TAMILNADU STATE COUNCIL FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

CHENNAI 600 005

MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT FOR TEACHERS OF GOVERNMENT ARTS AND

SCIENCE COLLEGES

FINAL REPORT

(10-02-2014 TO 10-08-2015)

D.O.RC.NO.1098/2013A/10 02 2014

PROJECT TITLE

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON THE SOCIETY

NAME OF THE INVESTIGATOR

Dr. A. KARKUZHALI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

KUNTHAVAI NATCHIYAR GOVERNMENT COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

THANJAVUR 7
 TAMILNADU STATE COUNCIL FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

CHENNAI 600 005

MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT FOR TEACHER OF GOVERNMENT ARTS AND

SCIENCE COLLEGES

FINAL REPORT

1 Reference No. and Date D.O.RC.No.1098/2013A/10-02-2014

2 Name of the principal Dr. A. KARKUZHALI

investigator

3 Designation Assistant professor

4 Communication Address with PG & Research Department of History,

phone No. Kunthavai Naachiyaar Govt.Arts College forWomen
(Autonomous),
Thanjavur - 613 007
Mobile : 9626062410
Office : 04362 237180

5 Institution Address PG & Research Department of History,

Kunthavai Naachiyaar Govt.Arts College forWomen
(Autonomous),
Thanjavur - 613 007

6 Title of the Project DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND ITS

IMPACT ON THE SOCIETY

7 Sector Humanities

8 Date of Implementation 10 02 - 2014

9 Tenure of the project 10 02 2014 to 09 02 2015
10 Final report submitted for 18 months
 UTILIZATION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Rs. 73,000/-(Seventy Three Thousands only) has been spent

towards the Implementation of the Minor Research project for College Teachers of Government

Arts and Science Colleges (D.O.RC.NO.1098/2013A/10-02-2014) entitled DEVELOPMENT

OF AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON THE SOCIETY approved by the Tamil Nadu

State Council for Higher Educations.

INVESTIGATOR PRINCIPAL
 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE PROVIDED/EXPENDITURE INCURRED

S.NO. ITEMS AMOUNT EXPENDITURE

APPROVED INCURRED SO
FAR
1 Research Relevant Books & Journals 15,000 15,000

2 Visit field work & travel 45,000 20,000

3 Photography & drawing 15,000 15,000

4 Contingency:
Typing, Xeroxs & Printout 20,000 18,500

5 Stationeries 5,000 4,500

Total 1,00,000 73,000

 Farming though hard is foremost trade

Men ply at will but ploughmen lead Thirukkural 1031

Introduction:

Transformation of techniques from traditional to modern leads to the development of the

particular sector. To make an in-depth analysis of particular problem needs to know the

historical background and evidences of the sector helps to make a clear cut idea which induces to

frame a practical solution for the society. For this, it is advisable to know the concept and

history of agriculture in general, will help to derive a conclusion in particular. In the past,

agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, bio-

fuel, medicinal and other products used to sustain and enhance human life

In India, the domestication of plants and animals are reported in the subcontinent by 9000

BC. Historical evidence suggests that rice and cotton were cultivated in the Indus valley.

Bhumivarga, ancient Indian Sanskrit text suggested to be 2500 years old, classifies agricultural

land into 12 categories: Urvara (fertile), Ushara (barren), maru (desert), aprahata (fallow),

shadvata (grassy), pankikala (muddy), jalaprayah (water), kachchaha (land contiguous to water),

sharkara (full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), sharkaravati (sandy), nadimatruka (land

watered from a river) and devamatruka (rainfed).

Indian agriculture is broadly classified into five different periods before independence:

*Early history (Before 1500 BCE)

*Vedic period post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE 2000 BCE)

*Early Common Era High middle ages (2000 1200 CE)

*Late middle ages Early modern Era (1200 1757 CE)

*Colonial British Era (1757 1947 CE).

*Republic of India (1947 onwards)

Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows either two or of six

and storing grain in granaries. In early history (9000 BC), wheat and barley were the first

domesticated crops and horse, sheep, goats and elephant are the domesticated animals in this

period. Agricultural communities widespread in Kashmir, cotton was cultivated, wild oryza rice

appeared in the Ganges Valley regions of Northern India. Rice was cultivated in the Indus

Valley Civilization. Irrigation was developed and sophisticated irrigation of water storage

systems were developed like artificial reservoir Gimar, canal irrigation system from Cirea. For

ploughing, animals were used.

In the Vedic period, jute was first cultivated in India and used to make ropes and cordage.

Some animals and trees were domesticated and worshiped, other plants came to be known for

their medicinal uses and found, mention in the holistic medical system Ayurveda and cow dung

was used as manure. Mauryan Empire categorized soils and meteorological observations for

agricultural use. Construction and maintenance of dams and provision of horse-drawn chariots

which is quicker than the traditional bullock carts were practiced. In 300 BC the Greek

Diplomat Megusthanes, in his book Indika provides a secular eyewitness account of Indian

agriculture.

During early Common Era, tamil people activated a wide range of crops such as rice,

sugarcane, millets, black pepper, various grains, coconuts, cotton, plantain, tamarind and

sandalwood, jackfruit, etc. Systematic ploughing, manuring weeding, irrigation and crop
protection was practiced for sustained agriculture. Kallanai (first century CE) a dam built on

river kaveri is considered as the one of the oldest water regulation structures in the world is still

in use. Noboru Karashimas research of the agrarian society in south India during the Chola

Empire, reveals that land was transferred and collective holding of land by a group of people

slowly gave way to individual plots of land, each with their own irrigation system. The growth

of individual disposition of farming property may have led to a decrease in areas of dry

cultivation. The cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water

particularly the distribution of water by tank and channel networks to the drier areas.

In the last middle age (early modern era), agricultural zones were broadly divided into

those producing rice, wheat or millets. Land management was particularly strong during the

regime of Akbar the Great under whom scholar bureaucrat Todarmal formulated and

implemented elaborated methods of agricultural management on a rational basis.

During the colonial British era, agricultural prices of some commodities rose to about 3

times in between 1870 1920. A report was prepared to know agricultural production of about

800 villages around Chennai in the year 1762 1766. In 1871, department of revenue,

agriculture and commerce formed by the government of India, base for initiation of agriculture in

India and in 1881. Separate department for agriculture was formed. Various commodities were

formed to increase the agricultural production.

In the period of 1947 onwards i.e., during the republic period of India, five year plans of

India concentrates towards agricultural development. The production revolutions initiated from

1960s onwards included Green Revolution, Yellow revolution (oil seeds: 1986 - 1990), operation

flood (dairy: 1970 - 1996) and Blue revolution (fishing: 1973 - 2002). National Agricultural
Research Project was launched in 1979. Following the economic reform 1991, significant

growth was registered in the agricultural sector and the newer innovations of Agro processing

and biotechnology. National Agricultural technology Project (NATP) was initiated in 1998 and

2006, the National Agricultural Innovative Project (NAIP) was launched for end to end approach

for solving problems.

