Acta Ant. Hung.

51, 2011, 4558

DOI: 10.1556/AAnt.51.2011.1.6

CECILIA GBLI

THE TERMINOLOGY
OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY

Summary: In volume II of his encyclopaedia Pliny the Elder presents astronomical, meteorological,
geographical and climatologic phenomena. The study analyses the use of the most important technical
terms with the help of the data of a database specially made for this purpose. The entire Hungarian trans-
lation of volume II was made with the help of this database: it facilitated the consistent translation of
technical terms. In many cases the terms used by Pliny the Elder have diverse meanings. As the entire
volume II is a complex collection of knowledge pertaining to diverse scientific fields existing in our days,
the use of terms cannot be classified on the basis of belonging to certain disciplines. In many cases we
cannot speak about exact terms yet. However, in Pliny the Elders Cosmology the consistent and precise
definition and use of terms can sometimes be observed, which refers to the existence of exact technical
terms.
Key words: Pliny the Elder, cosmology, terminology, ancient natural history

PLINY THE ELDERS ENCYCLOPAEDIA

The 37 volumes of Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia are the result of conscious edit-
ing, despite the fact that the topics follow each other in a relatively disorderly man-
ner: the first volume contains the recommendation to Titus and the general table of
contents and sources, the second one is about cosmology, volumes three to six con-
tain the geography of the world known at the time (Europe, Africa, Asia), the seventh
volume deals with anthropology, volumes eight to eleven treat the subject of zool-
ogy, volumes twelve to nineteen deal with botany, volumes twenty to twenty-seven
concern medical botany, volumes twenty-eight to thirty-two treat the subject of
medical zoology and finally volumes thirty-three to thirty-seven deal with mineral-
ogy and arts based on metals and minerals. However, this seemingly accidental sub-
ject matter is the result of conscious editing, since if we close up cosmology with
geography, anthropology with zoology, we get a regular circular composition whose

0044-5975 / $ 20.00 2011 Akadmiai Kiad, Budapest

46 CECILIA GBLI

frame is constituted by the dead matter of nature: cosmology, geography and miner-
alogy, within this circle there is anthropology and zoology, and botany in the middle
of the composition. Conscious editing can also be observed in the balance of the
circular composition since the above detailed structure provides the description of the
dead matter of nature, that of mankind and that of the flora and fauna in a four times
five and twice eight volume arrangement (that is, dead matter: volumes IIVI and
XXXIIIXXXVII; mankind and fauna: volumes VIIXI and XXVIIIXXXII; flora:
volumes XIIXIX and XXXXVII).1
The impact of stoic philosophy can be traced in the encyclopaedia of Pliny the
Elder, its ethical views and those on the philosophy of nature, including its terminol-
ogy as well. Pliny the Elder presents the functioning of the world using and adapting
these, as if it were imbedded in stoic philosophy. Therefore, in his Cosmology the
theory of the world burning,2 the concept of the sense pervading the whole world, the
concept of the world as an organic, living entirety and the theory of oikeiosis3 are
also presented. The main structuring principle of Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia is
sympathia4 that as a stoic term had already appeared in Chrysippos system and can
be traced in the views of Cicero, Seneca and Posidonius.5 In Pliny the Elders en-
cyclopaedia sympathia and antipathia are two important natural forces that are pre-
sent in each and every natural phenomenon, they ensure the unity, stability of nature
and the cosmos, and make its laws understandable.
In the international literature several researchers mention the appearance of
sympathia and antipathia in Pliny the Elders works as an important characteristic of
his relation to nature and as an aspect of his stoicism.6 Pliny the Elders stoicism, its

1
Concerning the structure of Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia, see DELLA CORTE, F.: Tecnica espo-
sitiva e struttura della Naturalis historia. In Plinio il Vecchio sotto il profilo storico e letterario: atti del
Convegno di Como 5/6/7 ottobre 1979. Atti della Tavola rotonda nella ricorrenza centenaria della morte
di Plinio il Vecchio, Bologna 16 dicembre 1979. Ed. N. ALFIERI. Como 1982, 1939; RMER, F.: Die Pli-
nianische Anthropologie und der Aufbau der Naturalis Historia. WS 17 (1983) 104108; LOCHER, A.:
The Structure of Pliny the Elders Natural History. In Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the
Elder, his Sources and Influence. Ed. R. FRENCH F. GREENAWAY. Totowa, NJ 1986, 2029; BALDWIN,
B.: The Composition of Plinys Natural History. SO 70 (1995) 7281.
2
See Plin. NH II 52, II 236 and II 238; COLISH, M. L.: The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the
Early Middle Ages. 1. Stoicism in Classical Latin Literature [Studies in the History of Christian Thought
34]. Leiden 1985, 2425; and GBLI, C.: Plinius Kozmolgija [The Cosmology of Pliny the Elder].
[BiblPlin 41]. Pcs 2006, 5859.
3
GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 4860.
4
GBLI, C.: Caius Plinius Secundus Termszettudomnynak 37. knyve. Fordts s feldolgozs
[Book XXXVII of the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder. Translation and Study]. [BiblPlin 37]. Sze-
ged 2004, 2428; GBLI, C.: Caius Plinius Secundus Termszettudomnynak 2. knyve. Fordts s fel-
dolgozs [Book II of the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder. Translation and Study]. [BiblPlin 2]. Pcs
2005, 2526; GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 4960, see also Plin. NH XX 1 and XXXVII 5960.
5
See LAPIDGE, M.: Stoic Cosmology and Roman Literature. First to Third Centuries AD. In
ANRW II.36.3 (1989) 13791429; GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 5153, see also Cic. Nat. deor. 3.
28; Sen. De ira 2. 31. 7; VON ARNIM, H.: Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta II. Lipsiae 1903, 368, 439441,
447449, 465, 473, 475, 534, 540, 543, 545, 550553, 774, 778, 911912, 948, 1013, 1105.
6
BEAGON, M.: Roman Nature. The Thought of Pliny the Elder. Oxford 1992, 102103, 145147,
173, 230231; LAPIDGE (n. 5) 14111412; GIGON, O.: Pline. In Plinio il Vecchio (n. 1) 5052; ISAGER,
J.: Pliny on Art and Society: the Elder Plinys Chapters on the History of Art [Odense University Classical

