1316 IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.

3, March 1981
A NEW ALGORITHM OF AN ACCURATE FAULT LOCATION FOR EHV/UHV TRANSMISSION LINES:
PART I - FOURIER TRANSFORMATION METHOD

T. Takagi** Y. Yamakoshi** J. Baba** K. Uemura* T. Sakaguchi**

The Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
Tokyo, JAPAN Hyogo, Japan

* Member, IEEE, ** Non-member

Abstract - A fault location algorithm based on the
Fourier analysis of a faulted network is presented.
The algorithm embodies an accurate location by measur-
ing only a local end data. Its fundamental theory is
studied through digital computer simulations on a model
power system. With the practical applications in mind,
fast algorithms are then examined. Finally, the
experimental results of a computerized fault locator
applied to a laboratory system are presented.
INTRODUCTION
The fault location scheme widely used now relies
its operating principle on the traveling wave propaga-
tion ona transmission line. One approach is to observe
the time at which a locator of each terminal detects
the first incoming fault surge from a faulted point.
Another one is to transmit an electrical pulse into the
line, and to measure the period from emission to return
of the pulse, thus known as a pulse radar method. Both
methods depend upon the traveling wave propagation,
which is a complex phenomena difficult to analyze per-
fectly. The propagations are affected by the system
parameters and network configurations. Therefore,
those fault locators would have to solve problems in
order to get a higher accuracy than they have now.
Computer relays for distance protection [1][2] can
be applied to the fault location, since they directly
measure an impedance, R + jX, to a faulted point. The
measured reactance provides an exact distance to the
faulted point, when a fault resistance is zero. The
fault resistance, however, is not zero in actual faults,
causing the impedance R+jX to deviate from its true
value. Therefore, the computerized distance relays
would be susceptible to failure in measuring the exact
impedance to the fault.
S. E. Westlin and J. A. Bubenko recently presented
an algorithm for the fault location [3]. They applied
the Newton-Raphson method to the non-linear algebraic
equations to solve the distance to the fault. Their
scheme is superior to the others, since all variables
they use are locally available except the source imped-
ance at the remote end. Their theory is sound and
correct, but it seems impractical to update the source
impedance of the remote end every time a system change
occurs.
Applying the law of superposition to the steady-
state fault analysis, the authors obtain an algebraic
Digital computer simulations of the fault location
are extensively carried out to study the effects of
such factors as a transmission line loss, load
characteristics and waveform distortion on the algo-
rithm. With the practical applications in mind, fast
algorithms such as a half-cycle and a truncated Fourier
transform, and a Walsh transform are then examined.
Finally, a computerized fault locator is tested on an
artificial transmission line connected to a 4 kVA
generator. The experimental results are also discussed.
In the first part of the paper, the superposition
law is applied to the steady-state fault analysis. As
the law is also applied to the transient-state fault
analysis, another solution based on the Laplace trans-
formation is possible to the fault location problem.
The Laplace transformation method will be fully analyz-
ed in the part II of the paper.
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
Single-Phase Line
Consider a midway fault at the point F which is x
km away from S on a transmission line SR in Fig. 1 (a).
The law of superposition in the linear network theory
separates a faulted network into a pre-fault and pure-
fault ones, which are given in Fig. 1 (b) and (c) res-
pectively. Let VF be the voltage vector at F, and let
IF be the current vector at the fault resistance RF in
the faulted network. Then,
VF = RF.IF
= -RF(IiS + ItR) (1)
where IFS is the line current at F flowing to S and I"R
is that to R, both of which are defined in the pure-
fault network. Define a new variable K(x) by
s R
Zs Vs lVR ZR ER
is IFS IFR
IF RF
(a) a faulted netwvork
s F R

equation which contains an unknown variable correspond-

ing to the fault distance, using current and voltage
E ( a~ 1~V4 ZR ERl
vectors at the local end. Therefore, the algorithm can
measure the distance based on the locally available
data set.
(b) a pre-tault network
--- 1-..IA

80 SM 648-6 A paper recommended and approved by the

IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society for presentation at the (c) a pure-fault network
IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
July 13-18, 1980. Manuscript submitted December Fig. 1 A faulted network and its equivalent decomposi-
26, 1979; made available for printing May 6,1980. tion
1981 IEEE
 1317
IIR computerized distance relay and other methods in these
K(x) A IFR (2) natures.
FS
It is noted that the ratio K(x) is a function of the 3-Phase Line
distance x to the fault. Substitution of the eqn. (2)
into the eqn. (1) yields The basic equation is extended to a three phase
line in a straightforward way. Let (.)(k) denote a
modal quantity.
VF = -RF I4S(l + K(x)) (3) For a single-phase fault,
On the other hand, VF and are estimated by the
locally measurable vectors,
I
VF(O) + VF(l) + VF(2)

