MJLCAN3H1MA, MjV \.

VA3ILEV^5yA

ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
 cy ouui articles are usea alter
I t took h i m half the morning. Bfa~,
is dry," said Fleur, "let's;,sit down for^lf.
w o r t h y.)
N o t e . I f halt forms a compound with some nouns, the ifuclf
before the com pouna noun or its attribute:
The clock struck the half-hour... (Br a j n e.i We mm- good hall and more. (M a r rW*l.) The
ena^oT^he half-year was drawiRJp
(Huges.)

THE ADJECTIVE
1. The a d j e c t i v e is a part ofjspeech which includes^|K>rds
expressing the attributes of substances (good/diffftffi
2. The main syntactical function of an adjective in the sentence
is that of a n a t t r i b u t e :
A glitter of sunshtpg made the earfefc* winter rr^p like late
 autumn* and the dark woods were touched here and there with tod and
golden leaves like the last rays of a lost summer. (Ches-tertonA^
The adjective may also be used as a p r e d i c a t i v e in a nominal
(coiifiound) predicate:
t^be argument became lively. (Snow.) The weather was warai^
(Dickens.) Now in the fall the trees were all bare and the|rcads were
muddy* ( H e m i n g w a y . ) He looked so beaatifid and peaceful sitting in
that chair under the tree. (Galsworthy.) - - -^
3. Adjectives with the prefix a- such as alive, awoke, aware, asleep* afraid,
etc. have ^usually the function of p r e d i c a t i v e s (subjective or
objective). When they are used as a t t r i b u t e s they follow their head-
nouns, thus preserving their predicative character.Their "|iyncnyms in
pre-position are live or living (for alive), waiting or wakeful (for awake),
slanting (for aslant), stray ( f o r astray), etc:
pliay awake a long while... ( G a l s w o r t h y . ) He was asleep* in the
dining-room, in his own comfortable chair. (G a s k e! 1.) Ruth was
aghast. (London.) And here I've been keeping you awake.
* ( M a n s f i e I d . ) (an objective predicative) Mary rubbed fcereyes and
sank back on her pillow, awake,, and knowing it was a drearnji (G a s
k e 11.) (an attribute)
The adjectives i& and well are not used attributively in Modem gish,
they have only the function of a predicative:
%i feeling very well, Aunt Augusta. (Wilde.)... my poor friend
Bumbary is very ill again. (W i 1 d e.)

Survivals of the olc^attributive use of ill are found in some* Brap^

(set) combinations: ill tuckt ill news, ill wind:
ill news travels fast. It is an ill wind that blows no good.
-The adjective well is homonymous in form to the adverb welt:
||p is well (adjective) that ends well (adverb).
jft.The adjective is modified by an adverb %hich has the syntactical
function of an adverbial modifier to the adjective:
^fhe *ky& was very gloomylu ( D i c k e n s . ) Mrs. Steerforth

11 1
1
Some grammarians consider that these words are a separate part of speech
similar to the aarf r s -
 M
was particularly happy i n her son's society. ( D i c k e n s . ) I have had a
very pleasant evening." ( D i c k e n s . )
5. The adjective may be associated with a n object, usually a prepositional
one. Only three adjectives like, busy and worth have direct objects:
...the a i r was f u l l of butterflies... ( G a l s w o r t h y . ) He was very fond
of opera... ( G a l s w o r t h y . ) Tom was good to her... ( E l i o t . ) There was
a wind l i k e ice. ( M a n s f i e l d . ) Hi Was conscious of a f a i n t rustling
behind him. (Ga 1 s w o r t h y . ) **She's more l i k e your mother: the
sarni tytl ilia naif* (G a I s-w o r t h v.) A bbv ahd two itieii WiNI buiy
hatifflttB the tiveat

tfii as AW winfi^i it yiM ft. thi FdHfeuBH 1)