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 47

moral implications have been appreciated in several works. Researchers have studied
especially its humanitas, utilitas and virtus and have also dealt with the questions of
pneuma and mos maiorum and Pliny the Elders notes on luxury.7
Pliny the Elder himself referred to the fact that he considered the analysis, in-
terpretation and depiction of natural phenomena even at the cost of using foreign,
in certain cases barbarian expressions more important than the style and the form
when writing his encyclopaedia.8 Thus, for Pliny the Elder providing information and
the meaning of words was more important than their sounding or style. Using techni-
cal terms is an indispensable tool for scientific communication: they cannot be sub-
stituted by synonyms but signify a notion that can be described by one definition
each, therefore their use has to be consistent. Pliny the Elder recognized this signifi-
cant difference between scientific and literary texts and tried to apply these formal
features by using technical terms instead of synonyms.
In his encyclopaedia he always put a greater emphasis on content and meaning
than on linguistic form and style; and all this serves the purpose of lucidity.9
It is especially important that Pliny the Elder not only describes and explains
certain natural phenomena but he also provides Latin terminology when presenting
them which remains unchanged in many cases even if we provide a different defini-
tion to the term concerned today.
Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia is significant for the value that it represents in
sciences and cultural history. It is an important synthesis of ancient knowledge which
on the one hand gives a picture of the accumulated knowledge which later on served
as a starting point for each discipline of natural sciences, projecting the possibilities
and directions of further development. On the other hand, Pliny the Elders encyclo-
paedia provides a precise picture of the special nature of ancient erudition, that is,
of the fact that scientific areas were not clearly separated from each other. Constitut-
ing a unified ideological complex, ancient knowledge about nature was closely re-
lated to the philosophy and religion of the era.

PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY

Volume II of Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia deals with the structure of the cosmos,
the movement of celestial bodies, the presentation and explanation of solar and lunar

Studies 17]. Odense 1991, 50; FRENCH, R.: The Natural History of Pliny. In FRENCH, R.: Ancient Natural
History: Histories of Nature. Sciences in Antiquity. London New York 1994, 239240.
7
See BEAGON (n. 6); CITRONI MARCHETTI, S.: Iuvare mortalem. Lideale programmatico della
Naturalis Historia di Plinio nei rapporti con il moralismo stoico-diatribico. A&R 27 (1982) 124148;
CITRONI MARCHETTI, S.: Filosofia e ideologia nella Naturalis Historia di Plinio. In ANRW II.36.5 (1992)
32493306; CITRONI MARCHETTI, S.: La rappresentazione del denaro in Plino il Vecchio e nel mora-
lismo romano. In Moneta Mercanti Banchieri. I precedenti greci e romani dell Euro. Atti del convegno
internazionale Cividale del Friuli, 2628 settembre 2002. A cura di G. URSO [I Convegni della Fonda-
zione Niccol Canussio 2]. Pisa 2003, 283300; FRENCH (n. 6).
8
See Plin. NH praef. 1213.
9
See Plin. NH praef. 16.

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48 CECILIA GBLI

eclipses, meteoric and meteorological phenomena, climatic observations and meth-

ods of making calendars.10
Besides analysing Pliny the Elders Cosmology and geographical views exten-
sively11 more and more shorter studies were published that focus on a text location or
a problematic part each. Just to mention a few: articles dealing with the sea,12 the
calculation of time,13 the geographical knowledge14 or the references to the history of
religion.15 There were several monographs and studies treating the subject of the pre-
figurations in Pliny the Elders cosmology, summarizing the results and unfold-
ing the characteristics of ancient astronomy16 and astrology17 and dealing with the