While considering Tamil Nadu, the geographical features of a region frames the main

occupation of the people of the region. So, it is essential to know the physical features of a

region. Tamil Nadu is the state of India located by the extreme south of the subcontinent,

bounded by the Indian ocean to the east and south and by the states of Kerala to the west,

Karnataka to the northwest, Andhra Pradesh to the north. The capital of the state is Chennai, on

the coast in the northeastern portion of the state and its population is 72,138,958 as per in the

year 2011. History of Tamil Nadu begins with the establishment of a trinity of Tamil power in

the regime namely, Chera, Chola and Pandya Kingdoms engaged diplomatic and trade relations

with distant lands. In 1640, the East India Company of England opened a trading post at the

fishing village of Madrasapatnam (now chennai) with the permission of the local ruler. From

the mid 17th century to 1946 is the story of the British-controlled Madras Presidency in

relationship to the rise and fall of British power in India. After Indian Independence in 1947, the

Madras Presidency became Madras state. The states Telegu speaking areas were separated to

form part of the new state of Andhra Pradesh in 1953. In 1956 Madras was divided further, with

some areas going to the new state of Kerala and other areas becoming part of Mysore (now

Karnataka), what remained of Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968.

Agriculture in ancient tamil country was started from the Sangam Age (200 BCE 200

CE), where agriculture is the mainstay of life for about half of the working population of Tamil
Nadu. They were more aware of different varieties of soil, the kinds of crops grown and various

irrigation schemes suitable for given region. The immovable property, land was classified on the

basis of the fertility of the soil. Namely, Marutham region was most fit for cultivation rather

than mullai and kurinji. They were differenciated the lands on the basis of fertility and the kind

of soil such as Vanpulam(hard land), Menpulam(fertile land), Pinpulam(dry land) and Kalar

nilam or Uvarnilam(salty land). Whereas in vanpulam the yield is not good compared to

menpulam, because of inadequacy of irrigation facility, only dry crops were cultivated in

pinpulam and kalarnilam was unfit for cultivation.

Agricultural practices have shown radical improvement since the mid 20th century

through multiple cropping, the uses of stronger and more productive strains of staple crops, and

the application of chemical fertilizers, since the late 1960s the state has been self-sufficient in the

production of food grains. The principal crops for domestic consumption are rice, millet and

other cereals, as well as peanuts (groundnuts) and pulses; sugarcane, cotton,

cashews and chilies are important cash crops.

Apart from the traditional landlords and cultivators, there were absentee land lords too.

The king owned a lot of land and he donated tax-free lands to poets, Brahmins (brahmateya),

educational institutions, hospitals and temples. The tillers of the soil were denoted by different

names such as Uluthunbaror, Yerinvalnar and the women cultivators were called as Ulathiar.

Regardless of the nature of ownership, ranging from great landlords to an ordinary cultivator,

they had a feeling of pride in the fact that they were the producers of food. Landlords and

peasants paid the land tax known as Irai. About 1/6th of the produce was collected as tax on

produce called Vari. There were graneries known as Kalanjiyam in the public place and as well
as in the houses of the farmers to store excess of grains. The smallest holding of land is denoted

as Ma, and the biggest holding is Veli (1 veli = 100 kuli).

Systematic method of cultivation such as ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and

crop protection were to be followed in a proper way for the yield to be rich. Paddy field was

known as Kalam was ploughed with the help of oxen and leveled the ploughed lands by the

peasants using their feet, followed by planting of seeds. Then, seeds grew into saplings, they

were transplanted and when the crop was matured, it was harvested. Weeds were removed

periodically. Paddy was removed from the harvested stalks by beating on the ground. Cleaned

paddy was collected, measured and stored in proper containers. The tools used in traditional

agriculture were kalappai, spade, palli or maram used to level the ploughed land. Palliyadatal is

the process for removing weeds.

The area of study for this study is Thanjavur. It is worthwhile to study the history and

physical features of the region. Thanjavure district is one of the 32 districts of the state of Tamil

Nadu in south eastern India. Its headquarters is Thanjavur and it had a population of about

222,943 as per the statistical survey of India for the year 2011. It is bounded on the northeast by

Nagapattinam district, on the east by Tiruvarur, on the south by the Palk Strait of Bay of Bengal

on the west by Pudukkottai district and on the north by the river Kollidam, across which lie

Tiruchirapalli and Perambalur district. The average literacy rate of the district was 83.14%,

where the national average was 72.99%. In the year 2013, the city was declared as a

corporation. The municipal corporation covers an area of 36.33km (14.03sq.t). Agriculture is

the main occupation of the people in the district. Total of 974,079 workers comprising 117,321

cultivators, 327,673 are main agricultural labourers. This district lies at the Kavery delta region,

the most fertile region in the state and it is the main rice producing region in the state and known
as the Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu. Apart from paddy, farmers here grow coconut and sugar cane

and it is the largest producer of coconut in Tamil Nadu. Being an agrarian economy, industrial

growth in the district is mainly confined to agro-based industries. The green paddy fields and the

kaveri river provide for picturesque spots in the district.

Apart from this, while speaking about the history of the district, scholars believe that the

name Thanjavur is derived from Tanjan, a legendary demon in Hidu mythology. According to

the local legend, the word Thanjavur derived from Tanjan, an asura(giant) who was killed by the

Hindu God Neelamega Perumal, a form of Vishnu. There was no reference in any of the

Sangam period (third century BC to fourth century). Tamil records believe that the city has

existed since that time. Kovil Venni situated 15miles (24km) to the east of the city, was the site

of the Battle of Venni between the chola king Karikala and a confederacy of cheras and the

pandyas. The cholas seemed to have faced an invasion of the Kalabhras in the third century AD

after which the kingdom faded into obscurity. During sixth century, Mutharayars ruled it upto

the period 849. Again, the cholas came to prominence through the rise of the Medievel chola

monarch Vijayalaya (858) chola, who conqurred Thanjavur from King Elango Muthurayar and

built a temple dedicated to Goddess Nisumbhasuthani. After that, gradually, Thanjavur

became the most important city in the chola Empire and remained its capital till the emergence of

Gangaikonda cholapuram(1025). The chola empire began to decline in the 13th century. During

the period of Rajaraja III, pandyas invaded Thanjavur. So he sought the help of Hoysala King

Vira Narashima II to regain Thanjavur. In 1279, Pandya king Maravarman kula sekara pandyan

ruled the region and after that, the Delhi Sultanate (Malik kafur), Vijayanakara (1532), Nayak

kingdom- Maratha kingdom (1855) and the British rule. During the period of British rule,
Thanjavur emerged as important regional centre. In 1871 India census recorded a population of

52,171, making Thanjavur the third largest city in the Madras Presidency.

Thanjavur is an important centre of South Indian religion, art and architecture. Most of

the great living choler temples, which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments are located in

and around Thanjavur. The foremost among these, the peruvudaiyar (the Brahadeeswara) temple

is located in the centre of the city which is built by the chola king the Great Rajaraja Cholan and

the Airavateswara temple in Darasuram built by Rajaraja chola II. Basically it is an agricultural

prone area, it is also an important pilgrim centre and a major tourist destination of Tamil Nadu.