i J.Mi i.i i U vjl # % m
i m i B i i v t in pwjSiitisi.. IT ft flwijfi wiww ty *mm\ Wftitt
JL^VmiiHi lit* m* \m\\m tartl till* ifi& WMiHlil _
 In Mod tn English adjectives have no inflexions et case* numb*,
or Kinder. >;' -v f
The only change of form that adjectives undergo is for d* g r e e s o f
c o m p a r i s o n : long, lonSfir, longest (synthetical forms), I beautiful, more
beautiful, most beautiful (analytical forrn||^
6. in Old English, adjectives were inflected for case, number :and gender, agreeing
with the noun they modified. But in the .course of time these inflexions were levelled
to -e and finally discarded (at the end of the Middle English period, 1400-150^;
:
pip*! %' life'' ' i i j i i i i ^ ' ' ' '
l) As to word-building, the adjective possej^ 0.JJ{fflte\ typical suffixes such as -ful,
-less, -ish, -ous, -some, -ly, etc.; beautiful, sunless, numerous, childislt, troublesome,
lively.
There are also compound adjectives such as-ic?~&m^ lifelong, fir east-high,
heart-rending, upright, inborn. -fi^S
8. Adjectives make our sfpeh more expressive and precise. The role of adjectives
is especially great in fiction.^Compare the
jfoiiowing descriptive pa|pges:
The inoon rose above the tops /of ^^f^^^f^?S&^^ was flooded with
light.
so m -JkJl:
 A brilliant moon rose above the craggy tops o. the distant mountains. The
calm sea was flooded with silvery light.
9. According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics, adjectives are
divided into:
-a) q u a l i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s (KaqecTBennue npH/iaraTe<nb-Hbie).
b) r e l f i t i v e a d j e c t i v e s (oTHOcHTCJibHbie np.iaraTe.nbHbie).
Q u a I i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s denote qualities of size, shape, co/owr,
etc., whichjgn object may possess in various degrees. Therefore qualitative

The pavement under pur feet jg|w colder and muddier, and the
wind more and more foul. ( G r e e n w o o d . y^^.thougli I airji the
youngest. 1 am the tallest." ( A u s t e n . )

adjectives have degrees of comparison:

 ^uummm u u j u m u rravecorresponding ^verbT derTve<ri)y means of the s u f f i x -ly
(quick quickly, bright brightly) or homonymous in form with the adjective (fast
fast, loud loud
Uyl).
R e l a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s express qualities which characterize a n object through its
relation to another object: woollen gloves (gloves made of wool), wooden houses
(houses made of wood), Siberian wheat (wheat from Siberia).
Relative adjectives have n o d e g r e e s o f c o m p a r i s o n . In English the number of
relative adjectives is limited. A few relative adjectives are formed from nouns by means oi
the suffix (wooden, woollen); some relative adjectives are formed from nouns by the suffix
-ly (daily, motlierly); many relative adfectives are converted from nouns (silk.
gold,jytton) .Adjectivized iMNp are also freely used with the meaning of relative
adjectives: a summer day* a wood flower, the Moscow tlieatres. See "Adjectivized
Nouns." p. 44) There is no hard and fast line of demarcation between quama-and
relative adjectives; a relative adjective may acquire, the ling of a qualitative one:
silver watch {relative) silver stream an iron bridge (relative) an froit will
(qualitative) (qualitative)
an object through its relation to another object: woollen gloves loves made
of wool), wooden houses (houses made of wood), Siberian wheat (wheat
from Siberia).
Relative adjectives have n o d e g r e e s o f c o m p a r i s o n .
In English the number of relative adjectives is limited.
A few relative adjectives are formed from nouns by means of the suffix
-en (wooden, woollen); some relative adjectives are formed from nouns by
the s u f f i x -ly (daily, motherly); many relative adjectives are converted
from nouns (silk, gold, cotton). Adjectivized nouns are also freely used
w i t h the meaning of relative adjectives: a summer day, a wood flower^ the
Moscow theatres. See "Adjectivized Nouns," p. 44)
There is no hard and fast l i n e of demarcation between qualitative and
relathpji adjectives; a illative adjective may acquire the meaning of a
qualitative one:
jfira silver watch ^relative) aflfom iron bridge (relative) ||a silver stream
(qualitativc)||an iron will (qualitative).
Note the use of .feragys In when. the relative adjectives

Wttox% wax, st7/r acquirequalitative meaning:

fi &IOQ
 Some of the forms in -en are now archaic: an oaken chair.

