons, forts and of course, his wall. Though not renowned for

philanthropic work, he did give large sums of money to communities, and

outlawed masters killing their slaves.13 From a historical point of view, this

is worthy of note and allows for debate on the success of his reforms. He

improved the roads and this allowed for the trade to develop the Roman

economy. The bringing of ideas, people and culture to various parts of the

empire allowed for national pride and identity to be nurtured. This is

culturally relevant as it offers arguments to suggest that he developed the

ethos of the empire, to one which was proud and arguably the greatest in

the world. In this case, it could be analysed that he not only prolonged,

but widened the breadth of the Golden Age.

However great the achievements of Trajan and Hadrian, there was not

always a harmonious continuity between the two emperors. Trajan was

guardian and friend to Hadrian, however one of Hadrians first decisions

was the abandonment of the eastern territories which Trajan had just

conquered during his last campaign. This would have reduced Hadrians

popularity with Generals and armies who had fought hard to acquire

12
Mary Taliaferro Boatwright, Hadrian And The Cities Of The Roman Empire (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), pages 41-42.
13
Hadrian And the Cities of The Roman Empire.

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victory, as well as with the Senate in the capital, where Hadrian seemed

to spend little of his time. If Hadrian had sought to rule as honourably as

his predecessor, then he was not making a good start. Controversy

surrounding the execution of senators who were killed for plotting against

Hadrian, led to a political mistrust and instability.14 This suggests that the

Golden Age would not continue, as mentioned in the introduction,

political stability was necessary for prosperity. Moreover, Hadrian had

been seen as a cultured, philosophical man, devoted to religion, law and

arts. He seemed interested in preserving the Roman civilization, however,

he also bore a dark side in him which historians like Boatwright likened to

Emperor Nero.15 This meant that Hadrian was sometimes feared, and this

led to a decline in respect or admiration from the citizenry he ruled over,

jeopardizing the sanctity of the Golden Age.

It could be said that the other good emperors enjoyed more success.

Comparisons between Marcus Aurelius and the duo of Trajan and Hadrian

are important in the answering of this thesis. Melito called Marcus Aurelius

more philanthropic and philosophic than Pius and Hadrian.16 The

argument is developed by the historian Herodian, who wrote "Alone of the

emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge

of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate

way of life."17 Iain King concludes that Marcus Aurelius; legacy is perhaps

tragic, due to his stoic philosophy self-restraint, duty and respect for

14
Hadrian And the Cities of The Roman Empire.
15
Mary Taliaferro Boatwright and others, A Brief History Of The Romans (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2006).
16
Eusebius and others, Historia Ecclesiastica (Mantua: Johann Schall, 1479).
17
Herodian. and Edward C Echols, Herodian Of Antioch's History Of The Roman
Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961).

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Hist 1210 Un-assessed Essay February 2015 Student 200852643

others [which was] abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his

deathbed.18 However, the view of these historians perhaps offers the

counterargument, suggesting that Marcus Aurelius approach was more

noteworthy than that of Hadrian and Trajan. Yet, the physical and nominal

achievements of Hadrian and Trajan perhaps outweigh the respectful

approach of Marcus.

Various schools of thought exist as to when the Roman Empire

experienced its greatest era. However, the overwhelming success

experienced under the dominion of Trajan and Hadrian during the second

century AD, is evidence enough to suggest that their rule led to Golden

Age of Rome. The relative continuity is important to note, as

improvements of the economy and infrastructure continued throughout

both their reigns. Hadrians Wall and Trajans Column are current

reminders of their architectural feats. Historians have argued that of the

other good emperors, only Marcus Aurelius can match their

achievements, however the military crises which rocked the stability of

the empire contradicts the idea of a Golden Age. This then leads to

deciding who was more influential, Hadrian or Trajan? The welfare system

created by Trajan can be judged as being ahead of their time. The benefits

for children of the poor and the infrastructural improvements he made

suggest that he established the Golden Age of Rome. Coupled with the

fact that he was incredibly successful in his military campaigns and

propelled the empire to its largest size, it would be a sound to conclusion

18
Iain King, 'THINKERS AT WAR - Marcus Aurelius', Military History Monthly, 2014
<http://www.military-history.org/articles/thinkers-at-war-marcus-aurelius.htm> [accessed
23 February 2015].

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Hist 1210 Un-assessed Essay February 2015 Student 200852643

to say that Trajan compounded the Golden Age. This view is shared by a

variety of historians, including Boatwright, however unlike other empires,

like the Byzantine Empire, which had experienced definitive Golden Ages,

regarding the Roman Empire, it is open for interpretation. However,

overall it could be said that a Golden Age was started under Trajans

military successes, and continued by Hadrians protection at the frontiers

and his competent political understanding.

Word Count; 2199

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Bibliography
Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro, Hadrian And The Cities Of The Roman
Empire (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000)
Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro, Daniel J Gargola, Richard J. A Talbert, and Mary
Taliaferro Boatwright, A Brief History Of The Romans (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2006)
Browning, Robert, The Byzantine Empire (New York: Scribner, 1980)
Dando-Collins, Stephen, The Great Fire Of Rome (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press,
2010)
Epstein, Steven A, Wage And Labor Guilds In Medieval Europe (Chapel Hill: The
University of North Carolina Press, 1991)
Eusebius, Rufinus, Johann Schall, Johann Schall, Federico, and
Chromatius, Historia Ecclesiastica(Mantua: Johann Schall, 1479) [*]
Finley, M. I, The Ancient Economy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973)
Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith, In The Name Of Rome (London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson, 2003)
Herodian., and Edward C Echols, Herodian Of Antioch's History Of The Roman
Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961) [*]
King, Iain, 'THINKERS AT WAR - Marcus Aurelius', Military History Monthly, 2014
<http://www.military-history.org/articles/thinkers-at-war-marcus-aurelius.htm>
[accessed 23 February 2015]
Lacey, Raymond Henry, The Equestrian Officials Of Trajan And
Hadrian (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1917)
Opper, Thorsten, The Emperor Hadrian (London: British Museum, 2008)
Petit, Paul, Pax Romana (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976)
Scarre, Christopher, Chronicle Of The Roman Emperors (London: Thames and
Hudson, 1995)
Wasson, Donald, and Mark Cartwright, 'Trajan', Ancient History Encyclopedia,
2015 <http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/> [accessed 24 February 2015]
Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome, Nero, Emperor Of Rome (London: T. Butterworth,
1930)

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[*] Marks a primary source.

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