The Saraswathi Mahal Library, established around 1700 and located in the premises of the

palaces, contains over 30,000 Indian and European manuscripts written on Palm Leaf and paper.

Over 80% of this is in Sanskrit and the tamil works include treatise on medicine, and

commentaries on Sangam Literature. Thanjavur is the cradle for many of the arts and crafts in

South India.

The Agrarian society in South India during the chola empire (875 - 1279) reveals that,

collective holding of land slowly gave way to individual plots, each with their own irrigation

system during chola rule. The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of

water, particularly the distribution of water by tank and channel networks to the drier areas. The

growth of individual disposition of farming may have led to a decrease in areas of dry land

cultivation. During first and second century, water storage system (i.e) Kallanai dam was

designed and built by the Chola King Karikalla Cholan on the river kaveri, is considered as one

of the oldest water regulation structure in the world that is still in use. In the Chola Dynasty (900

1270 AD), there was a significant agrarian expansion take place in all over Tamil Nadu and

particularly in the kaveri basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri river belongs to this period (eg)
Uyyakodan canal, Rajendran Vaykkal, Sembiyan Mahadevi vaykal. There was well developed

and highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards.

Most of the Thanjavur city and the surrounding area lies in the New Delta a dry, barren

upland tract which has been brought under irrigation during the early 19th century. The period

from November to February in Thanjavur is pleasant, with a climate full of warm days and cool

nights. The onset of summer is from March, with the Mercury reaching its peak by the end of

the May and June. Regarding the monsoons of Thanjavur, the South-West monsoon sets in June

to September and the North-east monsoon from October to January which is beneficial at large

because of heavy rainfall and the Western-Ghats feeding the river Cauvery. Total land fit for

cultivation is 58%. The cultivation of paddy is cultivated under three seasons like, Kuruvai

June to September; Samba August to January and Thaladi September October to February

March.

Rice is the principal crop of Cauvery Delta Zone (CDZ). District Level Rice Yield

Forecast for Delta districts viz., Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Perambalur, Nagapattinam, Cuddalore,

Ariyalur and Trichy was issued by using Statistical Model at mid-season (F2) and pre-harvest

stage (F3) during Kharif, 2013 and Rabi 2013-14. The forecast has been developed by using crop

yield data considering four weather variables (Maximum and Minimum temperature, Rainfall,

Morning and Evening Relative Humidity) with Long term weather (1995-2013) and historical

crop yield (1995-2011) data. During Kharif, 2013 the highest paddy yield of 3929 kg/ha has been

predicted for Thanjavur district while the lowest yield has been predicted for Tiruvarur district

(3287 kg/ha). The major rice varieties grown in Cauvery delta zone during Kuruvai season is

ADT 43, ADT-45 and ADT 36. In F3 forecast, higher paddy yield of 3853 kg/ha was predicted

in Thanjavur district followed by Nagapattinam district (3575 kg/ha). Lower yield of 2909 kg/ha
was predicted in Cuddalore district. Verification on yield forecast by using actual yield indicated

that actual yield was more than predicted yield in all the districts .The error percentage varied

from 1.5 to 23. The lacunae in the statistical model is that it is taking into consideration of the

weather parameters prevailed during the season only and not the management practices adopted

by the farmers. During Rabi, 2013 season the highest paddy yield of 3955 kg/ha has been

predicted for Tiruvarur district. The major rice varieties were CR1009, ADT 46, and BPT 5204.

During F3 forecast, Perambalur district registered higher rice yield of 3717 kg/ha and Ariyalur

district recorded lower yield of 2784 kg/ha. Verification of yield forecast by using actual yield

indicated that actual yield was less than predicted yield in two districts (Karur and Perambalur)

and actual yield was more than predicted yield in Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinum, Trichy,

Ariyalur and Cudalolre.While considering the above, before have an in-depth analysis, it is

important to know the most determinant factors of agriculture such as land and irrigation system.

So, the land use pattern of the districts are elaborated as follows.

Land Use Pattern of the district:

The total geographical area is 3.40 lakh hectares. Of this only one per cent is under

forests and 0.41 per cent is under pastures and grazing lands. As much as 24.05 per cent of the

total area is under non-agricultural uses. The area under cultivable waste is 4.33 per cent. The

fallow lands have accounted for nearly 12 per cent of the total geographical area. The cultivable

land was 1.79 lakh hectares constituting 56.54 per cent of the geographical area of the district. It

could be observed from the land use pattern given else where that the area under forests is very

meager as there was no scope of increasing the forests in the district. As forest wealth is an

important wealth of any region, the personnel of the forest department may concentrate on

increasing the area under farm forestry and social forestry. During the past three years though the
barren and uncultivable land has remained static, land put to non-agricultural uses has increased

by nearly 2000 ha between 2003 and 2005. This could mean that the cultivable lands are being

converted into either industrial areas or real estates. The current fallow has drastically reduced by

about 15,000 ha between 2003 and 2005. As the monsoon has performed well, the net area sown

and area sown more than once had increased by 40, 000 and 13,000 ha between 2003 and 2005

which is a good sign of hectic activities in the District Agriculture Plan agricultural and allied

sectors in the years to come. Cultivable waste, current fallows and other fallows put together

accounted for moir than 16 per cent of the total geographical area and hence wasteland

development merit consideration in this district as well.

Land Holding Pattern: The marginal and small farmers have constituted nearly 90 per cent of the

farming community. These farmers have cultivated 56 per cent of the cultivated area. Hence any

interventions for the betterment of the farmers in the district should target these groups of

farmers.

Development schemes:

The transformation of knowledge was the base of further development. Land and source

of water are the main factors of production of agriculture. As far as land is concerned, during the

ancient period, absentees land lord system is existed and land tax revenue was main source of

income of the state. The method of collecting land revenue before the British rule is discussed as

follows. Tax from the land was a major source of revenue for the Kings and emperors in ancient

times. But the ownership pattern of land had witnessed changes over centuries. During

kingship, land was divided into Jagirs, Jagirs were allotted to Jagirdars, these jagirdars spilt the

land they got and allocated to subordinate Zamindars. Zamindars made peasants cultivate the

land, in-return collected part of their revenue as tax. The land revenue system in British India
was Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari. Zamindary system was introduced by Cornwallis in

1793 through permanent settlement Act. In this system, the zamins have the rights to collect the

rent from the peasants and the collected amout would be divided into 11 parts where, 1/11of the

share belong to zamin and 10/11 of belongs to East India Company. The amount paid to the

company was called peshwash. Ryotwari system was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820,

introduced in Madras, Mumbai, parts of Assam and coorgh provinces of British India. In

Ryotwari system, the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government

collected taxes directly from the peasants. The revenue rates of Ryotwari system were 50%

where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land. Mahalwari system introduced in 1833 by

William Bentick, where the ownership rights were vested with the peasants. The land was

divided into Mahals which comprises one or more villages. The village committee was

responsible for collection of the taxes. After Independence, land reforms were introduced by

abolishing the zamindari system and land ceilings Act was passed.