Degrees of Comparison
1) There are two degrees of comparison: t h e c o m p a r a t i v e
and t h e s u p e r l a t i v e , in contrast to which the adjective I
expressing the simple quality without comparison is said to be in
the positive degree. ggJ
2. The adjective in the positive with the conjunction as ... as
expresses an equal degree:
My task is as easy as yours. My room is as large as hers. The third man
was no other than his old friend Dr. Horace Hunter, as healthy and
hearty as e v e r . ( C h e s t e r t o n . ) A l l the way home in the carriage
he felt a t least as happy over her good fortune as over his own...
( G a l s w o r t h y . ) "If you ever five to be as old as I am you will find
many things grange/' ( H e m fngway.)
In a corresponding negative sentence not so.., as is used:
My task is not so easy as yours. My room is not so large
a hers* ^0
Farther off were hills: not so lofty as those round Lowood.. (Br on
If.) "He's... not so pleasant as he might be." (Dick* en*,} 1 am not so
fcrave, so good, so strong ajgg

82
 Wfk
alragK^1 *HPHi g w tf^r
III a . a i u -tVMHlinj; uegattve sentence nor so.
easy as yours, My' iWW^Tnofw
as. nm. #^*^
Further off were mils, not so lofty as those round Lowood..
( B r o t l t ^ "He's... not so pleasant as he might be.* ( D i c k - en$x) *l
*m not so brave, so good, so strong as you."
( G a s k e t K)
3k Cofnpartsoo ol s u p e r i o r i t y is expressed by the comparative or the
superlative degree of the adjective; the comparative is
followed by the conjunction than:
Now 1 am in the garden at the back, ...where the fruit clusters on the
trees, riper and richer than fruit has ever been since, in any other
garden... ( D i c k e n s . ) Tall and slight, thinner than he remembered her,
she stood there. (C u s a c k.) When thus gentle, Bessie seemed to me the
best, prettiest,, kindest being in the world... ( B r o n t e . )
To express an inferior degree of quality the adjectiye#is con nected w i t h
the adverb little in the comparative or superlative degree (less, least), which is
a free syntactical word-combination
(cBodo/uioe cuiiTaKCHqecKoe c/i0BOC0*4eTanHe); I
The instigators of war are weak, less numerous Iff an the
partisans of peace.
But In spoken language this combination is usually replaced by
Hil negative of the comparison of equality:

82
 It. is less cold than it was yesterday. It is not so cold aa it
was yesterday.
4. The comparative and the superlative degrees are formed in two
ways:
1) by the inflexions -er fej, -est JistJ (synthetical forms): long,
longer, longest;
2) by adding more and most (analytical forms): interesting, mon
interesting, most interesting:
She is the most active member of our circle. 1 suppose he had
been more talkative and lively, once. ( D i c k e n s . )
Adjectives i n the superlative degree always imply limitation and
thus a noun vuth an adjective in the superlative degree has the definite
artjclg^
The carrier's horse was the laziest horse, in the world... (D i c k
e n s.) The eldest^ a fair-haired English boy, lingers... (Gal s w o r
t h y . ) 7",
Notice the use of the definite article with a comparative:
 He is the t a l l e r nf the two. She was an Inch or so the taller.
(Joyce.)
ygHHBfc^..;..,, AJoi.i;rAc foVm their decrees of romnartson bv
 % "P* W lowing adjectives form thrir degrees of comparison by
*** ftrffCEfcfl -^r M ^ |ist|:
a
) *! adjectives of o n e s y l l a b l e : /otf, taller, tallest; large, wrger,
largest; slot*, slower, slowest, dark, darker, darkest.
k) adjectives of t w o s y l l a b l e s ending in -y, -er, -uv. -tie: h&ppy*
happier, floppiest: clever, cleverer, cleverest; narrow, narrower\ narrowest;
able, obler, ablest.
c) adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable:
complete, completer, completest; concise, conciser, concisest.
When the style requires, a l l these adjectives may form their degrees of
ccrniparison by adding more and most;
Hphe roar soon grew more loud! the passengers more nunicr* bus, the
shops more busy... ( D i c k e n s . ) I t appeared to trie 'tthat he was
more clever and cold than they.wcre^J' ' ( D i c k ens.)
IS, Ail other adjectives form their degrees of comparison a n a f y t - i||[i}y
by adding nup* 3ttd most: famous, more famous, most foment v, mSmetiue,
more productive, most productive; successful, more successful , most suae%
$!uL
 i) a l l adjectives of o n e s y l l a b l e : (all, taller, tallest; large, (a/gef,
largest; slow, slower, slowest, dark, darker, darkest.
3) adjectives of t w o s y l l a b l e s ending in -y, *er, ~av. -bit: happy*
happier, happiest; clever, cleverer, cleverest, narrow, narrower, narrowest;
able, abler, ablest.
4) adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable;
complete, completer, compldcst; concise, comiser, concisest.
When the style requires, all these adjectives may form their degrees of
comparison by adding more and most'.
The roar soon grew more loud! the passengers more numerous, the
shops more busy... ( D i c k e n s . ) If appeared to ine t h a t he w a s more
clever and cold than they were^^Dic k -
U S.) gL
6* Ait oilier adjectives form their degrees of comparison a n a t y I - tcaliy
by "irlilfiM ffinrr and most: [gmous, more famous, most famous; productive,
more productive, most productive; successful, more success-B| most
successful.
W* *ncompound adjectives the first element isfcompared by
means of the inflexions <r, -est, as long as the two elements preserve their
separate meaning: well-known, better-known, best-known. But forms
w i t h more and most are also used: far-fetched, more far' fetched, most far-
fetched.
The change is even deeper-rooted than that. A prouder, hearted
man I never met. A better and more kind-hearted man
does not exist.
6. S p e l l i n g r u l e s . Adjectives ending in -y with a preceding
consonant change -y into -i before ~er and -est: easy, easier, easiest;
happy, happier, happiest, But: shy, shyer, shyest; sty, slyer, slyest (where *y
belongs to the root of the word).
Adjectives ending in -e drop this letter before -er and -est wise,
wiser, wisest; brave, braver, bravest.
Adjectives of one syllable which end in a single consonant preceded
by a siiort vowel d o u b l e t h i s c o n s o n a n t before -er, Wmi big, bigger,
biggest; dim, dimmer, dimmest; hot, hotter, hottest, sad, sadder, saddest.
9. When t w o t h i n g s are compared, t h e c o m p a r a t i v e
degree should be used; when m o r e t h a n t w o . t h e s u p e r -
il...........| . . . c * | little taller than Elisabetjki
 o n s o n a n t before .
-est: big. bigger, biggest; dim, dimmer, dimmest', hot, hotter, hottest, sad,
sadder, saddest.
9. When t w o t h i n g s are compared, t h e c o m p a r a t i v e degree should
be used; when m o r$.t h a n t w o , t h e s u p e r l a t i v e :
Fanny was just a little taller than Elisabeth. ( A l d i n g t o n . ) I
remember the smallest details of that afternoon. ( C o n r a d . ) Mrs.
Septimus Small was the tallest of the four sisters...
(Galsworthy.)
But i n colloquial English t h e s u p e r l a t i v e degree is some times used
instead of t h e c o m p a r a t i v e :
This is the shortest of the two roads.
10. When two things are compared, the word other Is sometimes used with
the name of the second object to make the expression
Baone precise:
Sparrows are more common than any other birds. His study
is larger Una any other room in the house.
&a the ssigieriafive degree, off is used, as in: Has fe im
finest picture of aih -> ^^^j^^^l^Hg^,
MMU k Kftl#fifieit bv mean^tf
 This k the shortest ot the two foidi.HU
10. When two things are compared/the ward
other is sbr
used w i t h the name of the second object to make the expression
more precise:
Sparrows are more common than any other birds. His study
is larger than any other room in the house.
In the superlative degree, all is used, as in: This
is the finest picture of all.
11. Comparatives may be intensified by means of:
a) r e p e t i t i o n :
The song grew fainter and fainter;.. (London.) ...Caleb's
scanty hairs were turning greyer and more grey... kens.)
b) such words or phrases as /or, still, ever, much, a gre^deal.
etc.:
m
 ...and Peggotty's love Is a great deal better than mine, Davy.
( O i c ke n s . ) ...1 found the task much more d i f f i c u l t than I had
anticipated. ( G r e e nw o o d . )
The superlative degree is emphasized by placing wry, by far,
etc., before the superlative, or by means of the adjectives possible,
imaginable, etc.. placed after the noun:
It is the best means possible. He is by far the best worker at our
factory.
That is among my very earliest impressions. ( D i c ke n s . )
We find a d o u b l e c o mp a r a t i v e in lesser which has the meaning
of wless important," "smaller": Lesser Asia (usually Asia Minor
Majiaa A 3hm), the Lesser Bear (Ataman McABeAnna), lesser lights
(smaller lights). Lesser is rarely used now.
Then the glory of sun banished the lesser glory of moon.
(Nor r is.)
sometimes omitted:
! shall do i t with the greatest (*very great) pleasure. ...the night
crept gently into the hollows of the hills, which now were coloured
the ri**ti*t rirh<<t in-mm /r.u i n 0 . \
^^^1 [^.^^^^^^^^.^SBrTfTOnes used when the thing spoken of is not
compared but is regarded as possessing a certain quality in a very high
degree, in such cases the definite article is sometimes omitted:
t shall do it with t h e greatest (very great) pleasure* the night crept
gently into the hollows of the hills, which now were coloured the
deepest, richest green. ( G i s s i n g . ) The clouds were low over the high
buildings, hanging in a smooth unbroken dome of palest blue.
(Cusack.)
S o t e. I n such sentences as It is a most interesting book, the word most
does not form the analytical superlative degree of the adjective, but is used to
show a high degree of the quality possessed by the noun too* In such a esse most
is unstressed or medium-stressed, whereas when i t forms the analytical
superlative degree of the adjective, most and i,;e adjective have even stress.
Compare:
It it Ike most Interesting book 1 have ever read (cattail HNTepecttts KHttra as
act! mhoio njw*iataHHJ>.x). l i is a mosf interesting hook (hemta mmpecHa* atutra).
In the sentence It is the mosf Interesting book t ham rvtr nod the word
most is not part of the sentence (hack nr*wo*eHMii): i t is only a part (tarn.) of
the a n a l y t i c a l form of the auperlttlve degree of the adjecllva MWW; jz t|lc
sentence it is a most Interesting book the word most is an advert i t t*m
arivifbift nltidifier of degree to tluv *it tribute interesting (a most
intttnlwft*****