VF = A(x)VS - B(x)IS (4)

[C(i)(x)VS (i)i -
D(i)(x)IS(i) 0 (14)
je{O,1,2}
IFS = C(x)Vs -
D(x)I" (5) and for a double-phase fault,
where A(x), B(x), C(x) and D(x) are the four terminal
constants of the line SF, and defined as follows for a VF(1) - VF(2)
[ c(i) D(i) (x)IS(j)" ={ (15)
distributed-constant circuit. (x)VS(j)'
i
-

A(x) = D(x) = cosh(Xx) (6)

jc{1,21
The modal voltages at F are estimated by the eqn. (16).
B(x) = Z sinh(Xx) (7)
C(x) = sinh(Xx)/Z (8) VF (k) A(k) vs(k) B(k) (x)I(k)
(x)V5 - B (x)I
_
(16)
where A is the propagation constant, and Z is the k = 0,1,2
characteristic impedance.
The faulted vectors Vs and Is are directly measur- The fault locator characteristics for the single-phase
ed at the local end S, while the pure-fault vectors Vs case are of course applicable to the 3-phase case. In
and Is' are computed as the difference between the pre- the succeeding sections, the eqn. (14) and (15) are
fault and faulted ones: applied to the fault location on the 3-phase lines.
VS.A VS - VI (9) DIGITAL COMPUTER SIMULATIONS
IS - IS I (10) Outline of Simulations
Therefore, the eqn. (3) is written by the locally The computer simulation is outlined in Fig. 2.
available vectors. First, the primary data of transient waveforms is
smoothed out by a digital filtering program. Second, a
A(x)VS - B(x)IS transformation program extracts the voltage and current
vectors. Last, the Newton-Raphson program is executed
-RF{1+K(x)}{C(x)V -D(x)I"} (11) to solve the eqn. (14) and the eqn. (15).
A model power system and its line constants for
which leads to computer simulations are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1,
respectively. Fault transients are computed on the
RF{1 + K(x)} = - C(x)VS -
D(x)IS (12) model system by the electromagnetic transient program
[4], with the time step of 0.04 msec. These original
transient waveforms are recorded in a disk file for
As the fault impedance is purely resistive, RF is a further processing.
real variable. The ratio K(x) also becomes real one on Data sampling for the Fourier transformation is
the condition that the transmission line is loss-less, assumed to be every 1.0 msec, namely 1,000 Hz. There-
and the source impedances at two ends are purely induc- fore, the digital filter is programmed to simulate a
tive. See the appendix for the proof. These facts 500 Hz Butterworth filter of seventh order. Fig. 4
imply that the left hand side of the eqn. (12) be a shows its frequency response. The one-cycle Fourier
real value. Therefore, the right hand side of the eqn. transformation (OFT) of a function f(t) is defined by
(12) must also be a real value. The basic equation is the eqn. (17), and it is applied to a steady state
obtained as follows. vector extraction.
Im[A(x)VS B(x)IS
C(x)V" D(x)I" ]=0
-
(13)
t
-
F(jwo) f f (u)e-jwQu du
= (17)
(7
where Im[.] denotes the imaginary part of a complex t-T
variable. The solution x of the eqn. (13) is the dis- where T = 2v/wo and w0 is the system angular frequency.
tance from the local end to the faulted point. As the Fig. 5 shows a result of the fault location at the
eqn. (13) is non-linear equation, the iterative solu-
a local end E for a single-phase fault at F3 with the
tion technique is needed. The Newton-Raphson method is zero fault resistance. The relay settings are as
applied throughout the paper. follows:
The basic equation contains an unknown variable x,
locally available vectors, and line parameters. Thus, A() = W0QP-(Q)c(O) = 5.908 x 10 3rad/km
the fault location can be carried out without any
remote end data. No communication channels are A(I) = WOv(1)c(l) = 3.756 x 10 3 rad/km
required. Furthermore, the eqn. (13) does not include
the fault resistance RF. This means that the algorithm Z(O) = ,/(O)/c(O) = 53.0 ohm
is able to locate a fault without being affected by the
fault resistance. The new scheme is superior to the Z(1) = Vk2(1)/c(1) = 34.0 ohm
1318
Two statistics x and a are computed to evaluate the
Constant (t) (0 (ol (ol Co)
locating performance: x is the mean value of the
located distance x during a period T, and a is the
r (1/ mH/my C(#)F/Vj 2. Ora4/lo Z(O LI
standard deviation of x during the same period. As
shown in Fig. 5, T1 is defined as a half-cycle period
line r' x()mH/KmclC'uF/Km x(Irl AKm Z(I) Q
beginning one cycle after the fault. The distance x of 0.11480 2.2886 0.00523 1.0869 662 _
Fig. 5 is 11.02 km and a is 0.28 km, while the true 0.02083 0.8984 0.01291 1.0699 264
value x* is 11.00 km. Therefore, the location is very
accurate and stable. The word "stability" is used to 0. 1 1570 2.2989 0.00526 1.0925 661
measure the fluctuation of x. The smaller the standard 0.01974 0.7968 0.01456 1.0701 234
deviation, the more stable is the location. The solu- L3 0.11570 2.2989 0.00526 1.0925 661
tion of the eqn. (14) converges in most cases after two
iterations. Fig. 6 shows an iteration process. 0.01974 0.7968 0.01456 1.0701 234
To cover the various situations in an actual power L4
0.55400 0.9942 0.35567 5.9076 53
system, digital simulations are carried out extensive- 0.02549 0.4020 0.35567 3.7565 34
ly. Among them, the effects of a fault resistance, a
transmission line loss, a load characteristic, and a
waveform distortion are discussed below on the accuracy
of fault location. The locator is disposed at the end Table 1 Line constants of the model power system
E, and the fault point is chosen at F3 throughout the
simulations.