In the years since its independence, India has made immense progress towards food

security, it adopted significant policy reforms focused on the goal of food grain self-sufficiency.

This ushered in Green Revolution. In 1980s the Agricultural policy shifted to evolution of a

production pattern in line with the demand pattern. So, it is worthwhile to analyse the important

components of Green Revolution and its impacts briefly.

The major components of Green revolution are:

High yielding Varieties of seeds(HYV)

Irrigation (a) Surface (b) Ground

Use of fertilizers (chemical)

 Use of insecticides and pesticides

Command Area Development

Consolidation of Holdings

Land Reforms

Supply of Agricultural credit

Rural electrification

Rural roads and marketing

Farm mechanization

Agricultural Universities.

It must be noted that majority of the components do not act in isolation, rather they are

closely inter-related and heavily dependent upon one another. For example, HYV seeds are

highly responsive to use of fertilizers and are equally vulnerable to pest attacks and growth of

useless weeds. Their full potential cannot be developed without the requisite supply of water.

The shorter maturing period enables the farmers to obtain more than one crop in a year

from the same piece of land. This would require hastening of the harvesting operations so that

land is quickly prepared for the second crop.

This will require mechanisation of farming. In order to make optimum use of the farm

inputs, the farmer must know the why, where, what, when and how much of each for which there

is ample scope.
High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds:

According to R.N. Chopra, The high yielding variety seeds are major input of

agricultural production under the Green Revolution technology. Their main characteristic is

increased responsiveness to chemical fertilizers, their period of maturing is short, it helps double

cropping; their short stems can easily carry fertilizer load, resist wind damage, their large leaf

surface helps the process of photosynthesis.

According to Sunil Kumar Munsi, The H1 V seeds were perhaps the single most

important input in the Indian Green Revolution. All other inputs were linked with HYV. M.S.

Swaminathan has remarked that apart from erasing the begging bowl image of our country, the

most important gain has been the saving of forests and land, thanks to the productivity

improvement associated with high yielding varieties.

The development of HYV seeds of wheat in 1960s and those of rice in 1969-70 laid the

foundation for Green Revolution in India. Bandhu Das Sen has rightly remarked that they play

the role of modernisers of agriculture like engines of change, capable of transforming a

traditional farmer into a commercial producer. They act as part of steam engine (for industrial

revolution) to ignite an agrarian revolution in poor countries.

Thus the HYV programme brought about a major changea transformation affecting

almost every aspect of Indian agriculture. In words of Dantwala, widespread adoption of HYVs

has helped to step up cereal production, stimulated investment and substantially increased the use

of modem inputs.
 The Pearson Commission Report hailed it as one of the authentic marvels of our time. Its

most important effect was to be seen in the attainment of self-sufficiency in cereals, which

enabled us to have a break from the snip-to-mouth situation and move forward ahead of

population.

National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was established in 1963. It undertakes the production

of breeder seeds on its own farms and foundation and certified/quality seeds through contract

growers, agricultural universities, state seeds corporations and state farms corporation of India.

Certified seed is the ultimate stage in seed production chain and is the progeny of

foundation seed. National Seeds Programme was launched in 1977 in collaboration with World

Bank covering 9 states of Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh and Rajasthan. The production distribution and utilization of quality seeds has been

increasing since the beginning of Green Revolution.

Irrigation:

Irrigation is the second most important component of Green Revolution technology after

HYV seeds. Assured and regular supply of sufficient water to crops not only adds to production

it also assures stability in production. Indian rainfall being unreliable, irregular and seasonal,

there is urgent need to expand irrigation potential to meet the requirements of the Green

Revolution strategy Irrigation is a precondition for successful introduction of HYV seeds even in

areas of heavy rainfall.

The success m use of HYV seeds lies in availability of water at the right time and in the

right quantity tor which B.B. Vohra had laid more emphasis on ground water rather than on
surface water. The ground water gives the advantage of push-button irrigation, made possible by

a pump set or a tube well and is completely under farmers own control.

Appreciating the role of ground water in the success of Green Revolution, Vohra has

preferred to call it the Ground Water Revolution. However, there is senous threat of depletion of

ground water due to over-exploitation when the rate of drawal of ground water is higher than the

rate at which it is replenished. In many districts of Haryana and Punjab the ground water

exploitation is very high.

Use of Fertilizers (Chemical):

The use of chemical fertilizers has been the third most important input of Green

Revolution after HYV seeds and irrigation; rather the three are tied together. In tact use of HYV

seeds needs heavy dose of irrigation and fertilizers to give high yields.

Since the entire culturable land has already been brought under plough and there is

practically no scope for ringing any new areas under cultivation, further increase in food-grains

production can be achieved only by multiple-cropping which heavily leans on the trio of the

basic inputs, viz. HYV seeds irrigation and chemical fertilizers.

Generally the use of chemical fertilizers is made according to the soil properties. Soil

testing is very essential to know the nutrient status of the soil. As a normal practice, it is

suggested that NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) should be used in the ratio of 4: 2: 1 but

it depends upon the quality and requirement of the soil and differs from place to place.
 To encourage balanced fertilizer use and make fertilizers available to farmers at

affordable prices, the Central Government determines and notifies the selling price of urea as

well as decontrolled P&K fertilizers. The current selling prices of urea and P&K fertilizers are

less than the cost of production the difference between the selling price and the cost of

production as assessed by the Government is borne as subsidy.

Although the use of fertilizers has considerably increased over the years, this increase is

more prominent in areas where Green Revolution has shown its impact. In 1970, southern India

was leading in consumption of fertilizers, but later on northern India, particularly, Punjab,

followed by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, became the main consumers.

In the decade between 1971-72 to 1981-82, consumption in Punjab increased by about

three times from 2, 90,000 tones to 8, 20,000 tones. In Uttar Pradesh, the biggest consumer

because of its large size, the increase in the same period was less than 3 times.

It is more than three times in Haryana and more than two times in Andhra Pradesh,

Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and West Bengal. It is worth

mentioning that Punjab and Haryana with only 6 per cent of the countrys cropped area

consumed 18 per cent of the fertilizers used in the country in 1981-82.

The regional variations come in sharp focus when we look at the per hectare consumption

of fertilizers. The national average consumption was 89.8 kg per hectare in 2003-04. Majority of

the states have consumption much below this average.

But it is very high in north-western states of Punjab (184.1 kg), Haryana (167.1 kg),

Andhra Pradesh (136.8 kg), Manipur (130.5 kg), Uttar Pradesh (126.7 kg), West Bengal (122.4
kg) and Tamil Nadu (112.5 kg). It was quite low in Rajasthan, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, apart

from the majority of states in the North-Eastern region (Table 23.3).