10
The complete translation of volume II of Pliny the Elders encyclopaedia: GBLI: Caius Plinius
Secundus Termszettudomnynak 2. knyve (n. 4); its monographic elaboration: GBLI: Plinius Koz-
molgija (n. 2). On Pliny the Elders Cosmology see in general: BEAUJEU, J.: Le langue de lastronomie
dans lN. H. de Pline lAncien. In Plinio il Vecchio (n. 1) 8395; FRIESE, E.: Die Kosmologie des Plinius.
Breslau 1862; KROLL, W.: Die Kosmologie des Plinius. Breslau 1930; LAPIDGE (n. 5); PEDERSEN, O.:
Some Astronomical Topics in Pliny. In FRENCHGREENAWAY (n. 1) 162196; SCHUSTER, M.: Zum
2. Buch von Plinius Naturalis Historia. PhW 54 (1934) 110112; SEECK, G. A.: Plinius und Aristoteles
als Naturwissenschaftler. Gymnasium 92 (1985) 419434.
11
See KROLL (n. 10); SALLMANN, K.: Die Geographie des lteren Plinius in ihrem Verhltnis zu
Varro: Versuch einer Quellenanalyse [Untersuchungen zur Antiken Literatur und Geschichte 11]. Berlin
New York 1971; DETLEFSEN, D. F.: Die geographischen Bcher (II 242 VI Schlu) der Naturalis
historia des C. Plinius Secundus. Mit vollstndigem kritischen Apparat (Reprograph. Nachdr. d. 1904).
[Studia historica 113]. Roma 1972; DETLEFSEN, D. F.: Das Pomerium Roms und die Grenzen Italiens.
Hermes 21 (1886) 497 562; DETLEFSEN, D. F.: Vermuthungen ber Varros Schrift de ora maritima (Un-
tersuchungen zu den geographischen Bchern des Plinius 2). Hermes 21 (1886) 240265; DETLEFSEN, D.
F.: Die Anordnung der geographischen Bcher des Plinius und ihre Quellen [Quellen und Forschungen
zur alten Geschichte und Geographie 18]. Berlin 1909.
12
ALMAGIA, R.: La conoscenza del fenomeno delle mare nellantichit. AIHS 2 (1949) 887889;
FLAHAUT, M.: La mer dans lHistoire de Pline. RBPh 20 (1941) 783.
13
BENGTSON, H.: Lebensgeschichte eines Distanzlufers. SO 32 (1956) 3539; BILFINGER, G.:
Die antiken Stundenangaben. Stuttgart 1888.
14
To be highlighted separately: KROLL (n. 10); SALLMANN (n. 11); DETLEFSENs studies (n. 11);
AGBUNOV, M. V.: The ancient geography of the Northwest Black Sea coastal region. VDI 155 (1981)
124143; OEHMICHEN, G.: Plinianische Studien zur geographischen und kunsthistorischen Literatur.
Erlangen 1880; COTTA RAMOSINO, L.: Alcune note alla terminologia geografica di Plinio il Vecchio. In
Kosmos. La concezione del mondo nelle civilt antiche. A cura di C. DOGNINI [Studi di Storia greca e
romana. Collana diretta da Marta Sordi 7]. Alessandria 2002, 125136; DIHLE, A.: Plinius und die geo-
graphische Wissenschaft in der rmischen Kaiserzeit. In Tecnologia economia e societ nel mondo roma-
no. Atti del convegno di Como 27/28/29 settembre 1979. Ed. E. GABBA. Como 1980, 101137.
15
For example: WEINSTOCK, ST.: Libri fulgurales. PBSR 19 (1951) 122153; VAN DER WAER-
DEN, B. L.: Die Astronomie der Griechen. Darmstadt 1988; KROLL, W.: Plinius und die Chalder. Her-
mes 65 (1930) 113; KVES-ZULAUF, TH.: Plinius der ltere und die rmische Religion. In ANRW
II.16.1 (1978) 187288; KVES-ZULAUF, TH.: Reden und Schweigen. Rmische Religion bei Plinius
Maior [Studia et testimonia antiqua 12]. Mnchen 1972.
16
WAERDEN (n. 15); AUJAC, G.: LAstronomie grecque. In LAstronomie dans lAntiquit classi-
que. Actes du Colloque tenu a lUniversit de Toulouse II Le Mirail (2123 octobre 1977). Paris 1979,
3536; SZAB, .: Az lettelen termszet [Dead nature]. In Antik termszettudomny [Ancient Natural
Science]. Budapest 1984, 11232; SZAB, .: Antik csillagszati vilgkp. rnyk, naptr, fldrajz, geo-
metria [The world view of ancient astronomy. Shadow, calendar, geography, geometry]. Budapest 1998;
GUNDEL, H. C. GUNDEL, W.: Astrologumena. Die astrologische Literatur in der Antike und ihre Ge-
schichte. Wiesbaden 1966.
17
BOLL, F. BEZOLD, C.: Sternglaube und Sterndeutung. Die Geschichte und das Wesen der
Astrologie. LeipzigBerlin 1918.

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 49

identification of the antique parallels of each constellation.18 Besides prefigurations

and phrasing,19 the analysis of the astronomical references of Pliny the Elders en-
cyclopaedia aimed at identifying and analysing some astronomical20 and meteoro-
logical phenomena21 and examining the impact of his astronomy on the early Middle
Ages.22
Just like the entire encyclopaedia, Pliny the Elders cosmology is not an inde-
pendent scientific system, it is not Pliny the Elders own invention but a collection of
cosmological knowledge that had been accumulated until his time.23 By classifying it
according to topics, Pliny the Elder collected, described and criticized the knowledge
that could be acquired from previously written sources, which he then complemented
with his own experiences and observations. Therefore, in his cosmology knowledge
dating back to several hundreds, moreover considering their origin several thou-
sands of years is accumulated.
Pliny the Elders cosmology is a collection of pieces of information that seem
to be distant from each other concerning their topic and belong to diverse disciplines
according to contemporary classification.
In volume II of Pliny the Elders Naturalis Historia we can read not only about
the structure of the cosmos, about errant stars, fixed stars, comets and constellations
or about the extension, dimensions, climate, population of the Earth but also about
winds, lightnings, thunders, the formation of islands, about seas, rivers, earthquakes
and many more topics that we would classify under meteorological or geographical
knowledge and do not consider as related to astronomy.24 Moreover, we can also
read about Sun and Moon Gods, the Earth Mother and about interpreting celestial
phenomena as foreboding or oracles, and about forces connecting certain parts of the
world. However, there is a conscious concept underlying the selection of seemingly
versatile and accidental topics in Pliny the Elders Cosmology. He divided volume II
of the encyclopaedia according to the four elements: the description of knowledge
related to fire can be found in chapters 1101, that related to air is described in
chapters 102153, that related to Earth is depicted in chapters 154211, finally the