Irraaular Enfiiii of Comparison

pil(M b l u e . ( C u s a c k . )
N o t e. In such sentences as it is a mast interesting book, the word *s*J does not form
the analytical superlative degree of the adjective, but i* used to show a high degree of the
quality possessed by the noon book In such a case atari la unstressed or medium-stressed,
whereas when it farms the snalyttcat superlative degree of the adjective* most and i'ue
adjective have even stic**.
Compare:
It it the most interesting book I have ever read (casta* tepee*** ***rs as acex mhom)
nj>oMHtaHHwx). i t is a mos/ interesting book (aeesua **nper*s* KHMra).
In the sentence / / is the most Interesting book / have ever read the word Host is not part of
the sentence (wch ripe/moate***): it is oniy a part (eanb) of the analytical torn; of the
superlative degree of the adjective interesting. I* the sentence it is a most interesting book the
word most h an aJverfg it is a* adverbial modifier of degree to th>^ attribute interesting (a most
intemiing**t*ru interesting).

Irregular Forms of Comparison

I. Some adjectives have A t r e g u 1 a r foruts of comparison, a) A few

adjectives have s u p p l e t i v e forms of comparison:
,...... llllllMlil -..............
.. .
far f f.trther \ further / farthest
\ furthest
MM nearer
late / later . \ latter f nearest
old f older \ elder \ next
/ latest
\ last
/ oldest
\ eldest
 2. Late and later refer to time. Latest has also the meaning of "most
recent". Latter and last are used with reference to o r d e r .
(D i c k e ns.) next is
used when o r d e r is
This is the latest edition of the book. The last edition of this book
is sold out. That is the last news we heard of him (we have heard no
more of him). This is the latest news we have heard of him (we expect
to hear something more). The Carrier and his wife exchanged a look
of perplexity. The stranger raised his head; and glancing from the
latter to the former, said, "Your daughter, my good friend?"
3. Nearest refers to d i s t a n c e , meant:
My next care will be to find the nearest way to the next village. He
is my nearest relation. Nc*st day; next yeajjjgjpp^
door.
The nearest village at the shortest distancg The
next village immediately following anotg