In spite of the fact that India is the fourth largest consumer of chemical fertilizers in the

world, after the USA, Russia and China, per hectare consumption still remains low compared to

the world averages. This means that there is still large scope for using chemical fertilizers,

increasing the yields and converting the dreams of Green Revolution into reality.

Use of Insecticides and Pesticides:

Though intensive use of irrigation and fertilizers under the Green Revolution technology

has increased the farm production, it has also given birth to the problem of pests, insects, weeds,

rodents, etc. The monoculture promoted by the Green Revolution technology is more vulnerable

to the insects and pests.

These pets, weeds and diseases are to be checked by proper doses of insecticides,

pesticides and weedicides surveillance should be an integral crop production. The first of

Agriculture (1983-84), over million hectares of cropped area in the country is affected by various

pests and diseases, taking an annual toll of 5 to 25 per cent of the agricultural production.

There has been a tremendous increase in the use of different types of biocides and in the

area under plant protection. The regional distribution makes it clear that areas with Green

Revolution technology are the main consumers of pesticides.

For example, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu consumed over 55

percent of the countrys pesticides in 2003-04.

Command Area Development (CAD):

Command Area Development Programme is a centrally sponsored scheme which was

launched in January 1975. Its aim was to bridge the gap between potential created and utilized in

selected major/medium irrigation projects of the country for optimising agricultural production

from the irrigated land. The programme covers the following components:

(i) On-farm development (OFD) works which include soil surveys, land shaping, construction of

field channels, field drains, farm roads, realignment of field boundaries (where possible

consolidation of holdings should also be combined), introduction of warabandi to ensure

equitable and assured supply of water to each and every farm holding, supply of all inputs

and services including credit and strengthening of extension services.

(ii) Selection and introduction of suitable cropping pattern

(iii) Development of groundwater to supplement surface water.

(iv Development and maintenance of the main and intermediate drainage system

(v) Modernisation, maintenance and efficient operation of the irrigation system upon the outlet of

one cusec capacity

The restructured programme which started from April 2004 is aimed at bringing about

better water management practices and efficient utilisation of irrigation water which, inter-alia

includes taking up corrective measures for rectification of deficiencies of delivery systems on the

one hand and participation of water users in sharing the cost of works on the other. The
Programme would cover 133 project commands with total Culturable Command Area of 1.7

million hectares. The work is already in progress.

Consolidation of Holdings:

Small and fragmented land holdings have been one of the main obstacles in the progress

of agriculture in India. Consolidation of holdings has been introduced to solve this problem.

Land Reforms:

Immediately after the Independence, it was felt that land reforms must be brought in to

improve the agricultural situation in the country. Absentee landlordism, tenancy-at-will and

share cropping could not help in inculcating interest among the farmers to make investments in

farm inputs and adopt new farm technology.

In 1947 half of India was under Zamindari System in which 80 per cent of the land was in

the hands of the absentee landlords. The Zamindar used to exploit the farmers who used to till

the land. Soon after Independence, the slogan of land to the tiller was raised and steps were taken

for the abolition of the Zamindari. Consequently, tenants became owners of land.

They started taking interest and pains to increase the farm production. Raitwari system

prevailed in Madras, Bombay, Assam and Punjab. Under this system the peasant was the owner

of land and paid rent directly to the Government. The rent was usually half of the net produce.

A fixed amount of rent was to be paid irrespective of the condition of the crops. In the

event of crop failure the peasant was obliged to pay rent by incurring debt against mortgage.
Ultimately the land passed into the hands of the money lender who had no real interest in

cultivation.

Mahotwari was another system in which a chosen peasant (Lambardar) was responsible

for depositing the rent varying from 40 to 70 per cent of the produce. These systems were to be

abolished in the interest of better agricultural performance. Another measure taken by the

government was the enforcement of land ceiling act.

Under this act a farmer cannot own more land than the ceiling limits. This resulted in the

redistribution of surplus land which proved beneficial to lakhs of landless farmers. After

obtaining the ownership rights, farmers worked whole-heartedly on their farms and this led to a

tremendous increase in agricultural production. Dr. Randhawa has beautifully summed up the

benefits of land reforms. According to him, A stable and restructured rural base with an equitable

tenurial system paved the way to Green Revolution and can be accredited with its blooming to

the present stage.

Supply of Agricultural Credit:

In the words of R.N. Chopra Credit is the most crucial input in all agricultural

developmental programmes. The other inputs viz., technology, HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides,

irrigation water and machineryall depend on the availability of credit.

A large percentage of Indian farming community consists of small and marginal farmers

who do not have their own resources to invest in agriculture. They depend upon agricultural

credit to carry on most of their agricultural operations.

 Earlier they used to get loan from the moneylender who used to charge very high rate of

interest. Now Cooperatives, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks extend loans to

farmers on easy terms.

Rural Electrification:

Rural electrification is one of the essential inputs in modem agricultural system. Studies

made in 1970 showed the electricity makes a significant contribution to development of

agriculture. It is a cheap source of energy which can be used for lifting water by

tubewells/pumpsets, processing and preserving agricultural produce, sprinkler irrigation and so

many other farm operations. The development of ground water, so vital for Green Revolution,

requires uninterruped supply of electricity at cheaper rates.

Realising the importance of electricity for the proper growth and development of

agriculture, a massive programme of rural electrification was taken up immediately after

Independence. At the time of Independence only 1,300 villages had been electrified and only

6,400 energised pump sets were working in the entire country.

At the end of the Fourth Five year Plan about 1, 55,297 villages had been electrified and

there were 24 lakh pumpsets. Up to the end of the Seventh Five Year Plan 4, 70,836 villages

were electrified and 83, 58,363 pump-sets had been energised. As on 31 March, 2004,4,73,892

villages out of a total of 5, 87,556 villages (i.e. 86.25 per cent of the total villages) had been

electrified and about 1, 40, 02,634 pump sets had been energised.
 Haryana was the first state to electrify all its 6759 villages in 1970. Punjab, Kerala,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, J and K, Maharashtra and

Nagaland have 97 to 100 per cent villages electrified.

Rural Roads and Marketing:

They constitute an important segment of infrastructure to improve agricultural

productivity under the Green Revolution programme.

Rural roads are very essential for connecting the villages to the neigh-bouring markets

and villages. Unfortunately, there is still a big gap between the requirement and availability of

village roads. Road network up to town level is fairly satisfactory. The weakest point is that of

rural roads.

Marketing is essential for progressive agriculture. Regulated markets enable the farmer to

sell his agricultural produce and to purchase farm implements and tools, fertilizers, pesticides

and other agricultural inputs as well as goods of everyday use. The farmer can go to the market

with his produce, sell it and on his return journey he can bring the goods required for agriculture

or in everyday life.

In this way the farmer can save on his return transport and avoid unnecessary waste of

time, energy and money. Ideally speaking the market place should be within a distance of 5 km

from the village. In the words of Leo E. Holman, Marketing is the part and parcel of a modern

productive process, the part at the end that gives point and purpose to all that had gone before.