18
FASCHING, G.: Sternbilder und ihre Mythen. 2. verb. Ausgabe. Wien New York 1994; WAER-
DEN (n. 15); GUNDEL, W.: Sterne und Sternbilder im Glauben des Altertums und der Neuzeit. Bonn
Leipzig 1922.
19
BEAUJEU (n. 10); PEDERSEN (n. 10).
20
TAUTZ, B.: Ein Komet im Jahre 76 n. Chr.? Zu Plinius, Naturalis Historia, 2, 89. Gymnasium
111 (2004) 1523.
21
TAUB, L.: Ancient Meteorology. London New York 2003.
22
EASTWOOD, B. S.: Plinian Astronomical Diagrams in the Early Middle Ages. In The Revival of
Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Aldershot 2002, 141152; EASTWOOD,
B. S.: The Astronomies of Pliny, Martianus Capella and Isidore of Seville in the Carolingian World. In
The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Aldershot 2002, 161180.
23
The most important sources of Pliny the Elders Cosmology were Aristotle, Posidonius, Fabia-
nus, Nechepso and Petosiris, Epigenes, Thrasyllus, Eratosthenes.
24
This interdisciplinarity can be explained on the one hand by the lack of differentiation between
ancient scientific disciplines, on the other hand by the accentuated coherence of the stoical philosophical
system.

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50 CECILIA GBLI

phenomena related to water can be found in chapters 212234.25 The four elements
appear in the teachings of Empedocles26 who took over Earth from Parmenides
system27 and complemented the three elements that have already appeared earlier at
other philosophers as well. Water was mentioned in the system of Thales,28 air in the
system of Anaximenes,29 while fire appeared in the system of Heraclitus. Thus,
Empedocles included the four elements in a system and elaborated a tuition that was
generally accepted by Greek philosophers later on, especially because Plato and Ar-
istotle also took over this principle.30 This is how the four elements were included in
the system created by the Stoicists and the Neoplatonists, and how it became part of
the European scholastic philosophy later on, mediated by the Arabs.
Thus, both the entire encyclopaedia, as well as Pliny the Elders Cosmology
was consciously edited. Moreover, the division according to the four elements refers
not only to the knowledge of this theory but appearing in the structural division it
also implies that regarding the functioning of the universe Pliny the Elder accepted
and considered the tuition concerning the four elements as important.

THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINYS COSMOLOGY

Studying the terms used by Pliny the Elder in his Cosmology has so far been limited
to analyzing some terms in a certain context.31 Therefore, I considered it important to
analyze the most important terms mentioned in Pliny the Elders Cosmology in such
a way that I took into consideration all of their occurrences.
The analysis below was carried out and the data emerged on the basis of the
Terminologia Pliniana, that is, the database that was specially conceived in order to
facilitate the study of Pliny the Elders system of astronomical terminology and that
stores all the occurrences and contexts of the terms.32 The database gave me great
support to prepare the entire Hungarian translation of Pliny the Elders volume II.33
The database made it possible for me to provide relatively identical Hungarian
translations of the Latin terms and it also facilitated the follow-up of incidental
changes in the meaning of certain expressions in the course of the translation.

25
On the structure of the work in general, see DELLA CORTE (n. 1), RMER (n. 1), LOCHER (n. 1),
BALDWIN (n. 1).
26
Emp. fr. 17.
27
See Parm. fr. 8. and Arist. Ph. 188a1922.
28
See Arist. Metaph. 983b20.
29
According to Pliny the Elder (see Plin. NH II 187) he invented the sundial.
30
See Plat. Tim. and Arist. Ph.
31
PEDERSEN (n. 10): mundus: 174; signifer: 179; apsides: 184185; BEAUJEU (n. 10): expressions
used to mark fixed stars: 86; apdises: 89.
32
For the data registration form of the database see GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 72.
33
See GBLI: Caius Plinius Secundus Termszettudomnynak 2. knyve (n. 4).