86
 is^me latest edition of the book. The last edition ol k is sold out.
That is the fast news we heard of him ave heard no more of him).
This is the latest news we have heard of him (we expect to hear
something more). The Carrier and his wife exchanged a look of
perplexity. The strang er raised his head; and glancing from the
latter to the former, said, "Your daughter, my good Mkjd?* (D i c
3. Nearest refers to d i s t a n c e , next is used when o r d e r is
meant:
My next care w i l l be to find the nearest way to the next village.
He is my nearest relation^,Ne<st day; neJtf^par;' next
door.
The nearest villageat the shortest distance (tiAHncaftuiaft). The
next village immediately following another (cjie ay toman).
4. Older and oldest denote a g e and l o n g d u r a t i o n ;
"Susan... the oldest friend ^have", said Florence, ^Is about
to leave here suddenly, and quite alone, poor girl.** ( D i c ke n s . )
She was older than Jan, darker, not so tall... (Cu s a c k. ) Although
 you are a tittle older than I. you belong essentially to the same
generation... ( A l d i n g t o n . )
Elder and eldest are used to distinguish members of the same
family.- also when speaking of people higher in rank and authority.
Eider is never followed by than:
When 1 met her shed lost her elder child. ( G a l sw o r t h y.) Site
was their favourite nephew, Uj| son of their dead elder buster...
( J o y c e . ) The eldest boy ran out to fetch some milk. ( D i c k e n s . )
He is the eldest and the most respected member of our
kolkhoz.
Elder can be used as a noun:
...she was sensible enough to see that her elders had reason on
their side. (M a u g h a m. )
.m Older is always an adjective, j^PfojP
Note that when than is used, older Is required when referring
J> members of the same family:
He is older than his sister.
But: He is the elder of the two brothers. She is the eldest of the
three sbt^s. This boy is the elder of the two (brothers).
5. Farther, farthest further, furthest are used with reference to
tain*. But only further is used to exnress that s o me t h i n g
 hic mi Mir>i west 10 uic mrmtsntzui stretclted ?Jicld$ T7 meadows. Further
discussion will follow. Further details Li unnecessary.

Substantivized Adjectives
1 . In languages i n which adjectives arc Inflected they are freely lutoUn-
flvlzed. The Inflected form of the adjective shows wlieti*r i singular <* i
pluraI is meant, masculine, feminine or neuter gender. Compare the Uuam
npexpacnee /kvdkho OHTU Beitwaao. (11 y u. k h h.) Ommnue m %mm npei pz^
CutwA ro;i04Koro ne pa:<yMeeT.
In the earlier periods of the English language adjectives ism fmlr *a-stantfvized with
singular and plural meaning. We still find Uic fpgmm in: \i*ne hut the brave deserves the
fair. ( D r y d e n . )
But in Modern English* where adjectives have lost number ioflexiom, ikt use of subs
tan tivized adjectives is limited.
2. In Modern English substantivized adjectives are;
a) Either w h o l l y s u b s t a n t i v i z e d (converted into nouns), that is, they acquire all
the characteristics of nouns: they have Plural and possessive case inflexions and may be
associated with
tlie steimr** angl moeitntle ajJMn (m naiwc, km fiat*** ttm native \
0} Of p a r t i a l l y s u b s t a n t i v i z e d Ifa* i*. Aqr-IAe inly the
definite article, but art neither inflected far the plural. f*or can they be
used in the possessive case (the young* the old, the future t
the useful.)
Partially Substantivized Adjectives

i . Partially substantivized abjectives denote:

a) A i l t h e p e r s o n s possessing the quality mentioned by
the adjective as a group, but not separate Individuals:
Books for the young. Schools for the deaf and dumb.
large proportion of his time appeared devoted to visiting the sick and
poor... (Br o n te.) The rich were my enemies* I fell.. (B r a i n ej The
lower path was shorter than the road but steep and rocky,., only the
foolish or the reckless ever came bac*
that way, ( C u s a c M
 The lower path was shorter than the road but steep
(B r a i n e.) and
rocky... o n l y
the foolish or the reckless ever came back
that way. ( C u s a c k. )
If separate individuals are meant, some noun (man, person, people)
must be added: a rich man, an idle person.
The same applies to substantivized adjectives ending in ~sh and -ch
denoting nations. Used with the definite article they denote the
whole nation:
The English and the French were in arms against each
other. (M a c a u 1 a y.)
If separate members of the nation are meant, the nouns man
(men), woman (women) or people are added:

There used to come to that house a little Frenchman...