Benefits from mechanisation can be minimised if corresponding improvements are not made in

the marketing system.

Farm Mechanisation:

Much success of The Green Revolution depends upon farm mechanisation.

Mechanisation saves a lot of human labour and quickens the farm operations, thereby adding to

the farm efficiency and productivity.

Agricultural Universities:

Agricultural universities and other agricultural institutes are primarily engaged in

agricultural research and passing on the research findings to the farmers. A good deal of research

and extension work done by these universities has paid rich dividends in the agricultural field.

Success of Green Revolution largely depends upon the work done by these universities. Punjab,

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, are the best examples of such a progress.

Impact of Green Revolution in India:

Like other developing countries, Green Revolution has influenced the economy and way

of life in India to a great extent as is evident from the following points:

Increase in Agricultural Production: The introduction of Green Revolution in 1967-68 has

resulted in phenomenal increase in the production of agricultural crops especially in food-grains.

From 1967 onwards, the Green Revolution aimed at bringing about a Grain Revolution.

Among the food grains too, it is the wheat crop which drew maximum benefit from Green

Revolution. The production of wheat increased by more than three times between 1967-68 and

2003-04 while the overall increase in the production of cereals was only two times. On account

of this reason, it is said that the Green Revolution in India is largely the Wheat Revolution.
Prosperity of Farmers:

With the increase in farm production the earnings of the farmers also increased and they

became prosperous. This has, especially, been the case with big farmers having more than 10

hectares of land.

Reduction in import of food-grains:

The main benefit of Green Revolution was the increase in the production of food-grains,

as a result of which there was a drastic reduction in their imports. We are now self sufficient in

food-grains and have sufficient stock in the central pool. Sometimes we are in a position to

export food-grains also.

The per capita net availability of food-grains has also increased from 395 grams per day

in early 1950s to the level of 436 grams in 2003, this in spite of the rapid increase in population.

In the words of Dantwala, Green Revolution has given a breathing time. As a result, there will be

relief from anxiety of food shortage and the planners will concentrate more on Indian planning.

Capitalistic Farming:

Big farmers having more than 10 hectares of land have tended to get the maximum

benefit from Green Revolution technology by investing large amount of money in various inputs

like HYV seeds, fertilizers, machines, etc. This has encouraged capitalistic farming.
Ploughing back of profit:

The introduction of Green Revolution helped the farmers in raising their level of income.

Wiser farmers ploughed back their surplus income for improving agricultural productivity. This

led to further improvement in agriculture. According to a study conducted by Punjab Agriculture

University, Ludhiana farmers plough back about 55 per cent of their income for agricultural

progress.

Industrial Growth:

Green Revolution brought about large scale farm mechanization which created demand

for different types of machines like tractors, harvesting machine, threshers, combines, diesel

engines, electric motors, pumping sets, etc. Besides, demand for chemical fertilizers, pesticides,

insecticides, weedicides, etc. also increased considerably.

Consequently, industries producing these items progressed by leaps and bounds.

Moreover, several agricultural products are used as raw materials in various industries. These

industries are known as agro based industries. Textile, sugar, vanaspati, etc. are some

outstanding examples of agro based industries.

Rural Employment:

While on one hand, large scale unemployment was feared due to mechanization of

farming with the introduction of Green Revolution technology in India, there was an appreciable

increase in the demand for labour force due to multiple cropping and use of fertilizers.

According to Gobind Thukral, Green Revolution has generated lakhs of new jobs in

Punjab. Almost 15 lakh poor people from the impoverished regions of Bihar, eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Orissa work here. They not only earn their bread and butter, but take back home

new ideas and technology.

As per findings of Bhalla and Chadha in respect of Punjab, The drive towards

mechanization was caused mainly by the scarcity of labour and relatively high wage rate

especially during peak agricultural operations. During the last few years, a large number of farm

labours have migrated from Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh to Punjab where they find better

opportunities of earning a livelihood.

Change in the Attitude of Farmers:

The Indian farmer had remained illiterate, backward and traditional and had been using

conventional methods of cultivation since the early times. But Green Revolution has brought

about a basic change in his attitude towards farming. The way he has readily adopted the Green

Revolution technology has exploded the myth that the Indian farmer is basically tradition bound

and does not use new methods and techniques. Wolf Ladejinsky has rightly concluded that,

Where the ingredients for new technology are available, no farmer denies their effectiveness.

The desire for better farming methods and a better standard of living is growing not only among

the relatively small number of affluent farmers using the new technology, but also among

countless farmers still from outside looking in.

Irrigation:

Apart from the land resource, the important input is irrigation which determines

agricultural productivity. The Chief irrigation sources in the district are canals, tanks, tube wells

and ordinary wells. In the ancient chola period, Kallanai built around 1st century is the oldest

water regulation structure in the world. Early phases of Sangam period people depended heavily
on rain as a primary source of water for agriculture. Continuous increasing of population led to

the development of better methods of irrigation. Since the river of the region were not perennial,

the primary goal was to procure an adequate and continuous supply of water, tanks, lakes and

dams were important water storage systems that were developed for this purpose. In order to

control the flooding of rivers, sand mounds were raised, so that, water could be diverted for

irrigation. Direct irrigation from canals was possible on the basin of the Kaveri. A dam built on

river kaveri is Kallanai. People of this era, knew how to divine the spot where there was flow of

underground water and dug wells. And the other main source of water for cultivation for the

delta region is the Mettur dam. So analysis of Mettur project is essential for this study.

The Mettur Dam is one of the largest dam in India built in 1934. It was constructed in a

gorge, where the Kaveri river enters the plains. It provides irrigation facilities to parts of Salem,

the length of Erode, Namakkal, Karur, Tiruchirappali and Thanjavur district for 271,000 acres

(110,000 ha) of farm land.

The total length of the dam is 1,700 m (5,600 ft). The dam creates Stanely Reservior. The

Mettur Hydro Electrical power project is also quite large. The dam, the park, the major Hydro

Electric power stations and hills on all sides make Mettur a tourist attraction Upstream from the

dam is Hognekal falls. The maximum level of the dam is 120 ft (37 m) and the maximum

capacity is 93.4 tmc ft.

History:

When the dam was planned English people gave some money and evacuated the people

who lived in Nayambadi village which was in the place of present Mettur dam. When the water
level of the dam recedes even now we can see age old church emerge from it as a proof. Those

people who migrated from Nayambadi have settled down in Martalli village and near- by

villages which are part of Kollegal district Karnataka state, then those villages were part of Erode

district, Tamil Nadu. Those were the days Kaveri disputes were at its peak, whenever disputes

broke out these villagers were the victims. People ran here and there to save their lives. Men

tried to guard village with weapon, keeping their women and children locked in house.