Distance(Km)
[Primary' Digita I Orthogonal Solution of fLocated'
Data Filter
Non -lIinear jDistance,-
Transform
Equation 67.

<-1.0 Hz
33. T

Fig. 2 A computation process of the fault location

o
FaltI

,40 44 48 52 .56 .60 .64 68 .72 .76 .80

-33.. Ti me
12.85nl xIO 'sec
19.62mH
-67-

-100- I

Fig. 5 Distance located for a single phase fault with

RF = 0.0 ohm at F3
The distance is limited to 100 km.

Fig. 3 A model power system for the simulation

10.

Iteration

f (Hz) 2 3

Fig. 4 Frequency response of a 500 Hz Butterworth Fig. 6 An

filter of the 7-th order

iteration process in
the solution of non-
linear equation
 1319

Effect of Fault Resistance Distance(Km)

1001
The solid line of Fig. 7 is the located distance
for the same fault as in Fig. 5, but with the fault 67- loss-less line
NK.d. lossy line
resistance of 10.0 ohm. For comparison, the result of
Fig. 5 is superimposed by the dotted line.
Both locations converge to the same distance, 33-
which is very close to the true one. The basic equa- Fault
tions guarantee an accurate location not affected by W. -
F I * I I

the fault resistance, and the characteristic has been .40.44 48 .52 .56 .60 .64 .68 72 .76 .80
confirmed through the digital simulation. -33., Ti me
xlOsec
Effect of Line Loss -67
The algorithm assumes that K(x) of the eqn. (2) be
a real value. The assumption seems unsatisfied when a -1009
transmission line loss is taken into account. Fig. 8
compares the result of a loss-less line case with that
of a lossy line. For the lossy case, x is 10.85 km and Fig. 8 Distance located in a lossy line case and its
a is 0.32 km. This is a single-phase fault case, in comparison with a loss-less line case
which the R/X ratio of mode 0 is larger than that of
any other mode. The mode 0 circuit is not related in a
multiple-phase short circuit fault. Therefore, the
line loss will not affect the accuracy of the fault
location significantly. Distance (Kin)
Effect of Load Characteristic
100 -
zJ Xi nductive oad
The source impedance must be purely inductive to 67. resistivelood
ensure an accurate fault location. A resistive load
(= RL + jXL) at the remote end is studied. The located 33.
distance converges to the value slightly different from Fault
the true one. Fig. 9 illustrates it. For the double- O. 404, .4 .8
phase fault of Fig. 9, x is 12.92 km and a is 0.35 km. 40 44 48 .52 .56 .60 .64 .68 .72 76 .80
Thus, the type of source impedance at the local and Time
remote end must be carefully studied whether they -33.-
satisfy the condition on K(x) or not, prior to applying xlOsec
the algorithm to the fault location. -67
Effect of Waveform Distortion -100O
The waveform distortion is created by non funda-
mental frequency components in the voltage and current, Fig. 9 Effect of load characteristic on location accu-
which are caused by the transient phenomena due to a racy
fault. The pre-filters of different cut off frequen-
cies {fCI are used to study the effect. Fig. 10 shows
the correlation of x and a for the cutoff frequency.
As predicted, x is uncorrelated with fc but a increases
along with fc The filtered data is sampled every 1.0
msec for the Fourier transformation. According to Fig.
10, the instability of x appears beyond 500 Hz, which (Km) (Km)
is the half of the sampling frequency. Therefore, it
is caused by the frequency folding error in digital
signal processing. The stability will be guaranteed by
choosing a pre-filter appropriately.
10.- 2.