( G a l s w o r t h y. ) There were
English people, Irish people. Welsh
people and Scotch people there...
(Dickens.)
N o t e . Two partially substantivized
adjectives conneetgfit^Jgj
generally BO article:
Some p a r t i c i p l e s may also be partially
Ernest was speaking. He was duuiliiji
(Lo> ti d O R .} Derek be m sympathy with the
f G a l s w o r t by-) Gt&ef and bb Mferife* fie?
ro:*e.)
H A b s t r a c t n o t i o n s ; the useftd.

...i saw a vast field on which young and old were piayi
 There us*d to come to that house a little Prenctiiifl-( O a U w o r
t h y . ) There were English people, ffton people. Welsh people and
Scotch people there... ( D i c k e n s . )
N o t e . Two p a r t i a l l y luUtantlvized adjectives conntctad by ond Ha*t
generally no at licit?
|jLl aaw a vatt field on w h i c h young and aid *
may also be partially subitail|lffai:
Sou* p a r t i c i p l e s
Ernest was speaking. He was ^^^J^tf^^t the ainempJoyeo^
(Loudon.) ^e4 ar^ Sr^U Ijjtfcg

MM Invite*- tJ*Wl|7

b> A t t r a c t noltoif ^ ^""'^^i^?^'

 The KT& of Mr. Bob Sawyer was rapidly ripening into the fTiaaj. Mr.
Ben Allen was last relapsing into the senthnertal-(Dickens.)
2. We have afso substantivized adjectives used with a singular
meaning in the following s e t p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s :
The other answered in t h e negative. ( N o r r is.) Her laugh cut
Soames to the quick. ( G a l s w o r t h y . ) "The lire broke out a t dead of
night..." ( B r o n t e . ) ...the flowers you would expect to see in a
greenhouse are growing in the open. ( E l k i n g - ton^.
Also in: on the whole, in the main, in short, in general, etc.
5) A c o m p a r a t i v e is substantivized ^ , the phrases: to get the better
of something aetj^mge for the belter.
6) S u p e r l a t i v e s are substantivised in the following expressions:
It is ail for the best. He was a t his best. Are you tired? Not in the least;
"I'll do my best to make you comfortable/ ( G a s k e i l . ) All was solid and
of the best... ( G a l s w o r t h y . )

Wholly Substantivized
Adjectives (Adjectives Converted
into Nouns)
dons:
It Is a l l for the best. He was a t h i s best. Are you tired? Not In the least.
"I'll do my best to make you comfortable/ ( G a s k e i l . ) A l l was solid and of the
best... ( G a l s w o r t h y . )

Wholly Substantivized Adjectives

(Adjectives Converted into Nouns)

I . A number of adjectives have been w h o l l y s u b s t a n t i v i z e d ; they have

acquired a l l the characteristics of nouns: a native, a relative, a savage, a irindHal, a
black, a white, a liberal, a radi-cat, a conservative* a European, a proletarian, a weekly
(e^Keneae^b-UMK) a monthly, etc.:
"How did she like her relatives?" ( B r o n t e . ) 'Isn't she
| dear? said Elisabeth. ( A l d i n g t o n . ) 41 Are you a Relative
JjjjL theii^ , {QaU^ a Conservative Lib-
s x
eral * *y- H W2S not u n t i l Disraeli's
Jinie that he became a Liberal Conservative. ( G a l s w o r t h v.) pc passed two
or three nativcs.^|(Maughatn .)^ipie best flower I can show you", he
added, w i t h a sort of triumph, "is my little s\veetA | G a l s w o r t h y ) >Don%t
laugh at me, Tomf #ne burst out angrily: i n i not a stupid!*- ( E l i o t . )
 It is a l i for the best. He was a t his best. Are you tired? Not in
the least. T i l do my best to make you comfortable.* ( G a s k e t I.) All
was solid and of the best... ( G a l s w o r t h y . )

Wholly Substantivized Adjectives

(Adjectives Converted into Nouns)