Water dispute The Mettur Dam has received attention of the public during the recent past

because of the Kaveri water dispute between the States of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Consequent to building dams, including the Kabini dam, across the Kaveri River in Karnataka,

the Mettur Dam does not receive much water during lean seasons. Thus, the Dam nearly goes dry

during certain parts of the year, when water is most needed by the farmers and general public of

the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This has created serious dispute and tension between the

neigh-bouring States of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Governments of the respective states, the

Supreme Court and the Kaveri Tribunal have so far not been successful in solving the dispute.

Meanwhile, Kavery water tribunal has been constituted to solve the problem and the tribunal has

passed it verdict of 419 tmc to Tamil Nadu, 270 tmc to Karnataka, 50 tmc to Kerala and 7 tmc to

Puducherry which has been held highly unsatisfactory by the states of Tamil Nadu and

Karnataka and has challenged the verdict in the supreme court. The Central government after

being condemned by the Judge of the Supreme court has finally notified the Kaveri Tribunal

verdict in the Gazette. Farmers and People across the Agricultural State of Tamil Nadu burst out

of Jubilation as the result of the long pending justice being established. It is however undeniable

that the people of Karnataka living in the Kaveri basin feel this is not justice.
 The capacity of the dam is 93.4 billion ft (2.64 km) nearly twice that of its Karnataka

counterpart of KRS, is revered as the life and life hood giving asset of Tamil Nadu. This dam

was built in line with KRS Dam which was designed by Sir M Vishwesvariya in 1911 and

completed in 1917 near Mysore.

On considering the above, the present study focuses the history, scope, structure and

policies of agriculture in ancient, pre and post-colonial period of Thanjavur. An attempt has been

made to study how far the agricultural development has an impact of the society in the region.

As mentioned above, in the ancient period, agriculture was labour intensive rather than the

technical intensive. Rice was cultivated for self-sustainability. Since agriculture is the main

occupation of the society and the only source of revenue, the kings and administrators

concentrate the ways in which the agricultural sector should be developed. It is important to note

that, for the development of agriculture, the two main inputs such as land and irrigation i.e. water

supply is inevitable.

In the early period, fragmentation of land was existed and the people cultivate with the

available land possessed. Most lands were left for uncultivated because of inadequacy water

source. In the part of irrigation, the only source is rainfall. So, the chola kings gave importance

for the storage of water system to enhance the dry land cultivation which induces the production

agricultural products. The chola king Karikala cholan built a dam on the river Cauvery during

the first century. Regarding the ownership of land, the king, and few people had huge land and

the king donated a tax-free land to the Brahmins and so on. During the British period, absentee

landlordism existed and the Britishers also concentrate to increase agricultural productivity.

After Independence, absentee landlordism was abolished and land reforms Act was passed. To
uplift the agricultural sector, various promotional schemes were implemented. One such

programme is the Green Revolution.

Regarding the traditional agrarian structure of the region, it was mainly based on the

caste and religion of the region. From the Vedic period onwards, the low class people were

engaged in the agricultural activities. In short, the agricultural labourers or workers are the low

class people and the higher class people were the landlords. Existence of castism was more.

As far as the role of water and other inputs are concerned, to increase the agricultural

productivity, the sources of water are increased by way of construction of dams, digging of

ground water, channelizing river canal expansion of tanks and lakes and so on. Besides, instead

of usingtraditional method of cultivation, modern techniques were introduced such as, for

ploughing & threshing ploughing & threshing machines are used. Using of chemical

fertilizers, weedicides, pesticides are encouraged. Because of the disputes between the states,

cultivation of crops is drastically affected.

To study the extent of impacts of agricultural development, a deltatic region namely

Thanjavur district has been selected. There are nine blocks in Thanjavur, Nagapatinam and

Thiruvarur district. Eight blocks were selected. From the eight blocks corresponding two

villages have been selected for the primary survey of this study. A well designed questionnaire

has been prepared, and the respondents were conducted directly for the primary survey. Based

on the primary survey, the obtained information are as follows:

Nearly 80 per cent of the respondents are below the degree level.

Almost for the respondent, the main and full time occupation is agriculture.

About 99 per cent of the respondents are in nuclear family

 Almost all the respondents have wet lands and they cultivate the land without putting it in

barren land.

The respondents told that, they turned to cultivate other cash crops rather than paddy

because of insufficient of water.

The respondents of the study area have the source of irrigation as the river & borewell

and borwell.

Regarding the modern technology useage, the respondents are not satisfied, because due

to fragmentation of land cultivation, the frontage people cultivate paddy, people have the

land in the back of the paddy cultivator are difficult to use the machines.

As far as the beneficial schemes are concerned, the respondents could not obtain the

entire benefit. Intervention of government official and brokers restrict the benefits

obtained by the respondent.

Nearly, 90 per cent of the respondents replied that, using of chemical fertilizers,

pesticides, weedicides are most hazardous to our health and our environment. It causes

many diseases and affects our land quality drastically.

Regarding Marketing of Agricultural products, for instance, one kilo of rice is sold at

Rs.40 to 50 in the open market. But the government purchase from the farmer only at Rs.

14. So, the respondents suggested that, the government should consider the opinion of

the Members of the Farmers Association while fixing the prices for agricultural products.

Eventhough the government provide free electricity for cultivation, the power cut is

occurred frequently. They suggested that, the government can fix a minimum amount

and provide full time supply.

 According to the statistics given by the respondents, the income and the expenditure for

cultivating paddy is equal. While, other cash crops, they can earn little bit of income than

the expenditure spends which leads to indebtedness of the farmer.

Because of degradation of land quality, the level of yield from the land is decreasing.

Regularly the government should provide agricultural inputs at a lower cost.

Labour intensive is adviceable, because access of labour is more.

The government should fix the reasonable price for agricultural product according to its

quality.

Due to the policy of the government, the cultivator of cash crops suffers a lot and incurs

loss as the cultivators of paddy. So, Talukwise sales centers should be opened and the

cultivated agricultural commodities should enter the world market.

Regarding the crop insurance, it is not practiced genuenlly. The beneficiaries of crop

insurance should be advertised in daily news papers according to the district wise.

Apart from that, there is a general opinion about the practicing of new technology is,

The cost of local varieties are lower than the cost of high yielding varieties.
Income inequalities have widened among the farmers due to the adoption of new
technology.
Traditional sector are generally efficient. Most of inefficiency arising from the
introduction new technology has resulted from excessive diversifivation in the cropping
production patterns.

Tables contain statistical information of the study area, photographs, maps and schedules

are included in the annexure. Eventhough many promotional schemes are implemented, the

results are not obtained the expected level. Any welfare or promotional schemes without any

political intervention will only succeed.

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GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS

1. District Statistical Survey of Thanjavur

2. Manual of Thanjavur Part I, II Madras: 1883

ANNEXURE

PATTERN OF LAND UTILIZATION IN TAMIL NADU CORRESPONDIN TO

THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Tamil Nadu (lakh in Thanjavur district

S.No. Particulars
hectares) (in acres)

1 Total geographical area 130.27 339657

2 Forest 21.11 3516

3 Land put into non-agricultural uses 21.39 291264

4 Cultivable waste 3.69 6525

5 Permanent pastures and other 1.10 126

grazing lands

6 Current fallows 7.59 2701

 7 Net area sown 52.44 202867

8 Area under paddy 46.03 160608

9 Cultivation 79.90 251454

10 Other fallow lands 15.18 62159

Source: Assistant Director of Statistics, Thanjavur.