Distance(Km) 0'
100-
'1
RFz00=RlOf
67.- 5. 1.
33.-
Fault /y
I00-
4044 .48 .52 .56 .60 .64 68 72 .76 .80
-33. Time -0 f (Hz)
xlOsec 0. 2 3 4 5 6 789 23
lev
4 5 6789
-67- 02
-100.J
Fig. 10 Correlation of x (average distance) and a
Fig. 7 Distance located for a single phase fault with (standard deviation) versus fc (cutoff fre-
RF = 10.0 ohm at F3 quency)
1320
FAST ALGORITHMS where we (= 2f e) is an arbitrary angular frequency,
and T (= L/R) is the time constant of a transmission
The developed algorithm basically consists of two line. As shown in the eqn. (21), the integral inter-
numerical computations. One is the Fourier transforma- val is chosen as a half cycle.
tion of voltage and current waveforms, and the other is It. should be noted that the angular frequency we
the solution of non-linear algebraic equations. Among is selected at an arbitrary value. In the paper, we is
them, fast algorithms of the Fourier transformation are set to 80 (namely fe = 40.0 Hz). The TFT algorithm is
studied through the digital computer simulations. used for the Fourier transformation. Fig. 12 illus-
trates a simulation result. The solution by the TFT
Half-cycle Fourier Transformation converges within a half cycle to the final value, which
is also the solution by the OFT. As the TFT algorithm
One cycle Fourier transformation (- OFT) defined provides an accurate and stable solution, it also con-
by the eqn. (17) has been used in the digital computer tributes to the acceleration of the fault location.
simulations of the paper. F(jwo) of the eqn. (17) has
been evaluated at the angular frequency of wo = 2wfo,
where fo is the system frequency. A half-cycle.Fourier .Distance(Km)
transformation (=HFT) is defined here by the eqn. (19). IOQ " OFT
t TFT \/
F(jOW) = f f(u)eJ du (19)
T 33.]
t-2-
Fault
T = 2n/wo (20) 40 44 .48 .52 .56 .60 .64 .68 .72 .76 .80
The HFT algorithm is substituted into the Fourier -33. Time
-I
transformation block of Fig. 2. In Fig. 11, the result xK0sec
of the HFT algorithm is compared with that of the OFT -67
one. While the distance to which both algorithms con-
verge are almost equal with each other, the HFT algori-
thm converges two times faster than the OFT does. As
any other differences are not noticed, the HFT algori-
thm is effective to speed up the fault location. Fig. 12 Distance located by TFT algorithm and its com-
parison with OFT algorithm
Distance(Km)
100 r--
I OfT
67- H Walsh Transformation
HFT\,
33- \ To speed up the orthogonal transformation, the
Fault Walsh function is frequently used. In the relaying
_ |
field, it was applied to the distance protection [6].
40 44 .48 .52 .56 .60 .64 .68 72 .76 .80 An arbitrary function f(t) is expanded as follows:
-33. Time
xI co
xl0sec f(t) = E wk wal(k,t) (23)
-67 k=O
-oo J
For fault location, the voltage and current are expand-
ed by wal(1,t) and wal(2,t). The two functions are
Fig. 11 Distance located by HFT algorithm and its com- shown in Fig. 13. As no multiplications are needed and
parison with OFT algorithm only additions are used, the computation time for the
orthogonal transformation is greatly reduced. The
solution by the Walsh method is shown in Fig. 14. It

Truncated Fourier Transformation

A. T. John and M. A. Martin proposed a fundamental
digital algorithm [5] for the Fourier transformation, wal (I.t)
which is noted temporarily as the truncated Fourier 1.0r =r- - --

transformation (= TFT). The TFT is defined as follows.