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 51

After I completed the translation and finished uploading the database, by

studying the data, it was possible to analyze the meteorological, astronomical and
climatic terms used by Pliny the Elder.34
The database stores the vocabulary entries and possible meanings of the words
to be studied that were used by Pliny the Elder as main data, and the accentuated
meaning that shall be used as terms in the course of the entire translation. Each place
of occurrence related to a given word is associated with this main data, with the des-
ignation of the chapter and the textual context of its use, and the translation term
applied at that textual location.35 All the occurrences that can be found in the entire
Cosmology of Pliny the Elder are contained in the database, this means that the data
contained in the database are suitable for studying the use of each term. Due to its
structure, the database is not only suitable for counting the frequency of the occur-
rence of a term but also for registering the meaning of each term that can be observed
at a certain textual location, taking the textual context into consideration.36
On the basis of the data contained in the database one can analyze which ex-
pressions can be regarded as technical terms due to their consistent use and well-
definable scientific meaning and which expressions are the ones that cannot be
translated the same way. In the latter case the use of different expressions during the
translation is generally due to the fact that both in astronomy and in all other scien-
tific disciplines we have a more exact, more sophisticated network of notions than
the terminology in ancient times.
One of the directions that the analysis will take is the examination of the extent
to which the terms are crystallized in comparison to the technical terms used today,
i.e. to what degree and in which context they refer to the same well-definable phe-
nomenon or notion.
Another possible direction of the analysis is the examination of linguistic in-
commensurability, that is, the analysis of noncommensurability in the context and the
language due to changes in the meaning of technical terms, which leads to the disclo-
sure of the characteristics of ancient science and its difference from the natural sci-
ences of today.
With the growth of the territory of the Roman Empire, the demand for summa-
rizing the amount of knowledge available from different areas of the empire also
increased. The systematization of each scientific discipline, the collection and noting
of knowledge started. Beyond taking over and systematizing, being Roman also cre-
ated a new quality by providing an imperialistic frame for summarizing the disci-
plines. This makes it possible to analyze the geography, astronomy, flora and fauna of
great areas. Globalization evidently facilitated the flow of information and as a result,
it contributed to its enlargement and the collection and comparison of knowledge.

34
For the entire study, the export of the database and the data registration form, see GBLI: Pli-
nius Kozmolgija (n. 2).
35
For the export of the data of the database see GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 91142.
36
I have analyzed the use of the following terms on the basis of the database: ar, aether, astrum,
caelum, coitus, errans, mundus, sidus, signifer, signum, spatium, spiritus, stella.

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52 CECILIA GBLI

From the first century AD the value of knowledge increased37 and this can be ob-
served in all walks of science, so it is not incidental that the encyclopaedia as a genre
was popular during this period.
Nowadays the characteristics of erudition are technical terms that clearly refer
to some phenomena or notions (such as planet, solar system, galaxy) and verification.
If a notion or phenomenon was well-known and could be explained at the level of
that period, then the use of the term becomes consistent (it cannot be substituted by
synonyms).
Examining Pliny the Elders astronomical terms, I came to the conclusion that
clear expressions used in the same sense cannot always be distinguished.38
In case of the so-called fixed stars one can observe that though the definitions
of fixed stars had already become clearly distinguished by the time of Pliny the Elder
(stars that are located on the celestial globe and that only move together with the
celestial globe), he uses different designations related to fixed stars.39 The reason for
this shall be sought in linguistic noncommensurability: the expressions used for ce-
lestial bodies are not the same as the terminology used today. Today we refer to the
totality of planets and stars as celestial bodies. We call celestial bodies not having
their own light planets, and we refer to celestial bodies having their own light as
stars. In ancient times the basic difference between planets and stars was not known,
they differentiated between fixed stars and so-called errant stars, and as a conse-
quence the same expressions were used for fixed and errant stars.
In case of stars, planets and fixed stars we can observe the use of diverse terms
in Pliny the Elders Cosmology: astrum, sidus and stella all occur in this sense.
Astrum appears only twice in the text, once40 it is used in relation to astrology,
in the other case41 it is used beside an expression referring to a fixed star, but inde-
pendently, in the sense of a star.
Sidus is the most commonly used expression from the terms pertaining to stars,
appearing 86 times in the text.42 Since it is generally used in connection with planets
as well, not only referring to stars although the difference between stars and planets

37
See MURPHY, T.: Pliny the Elders Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia. Oxford
2004, 4773.
38
For example in case of apsides which is used in several senses by Pliny the Elder. See Plin. NH
II 63; II 64; II 65; and also Caius Plinius Secundus: Naturalis historiae Naturkunde. 2. Buch: Kosmo-
logie. Ed. R. KNIG G. WINKLER. MnchenZrich 1974, 225; and BEAUJEU (n. 10) 89, and PEDER-
SEN (n. 10) 184185.
39
Plin. NH II 58: stella adfixa caelo; Plin. NH II 93: stella perennis; Plin. NH II 95: stella adfixa;
Plin. NH II 98: astra inhaerentia caelo; Plin. NH II 106: sidera adhaerentia caelo. Concerning these and
the terminology applied by Pliny the Elder in case of the constellations see BEAUJEU (n. 10) 8687.
40
Plin. NH II 23.
41
Plin. NH II 98.
42
See the export of the database: GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 113126, and Plin. NH II 3,
6, 12 (twice), 13 (twice), 19, 28, 29, 32 (twice), 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 4143, 44, 4446, 46, 47
(twice), 48 (twice), 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 (twice), 77 (three times), 78, 80, 82 (three times), 83, 92, 94 (three
times), 95 (twice), 102, 103, 105 (twice), 106 (twice), 107, 108 (twice), 109, 113 (twice), 116 (three
times), 123, 124 (twice), 138, 139, 167, 171, 172 (twice), 177, 179 (twice), 189, 191, 213, 214 (twice),
217, 218, 221, 222, 223 (twice), 239.