I. A number of adjectives have been w h o l l y s u b s t a n t i v i z e d ;

they have acquired a l l the characteristics of nouns; a native, a relative,
a savage, u criminal, a black, a white, a liberal, a radical, a
conservativ$mJn European, a moletariun, a weekly (e>KeitCAe^b-I I H K ) . a
monthly, etcak;
"How did shfljjflike her relatives?" ( B r o n t t J . ) *I^n*t she a dear?' said
BllsubethM(A 1 d i n ton.) "Are yon a ^relative i^pf theirs?" JLC a 1 s v&pr.t
h y.) Having been a Conservative Lib-^yiral in politics t i l l ^ f t ' e l l past sixty,
it was not u n t i l Disraeli's Mime that he becsntc. a Liberal Conservative*
( Q u i s w o r t h y . ) rle passed two or three natives^ (M a u g h a in.) "The
best ^Slower I can show you", he added, w i t h a sort of triumph, Mis Tny
little sweet.", ( G a l s w o r t h y . ) 'Don't . laughi at me, Totnr he burst out
angrily: i'm not a '.stupid!' ( t i l t o t . )
 2. To the same group belong the fol!owir% substantivize I
adjectives denoting nationality: a Russian, an American, a Norwe- \
%ian, a Belgian, a German, an Italian, a Greek: ( A Russian, twe
Russians; a Norwegian, two Norwegians).
N o t e . Names of nations ending in -ss, -se have one form for both numbers: a '
Chinese, txx> Chinese, the Chinese; a Swiss, two Swiss, the Swiss, .'.f^jffij
The names of languages Russian, Norwegian, English," e t c . , also
belong to wholly substantivized adjectives:
HgiJie spoke German, i f not more fluentjg| with a better accent than
he spoke French. ( M a u g h & m j ^
3. To the same group belong some substantivized participles 11
whic^are used i n tbe^kngyla^,aiad plural, but haver one form
for both numbers:
**l appear for the accused." ( G o r d o n . ) "...the deceased's
finger-prints ought to be on i t somewhere." (Ctor d o n . ) Margaret
and her husband looked as if they had been the accused.
(Gaskeih)
J|fc N a m e s of c o l o u r s also belong to wholly substantivized
adjectives. When used in a general sense, they are treated as uncount-
ables; when denoting shades of colours, they are treated as count-ables and
may be used with the indefinite article and in- the
 2. To the same group belong the following substantivized
adjectives denoting nationality: a Russian, an American, a Norwe-
gian, a Belgian, a German, an Italian, a Greek: ( A Russian, twt '
Russians; a Norwegian, two Norwegians).
N o t e . Names of nations ending i n -ss, -se have one form for both numbers: o
Chinese, tivo Chinese, the Chinese; a Swiss, two Swiss, the Swiss.
The names of languages Russian, Norwegian, EngUsh*tc.t also belong
to wholly substantivized adjectives:SS^
...he spoke German, if not more fluently, with a better
accent t h a n he spoke French. ( M a u g h a n ^ g
3. To the same group belong some substantivized participles 11
which are used i n tfrgj^n^ulaj^jjgl, . plufj|teiJs?Mt have one fonts for both .
{lumbers:
"I appear for the accused." ( G o r d o n . ) "...the deceased's finger-
prints ought to he on it somewhere.*'(dordojflfl|' Margaret and her
husband looked as if they had been the accused. ( C a s k e l l . )
4. N a m e s of c o l o u r s also belong to wholly substantivized
adjectives. When used in a general sense, they are treated as uncount-
ables; when denoting shades of leolours, they are treated as count-
ables and may be used w i t h the indefinite article and m the
olural:
 IWnffraHHH Ihc tWuht hM piuiii. uui I U V U one lor
fo
both numbers.
r rt
I appear for the Accused." ( G o r d o n . ) ..ith# deceased's
-

finger-prints ou^ht to be on i t somewhere.** ( G o r d o n . ) Mirgi>

rot unci her husband looked____AS if they hod been the accused
(G a 3 k e l 1.)
4. N ues f l i c o l o u r s Also belong to wholly
substantivized I When used In a general sense, they are
aui treated as uucount* I ft denoting shades of colours,
ahi olui they are treated ai count' way be used with the
indefinite article and i n thf
The flrcy of earth and s k y had become deeper, more pro-ul
( L o n d o n . ) ...scarce a sprinkle of yellow mingled with
hues of summer... ( D i c k e n a.) He watched mi* white
HIS so bright auainst the intense blue* ( G a l s w o r t h y . )
ftr%t tints of the flowers had deepened..* Pink became i it
red. Blue rose into purple. Yellow flamed into orange i r rla.)
The trees in the garden were turning yellows and mn
<bt o k e n s , )
THE

NUMERAL
s a part of speech