For a voltage v(t),

t
Q0
V(iwe) = f v (u) e eu du (21) .0 .05 .10 .15 .20 Time
T -xs
X10sec
and for a current i(t), - I
t
T WOI ( 2. )
I (i We) = f, i(u)ei e du -r[i(t -)e -.,e (t )
-

- -

LF_ _T

-
i(t)e-jwet Ml + iw e T) (22) Fig. 13 Curves of wal(l,t) and wal(2,t)
 1321

Distance(Km) The related parameters are set to the following

values, and the experiments are performed.
100- jsh transform

67.- 1
x(o) = uOA/Q)-c(O) = 1.135 x 10 3 rad/km
*1
OFT (1) = w0/o().c(l) = 0.996 x 10 -3 rad/km
,Fault Z(0) = A (0)/c () = 251.0 ohm
v.- 40
4044 48 52 .56
.52 6'0 64 6~8 .76 80 z(i) = Vk(l)/c(l) = 114.0 ohm
-33. Time
Fig. 16 shows a location process, in which a fault is
xVsec initiated at t = 0.0 sec. The located distance con-
-67 verges to 48.7 km for a fault which is actually 50.0 km
away from the relaying point. The oscillogram recorded
-I00.j in this case is shown in Fig. 17. Other faults have
been located within the same degree of accuracy as the
case presented here.
Fig. 14 Distance located by Walsh algorithm and its
comparison with OFT algorithm CONCLUSIONS
An algorithm based on the Fourier analysis has
been developed for an 'accurate fault location in an
EHV/UHV transmission line. The algorithm has made it
is almost the same distance as one by the OFT algori- possible to locate a fault accurately with locally
thm. The standard deviation a is 0.64 km and slightly available data set, and without being affected by a
large, since the first two coefficients w, and w2 of fault resistance. Digital computer simulations and
the eqn. (23) are used, and the other coefficients are -laboratory tests have confirmed'these properties. With
neglected. It is expected that the expansion to the practical applications in mind, fast algorithms such as
higher order will make the solution more stable. The a half-cycle Fourier, a 'truncated Fourier, and a Walsh
optimum order should be 'determined in a trade off transformation have been studied, providing promising
between accuracy and computation'time. results.
The scheme has needed a strong power tor numerical
calculations, and it therefore will be suitable for
digital processor use, that is computer relaying use.
LABORATORY TESTS
Outline of Laboratory
A series of experiments in a mini-scale power 25Kml 25Km 25Kmn '25Km' 220V
Lin' Lin9 Line Lino Bus Line
system is carried out to test the basic algorithm for Unit Unit 'Unit Unit
actual fault locations. Fig. 15 shows the facilities
for the experiment. A three-phase single-circuit line 220V 2M020 l220/220V
is connected at each end to a 10 kVA power transformer, 4kVA lOkVA AMP ------------ lOkY.A
whose rated voltage is 220/220 V. One transformer is Generator Tran. Transformer

connected to a generator rated 4 kVA, and the other

transformer is to a 220 V bus line. The transmission
line consists of four serially connected line units.
The total system can simulate 10 GW power transmission Computerized Fault Locatcr
over 100 km through a 500 kV line.
At one end of the artificial transmission line, Fig. 15 Experimental facilities of the laboratory
phase-to-ground voltages are measured by three poten- scale power system
tial transformers, whose secondary windings are
connected to the input circuits of the 'analog to
digital converters (= ADC). Line currents are measured
through the coaxial resistances which are serially dis- Di,stance(Km)
posed in the transmission line, and whose voltages are
introduced into three DC isolation amplifiers. The
outputs of DC amplifiers are then connected to the
input circuits of the ADC. In the input circuits, the
signals are filtered and sampled every 30 degree in the
electrical angle. Twelve bits of data including a sign
bit from the ADC are transferred to the mini-computer
MELCOM 70/25. The CPU has 32 kilowords of IC memory,
and 10 megabytes of magnetic disk memory to save the
pre- and post-fault waveforms.
Time
Result of Experiment xixIosec
Two computer programs are stored in the CPU. One
is to detect a faulted condition in the transmission
line, and the d'Alembert relay [7] is applied for this
purpose. The other is to analyze the pre- and post-
fault waveforms and to solve the basic equation '(14) or
(15). The first program initiates the second one, Fig. 16 Distance located by a mini-computer based
after detecting a fault and recording a data in a disk fault locator connected to the laboratory
file for further processing. system
1322
.0,
14
_ _ _ __ _ _ _,5 _ _ ._ _ _ _ _

. _
_ _._ _ __ - 1 4-- _ _ _ ... . _._ _'.