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 53

was not known in ancient times, thus celestial body could not have appeared as the
collective term for planets and stars , further in possession of our scientific knowl-
edge and in order to be able to distinguish between all the other terms meaning star,
I considered this expression as the most appropriate for the translation. This is also
supported by the data contained in the database, since in most cases this term fits in
the context and matches the meaning expressed by the context. Sidus sometimes
occurs as a designation for Saturnus, Mars or the Sun and twice it refers to Arcturus,
once to the Moon and once to the Dog Star.43 In some cases it specifically refers to
the star,44 and once it occurs in the figurative sense of asterism.45 In a neology sidus
crinitum means comet46 and sidera meantia47 or sidera errantia48 means planet.
However, errantia also occurs associated with the expression stella, as stella erran-
tia.49 It also appears in some cases alone to designate planets.50
Stella occurs on 31 occasions in Pliny the Elders cosmology51 and usually
with the meaning star. In two cases compounded with errantia it means planet,
but it also occurs beside the names of planets, such as the star of Mars, Venus or
Mercurius.52 Stella also means fixed star in a compound with perennis or adfixa,53
and it means constellation in one case.54 The fact that the same term refers to a star
and a planet at the same time is a great example for linguistic incommensurability,
since the definition of planets and stars is based on a completely different approach
in ancient times and today, which is reflected in the differentiation of terms as well.
Signum55 also appears in the meaning constellation, however, out of 16 oc-
currences it means constellation56 only nine times, twice it means zodiac57 and
once it generally means celestial body,58 but it also appears in a further meaning
in Pliny the Elders Cosmology, such as in the sense of sign, insignia and wax-
seal.59 Signifer is etimologically closely related to signum, as a term designating the

43
Plin. NH II 34, 78, 106, 123, 124, 139, 172, 189, 223.
44
Plin. NH II 171, 172, 179.
45
Plin. NH II 167.
46
Plin. NH II 94.
47
Plin. NH II 106.
48
Plin. NH II 12, 32, 116.
49
Plin. NH II 58, 92.
50
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 105107, and Plin. NH II 59, 91, 106.
51
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 138142, and Plin. NH II 10, 37, 58, 60, 61, 63, 66
(three times), 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 89, 91, 92, 9293 (twice), 95 (twice), 98, 100 (twice), 101, 110,
112, 178, 237.
52
Plin. NH II 60, 61, 6667, 72, 75.
53
Plin. NH II 93, 95.
54
Plin. NH II 178.
55
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 127130, and Plin. NH II 31, 60, 65, 70, 77, 78 (twice),
81, 83, 9293, 108, 110, 137, 168, 178, 196.
56
Plin. NH II 31, 60, 65, 77, 78, 81, 83, 93, 110.
57
Plin. NH II 78, 178.
58
Plin. NH II 108.
59
Plin. NH II 70, 137, 168, 196.

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54 CECILIA GBLI

zodiac. On 12 occasions it occurs only in this meaning.60 Thus we can draw the con-
clusion that signum does not appear in Pliny the Elders Cosmology as a technical
term yet, unlike signifer which can definitely be considered as such. We can observe
a similar phenomenon in case of coitus61 which evidently signifies the conjunction of
celestial bodies in each occurrence.
It is obvious that the designation of the Sun, the Moon and the constellations
and celestial bodies is also exact and cannot be substituted by synonyms. The only
exception is perhaps Septentrio which on the one hand means Northern wind,62 on
the other hand, as Septentrio Maior it refers to Septentrio, or in other words, the con-
stellation of the Great Bear (Ursa Maior)63 which is the most significant constellation
of the Northern sky, and it can also mean the Northern direction in general. However,
in this case there is an integral relation between the meanings, since the Northern
direction is determinant in case of the wind and the constellation as well.
The greatest diversity can be observed in case of the expression spatium since
it occurs in diverse senses: as place, space, orbit (of a celestial body), distance,
section, travelled path, territory and period. Therefore, in this case we cannot
speak about technical terms, even more so because we cannot prove the existence of
an integral relation between meanings.64
Mundus as a term occurs in Pliny the Elders Cosmology 40 times.65 In general
it refers to the All, so I applied the term universe in the translation. On three occa-
sions I had to translate it differently due to stylistic reasons, in these cases world
matched the context much better.66 On two occasions, mundus evidently occurred as
the synonym for sky (caelum).67 Mundus is an important term since it occurs more
or less with the same meaning, thus it played an important role in Pliny the Elders
system with its clearly specified definition. This is strengthened by conscious appli-
cations as well, since Pliny the Elder starts Cosmology with the word mundus and the
penultimate word of the last sentence in the last chapter is also mundus.68 That is, the
universe, the frame that surrounds us and life on Earth is an important notion or term
with great emphasis in Pliny the Elders Cosmology. Universe and sky are no-
tions that are closely linked to each other in the ancient ethos. This is also reflected

60
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 126127, and Plin. NH II 9, 30, 38, 48, 63, 66, 81,
84, 88, 177 (twice), 188.
61
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 104105, and Plin. NH II 4446 (twice), 56, 61, 78,
215.
62
See Plin. NH II 119, 123.
63
See Plin. NH II 110, 178.
64
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 130134, Plin. NH II 6, 10, 12, 44, 4446, 48, 50, 72,
81 (twice), 84, 85, 86 (twice), 87, 90, 107, 171, 181, 196, 198, 205, 213, 217, 246, 248.
65
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 107113, and see Plin. NH II 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 22,
28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 43, 56, 63, 66, 77, 80, 81, 87, 89, 102, 104, 116, 119, 142, 144, 160 (twice), 162, 174,
176, 179, 186, 189, 191, 212, 239, 248.
66
Plin. NH II 22, 30, 239.
67
Plin. NH II 191, 212.
68
Plin. NH II 1: Mundum et hoc quodcumque nomine alio caelum appellare libuit; Plin. NH II
248: Harmonica ratio, quae cogit rerum naturam sibi ipsam congruere, addit huic mensurae stadiorum
XII terramque XCVI partem totius mundi facit.