Thanjavur Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 61
Alakudi Chitrakudi Inathukkanpatti
K.vallundampattu Kadakadapppai Kalvirayanpettai
Kandithampattu Kasanadu Pudur Kattur
Kollangarai Kondavittanthidal Kudalur
Kulichapattu Kurungalur Kurungulam East
Kurungulam West Kuruvadipatti Madigai
Manakkarambai Manangorai Mariammankoil
Marudhakudi Marungulam Mathur East
Mathur West Melaveli Monnaiyampatti
N.vallundampattu Nagathi Nallicheri
Nanjikkottai Narasanayagipuram Neelagiri
Palliyeri Perambur I Sethi Perambur Ii Sethi
Pillaiyarpatti Pillayarnatham Pudupattinam
Rajendram Ramanathapuram Ramapuram
Rayanthur Sakkarasamandam Sennampatti
Siralur Soorakkottai Thandangorai
Thenperambur Thirumalaisamudram Thiruvedhikudi
Thittai Thottakadu Thrukanurpatti
Thuraiyur Uamayaval Arcadu Vadagal
Valamirankottai Vallampudur Vannarapettai
Vilar
 Nagappattinam Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat
29
Villages
Agalangan Agraorathur Akkaraipettai
Alangudi Andanapeetai Avarani
Azhiyur Ivanallur Karuvelankadai
Kuruchi Mahadanam Manjakollai
Muttam Orathur Palaiyur
Pappakoil Perunkadambanur Poravacheri
Puducheri Sangamangalam Sembiyanmahadevi
Therku
Sikkal Themangalam
Poigainallur
Vadakku
Thethi Vadagudi
Poigainallur
Vadavur Vadugacheri
 Mayiladuthurai Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 54
Aathur Agarakeerangudi Anaimelagaram
Anathandavapuram Arulmozhidevan Aruvapadi
Boothangudi Dharmathanapuram Elanthoppu
Ivanallur Kadakkam Kadalangudi
Kaduvangudi Kali Kanganamputhur
Keelamaruthandanallur Kesingan Kizay
Kodangudi Korkai Kulichar
Kurichi Maharajapuram Manakudi
Mannampandal Mapadugai Maraiyur
Mayiladuthurai Rural Melanallur Moovalur
Mozhaiyur Mudikandanallur Murugamangalam
Nalluthukudi Namasivayapuram Needur
Pandur Pattamangalam Pattavarthi
Ponnur Seruthiyur Sethur
Sithamalli Sitharkadu Solampettai
Thalainayar Thalanchery Thiruchitrampalam
Thiruenthalur Thirumangalam Uluthukuppai
Vallalagaram Varadhampattu Villiyanallur
 Sirkazhi Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 37
Agani Athamangalam Athiyur
Edakudivadapathy Kanniyakudi Karaimedu
Karkoil Kathiramangalam Kathiruppu
Kaveripoompattinam Keelasattanathapuram Kondal
Mangaimadam Manigramam Maruthangudi
Nangoore Nemmeli Neppathur
Perumangalam Perunthottam Poombuhar
Puduthurai Punganur Radhanallur
Sattanathapuram Sembathaniruppu Semmangudi
Thennampattinam Thillaividangan Thirunagari
Thiruvali Thiruvengadu Thittai
Tiruppangur Valluvakudi Vanagiri
Vilanthidasamuthiram
 Kumbakonam Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 47
Agarathur Ammachatram Anaikkudi
Annalagraharam Ariyapadaiveedu Asoor
Athiyur Baburajapuram Cholanmaligai
Devanancheri Eraharam Innambur
Kadichambadi Kallapuliyur Kallur
Keelapalayar Koranattu Karuppur Korukkai
Kothankudi Kovilacheri Kumarankudi
Maharajapuram Manambadi Marudanallur
Nagagudi Neerathanallur Palavathankattalai
Pandaravadai Perumandi Patteeswaram Puthur
Sakkottai Senganoor Seshambadi
Sundaraperumalkoil Thenampadugai Thillaiyambur
Thippirajapuram Thirunallur Thiruppurambiam
Thiruvalanjuli Udayalur Ullur
Umamaheswarapuram Uthamathani Valapuram
Valayapettai Vilanthakandam
 Pattukkottai Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 43
Aladikkumulai Anaikkadu Athikkottai
Enathi Eripurakkarai Kalugupulikkadu
Karambayam Kargavayal Kondikulam
Mahilankottai Malavenirkadu Maliakkadu
Mudalcheri Naduvikkottai Nambivayal
Narasingapuram Nattuchalai Othiadikkadu
Palamuthi Palanjur Pallikondan
Pannavayal Parakkalkkottai Ponnavarayankottai
Pudukkottai Ullur Rajamadam Santhankadu
Sembalur Sendakkottai Sendankadu
Soorappallam Sundaranayagipuram T.maravakkadu
T.melakkadu T.vadakadu Thamarankottai (north)
Thamarankottai (south) Thittagudi Thokkalikadu
Thuvarankuruchi Veerakuruchi Vendakkottai
Veppankadu
 Thiruvaiyaru Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 40
Allur Ambadumelagaram Ammaiyagaram
Avikkarai Budarayanallur Kadambankudi
Kaduveli Kalumangalam Kalyanapuram I
Kalyanapuram Ii Kandiyur Karugudi
Karuppur Keelathirupanthuruthi Konerirajapuram
Kulimathur Maharajapuram Mannarsamudram
Marur Muhasakalyanapuram Naducauvery
Peramur Ponavasal Royampettai
Sathanur Semmangudi Thillaisthanam
Thiruchotruthurai Thirupalanam Thiruvalampozhil
Uppukatchipettai Vadugakudi Vaithianathanpettai
Valappakudi Vanarangudi Varahur
Vellamperambur Venkatasamudram Vilangudi
Vinnamangalam
 Nannilam Block - Panchayat Villages
Number of Panchayat Villages 48
Achuthamangalam Agarathirumalam Alanagudi
Annaikupam Anndhanapuram Celiperi
Cembiyanallur Cenganoor Kadakam
Kaduvankudi Kaliyakudi Keelkudi
Keeranoor Kollapuram Kothavasal
Kottur Kovilthirumalam Kurungulam
Kuvalaikal Magilanchery Maharajapuram
Menagudi Moodikondan Moolangudi
Moongilkudi Nadakudi Panangkudi
Pandaravadai Parithiyur Pavattakudi
Pillur Polakudi Rettakudi
Seruvalur Sirupuliyur Sorakkudi
Thalaiur Thatathumalai Thirukandiswaram
Thirukottaram Thirumeeachur Thiruvanchiyam
Ubyavedhanthapuram Vadagudi Vazhkkai
Velangudi Vidhividangal Visalur