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 55

by the phenomenon analyzed above in connection with the meanings of mundus, that
is, that it occurs as a synonym for sky, moreover, the first few lines of Pliny the
Elders Cosmology also point to this:
Mundum et hoc quodcumque nomine alio caelum appellare libuit, cuius
circumflexu degunt cuncta, numen esse credi par est, aeternum, inmen-
sum, neque genitum neque interiturum umquam.69
Caelum as a term means sky and can refer to every phenomenon related to
the sky.70 As such, it is an atmospheric, astronomical and climatic notion and term,
depending on the context and the expression in which it occurs. Therefore, caelum is
the best example for the terminological occurrence of ancient interdisciplinarity. The
astronomical significance of the term is reflected by the fact that in a compound it
means fixed star since according to the ancient concept, fixed stars are fixed on the
sky. In Pliny the Elders Cosmology the following expressions refer to this: stella
adfixa caelo, astra inhaerentia caelo, sidera adhaerentia caelo and sidera adfixa
caelo.71 Caelum, as sky, cuius circumflexu degunt cuncta72 provides an etymologi-
cal explanation to our word climate: klima in a literal translation is the curve of
the skyline. The curve of the sky, the recognition of this, and due to the concen-
tric globes the notions of latitudes and climatic zones on the Earth were created
through the projection of celestial reference circles on the Earth. Accordingly, caelum
also occurs as declinatio caeli, with the meaning of climate in Pliny the Elders
Cosmology.73 The expression caelum occurs in descriptions related to winds and
lightnings,74 to designate celestial circles75 and also in expressions meaning astron-
omy.76
Similarly to the expressions for stars (sidus, astrum, stella) there are several
terms in Pliny the Elders Cosmology to designate air. The word ar occurs rela-
tively often, 19 times77 and evidently appears as one of the four elements, as the
following part demonstrates:
Nec de elementis video dubitari quattuor esse ea: ignium summum, inde
tot stellarum illos conlucentium oculos; proximum spiritus, quem Graeci
nostrique eodem vocabulo ara appellant, vitalem hunc et per cuncta re-

69
See Plin. NH II 1. See a similar formulation of this thought in Plat. Tim. 28b.
70
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 94104 and Plin. NH II 1, 8, 12 (twice), 13, 29, 30, 31,
40, 4143, 4446, 49, 54, 58, 62, 63, 65, 67, 71, 78, 79, 82, 87 (twice), 89, 92, 94, 95 (twice), 96, 98, 100
(twice), 102 (twice), 103 (twice), 104, 106, 110, 116, 119, 121, 122, 129, 132, 138 (twice), 143, 144, 147,
148 (twice), 160, 172, 173, 174, 189, 192, 196, 199, 212 (twice), 216.
71
Plin. NH II 58, 98, 106 and 116.
72
Plin. NH II 1.
73
Plin. NH II 172173, 189.
74
For example Plin. NH II 119, 121, 122, 129, 138, 143144.
75
Plin. NH II 30.
76
Plin. NH II 82.
77
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 9193, and Plin. NH II 10, 33, 48, 65, 79, 82, 85, 102
(twice), 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 135, 136, 150, 153, 155.

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56 CECILIA GBLI

rum meabilem totoque consertum; huius vi suspensam cum quarto aqua-

rum elemento librari medio spatii tellurem.78
In one of the cases I translated it as airspace due to the textual context79 since
it refers to the medium in which planets are moving. The same situation can be ob-
served here as in case of caelum: the phenomena that are considered as atmospheric
and astronomical today, that is, phenomena that shall be examined separately, were
not separated from each other in ancient times: something that is located on the sky
can be characterized by caelum and ar. There is perhaps one textual location that is
an exception: aether appears only once to designate air in Pliny the Elders Cosmol-
ogy, namely together with ar. It essentially signifies the borderline of air and the
beginning of space, that is, it refers to that the fact that there is a different medium
beyond the borderline of the air.
Ergo confinium illis est aris terminus initiumque aetheris.80
Aithr is nothing else but the fifth element in Aristotles system, the quinta es-
sentia. According to the stoical concept, this is the clear, indirect form of occurrence
of pneuma, the fire breath in which celestial bodies are formed. Spiritus is nothing
else but stoical pneuma,81 the compound of air and fire, life force, the vitalizing
breath that pervades everything. It also appears in the work of Pliny the Elder. It
occurred 29 times82 and contrary to ar, in many cases it refers to an active breath
that is closely linked to life.83 Accordingly, I often translated spiritus not simply as
air but as breath, puff of air or breathing. However, one of the textual loca-
tions refers to the fact that Pliny the Elder substituted one of the four elements by
spiritus, thus obscuring and mixing two different notions:
Nam sicut ignium sedes non est nisi in ignibus, aquarum nisi in aquis,
spiritus nisi in spiritu, sic terrae, arcentibus cunctis, nisi in se locus non
est.84
Spiritus and ar often appear together.85 Pliny the Elder himself refers to the
fact that he uses these notions as synonyms:

78
Plin. NH II 10.
79
Plin. NH II 65.
80
Plin. NH II 48.
81
For more information concerning the pneuma notion of the Stoicists, see BARKER, P.: Stoic
contributions to early modern science. In Atoms, Pneuma and Tranquillity. Epicurean and Stoic Themes
in European Thought. Ed. M. J. OSLER. Cambridge 1991, 138139, on the appearance of pneuma in
Pliny the Elder, see PEDERSEN (n. 10) 175, FRENCH (n. 6) 231.
82
See GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 134137, and Plin. NH II 10, 12, 102, 103 (twice), 108,
113 (three times), 116, 142 (twice), 155, 156, 162 (three times), 166, 192 (twice), 197, 200, 201, 207, 208,
218, 221 (twice), 223.
83
Plin. NH II 102, 103, 116, 221, 223. It is not accidental that this term served as the basis of the
expression used to designate the Holy Spirit later on: Spiritus Sanctus although its meaning had gradually
been transformed from soul into spirit and it refers to the spirit in the trio of body, soul and spirit
(corpusanimaspiritus).
84
Plin. NH II 162.
85
See Plin. NH II 10, 102, 116, 155.

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 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PLINY THE ELDERS COSMOLOGY 57

Namque et hoc caelum appellavere maiores quod alio nomine ara, omne
quod inani simile vitalem hunc spiritum fundit.86
The other case where it is most obvious that Pliny the Elder uses the two terms
as synonyms is the definition of the four elements.87
Spiritus appears together with the notion of sympathia (unspoken) as the vital-
izing breath, as life force during the characterization of the Moon and the presenta-
tion of its impacts:
Quo vera coniectatio existit, haut frustra spiritus sidus lunam existimari;
hoc esse quod terras saturet accedensque corpora impleat, abscedens
inaniat. Ideo cum incremento eius augeri conchylia et maxime spiritum
sentire quibus sanguis non sit, sed et sanguinem, hominum etiam, cum lu-
mine eius augeri ac minui, frondes quoque et pabula ut suo loco dice-
tur sentire, in omnia eadem penetrante vi.88
Thus, from the above described data and text locations we can draw the con-
clusions that ar, spiritus and aether as terms were not clearly separated from each
other in Pliny the Elders Cosmology, they often occurred in the same sentence, as
each others synonyms. However, a stoical impact can be detected in the notion of
spiritus used for the expression pneuma and in its close relation with the lore of sym-
pathia.
When studying and analyzing terms we should not neglect the fact that in Pliny
the Elders era such a thing as Latin astronomical terminology did not exist. There
were basically Greek astronomical texts and a Greek terminology, as Pliny the Elder
himself also alluded to this:
Pluribus de causis haec omnia accidunt: prima circulorum, quos Graeci
apsidas in stellis vocant; etenim Graecis utendum erit vocabulis.89

CONCLUSIONS

We can consider Pliny the Elders collection of cosmological information as an early

stage of science when the theories and views of each school coexisted, moreover,
scientific disciplines (astrology, astronomy, meteorology, climatology, astronomical
geography) were not clearly separated from each other. This early erudition is closely
related to contemporary philosophy and religion.
When examining the cosmological terminology of Pliny the Elder, in some
cases we can detect the existence of technical terms that can be considered as
equivalents of present day technical terms, however, we often encounter terms whose

86
Plin. NH II 102. According to Galenus, the spiritus vitalis (pneuma ztikon) that manifests itself
in life force is responsible for the blood flow and for producing heat.
87
Plin. NH II 10.
88
Plin. NH II 221.
89
Plin. NH II 63.

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58 CECILIA GBLI

meaning is not evident for us, that have synonyms or several meanings, and whose
existence can be explained by linguistic and contentual noncommensurability.
While analyzing the knowledge published in Pliny the Elders Cosmology by
topics,90 I came to the conclusion that in the work of Pliny the Elder the scientific
disciplines that are separate disciplines in our days cannot be clearly distinguished
from each other, we can observe an interdisciplinary intertwining of some sort. That
is, astronomy and religion, astronomy and astrology, geography and astronomy, as-
tronomy and climatology, philosophy and meteorology and astronomy, moreover,
religion and philosophy are in an integral relation with each other. Thus, it is not
accidental that the knowledge pertaining to these scientific disciplines which are
separate disciplines today is contained in Pliny the Elders Cosmology. Pliny the
Elders Cosmology is a great example of the fact that in his era scientific disciplines
were not independent from each other but constituted a closely related, inseparable
religious-scientific-ideological complex of knowledge in relation to religion and
philosophy and with each other. Analyzing terminology reinforces this statement
since in many cases the terms were not differentiated according to scientific disci-
plines and consequent use cannot be detected in all cases. Instead we often find
synonyms, there are only some exceptions to this, some terms that can be considered
as technical terms. The most expressive terminological example of interdisciplinary
intertwining is the word caelum that was used to designate the sky and occurred in
astronomical, meteorological and climatic contexts as well.

Cecilia Gbli
Pcs, Hungary
gablice@freemail.hu

90
GBLI: Plinius Kozmolgija (n. 2) 941 and 8190.

Acta Ant. Hung. 51, 2011