Fig. Al Model system with inductive source impedance

rva-....._
. t s-_ ____s. __~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......
*f _-___

APPENDIX
---- l< - /-I \) ---tm-v-
lOse -- -
Proof of the Real Property of K(x)
Consider a loss-less transmission line. Let Q be
the inductance per unit length and let c be the capaci-
tance per unit length. Fig. A.1 shows a transmission
line connected to a source impedance jwLS, and also
shows a fault at F x km away from the local end S. The
total impedance ZFS viewing one side of the network
from the faulted point becomes
Fig. 17 Oscillogram of voltages and currents recorded
at the laboratory experiment ZFS = Z tanh(Xx + OS) (A. 1)
where Z = It/c (A. 2)
REFERENCES X = ju/S (A. 3)

( yoLS
[1] A.D. McInnes and I.F. Morrison, "Real-Time Calcu- _1
OS A aS +jS tanh (A. 4)
z )
=
lation of Resistance and Reactance for Transmis-
sion Line Protection by Digital Computer", EE
Substituting the eqn. (A.2) to (A.4) into the eqn.
Trans., Inst. of Engineers, Australia, EE-7 No. 1, (A.1) obtains
pp. 1623, 1971.
[2] A.M. Ranjbar and B.J. Cory, "An Improved Method (A. 5)
for the Digital Protection of High Voltage Trans- ZFS =
iZ tan(wI@x + OS)
mission Line", IEEE Trans. PAS-94, No. 2, pp. 554- In a similar way, the total impedance ZFR viewing the
560, 1975. other side of the network becomes
[3] S.E. Westlin and J.A. Bubenko, "Newton-Raphson
Technique Applied to the Fault Location Problem", (A. 6)
IEEE PES Summer Meeting, A76 334-3, 1976. ZFR = jZ tan(w/kc(d-x) + SR)
[4] EMTP User's Manual, Bonneville Power Administra-
The ratio K(x) is defined by the eqn. (A.7).
tion, Branch of System Engineering, Portland,
Oregon, November, 1977. it
[5] A.T. John and M.A. Martin, "Fundamental Digital
K(x) A Ii,R ZFS (A. 7)
Approach to the Distance Protection of EHV Trans- -IjF ZFR
mission Lines", Proc. IEE Vol. 125, No. 5, pp. 377
-384, 1978.
[6] J.W. Horton, "The Use of Walsh Functions for High- Therefore, K(x) is represented by
Speed Relaying", IEEE PiES Summer Meeting, A75
582-7, 1975. tan(wv/Zcx + S) (A. 8)
K(x) =
[7] T. Takagi, J. Baba, K. Uemura and T. Sakaguchi, tan(uv'r(d-x) + k)
"Fault Protection Based on Travelling Wave Theory:
Part I - Theory", IEEE PES Summer Meeting, A77 which means that K(x) be a real variable. Q .E.D .
750-3, 1977.

Discussion
0. P. Malik (The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada): I
would like to congratulate the authors for a very interesting application
of the Fourier Transform technique to fault location on EHV transmis-
sion lines.
It is interesting to note that the authors have chosen to sample
every 30 electrical degrees. I would like to ask the authors to clarify
whether the sampling rate is fixed at 12 samples per cycle at the nominal
frequency or whether the sampling is synchronized to the waveform to
produce samples every 30 electrical degrees. Under fault or heavy load
conditions, these two may not be the same because of the deviations in
frequency from the nominal.
Use of Fourier series techniques to distance protection of trans-
mission lines has been advocated and demonstrated before [A, B]. It
has also been shown [B] that the computation of the fault location can
be incorporated into the main fault detection and trip decision algo-
rithm. Because a little more time can be used to compute the fault loca-
tion, results described in reference B showed that the distance to fault
could be computed very accurately. Will the authors please comment on
the feasibility of extending their algorithm to the detection of faults so
that the fault detection, fault discrimination and fault location can be
combined into one algorithm?
REFERENCES
[A] P. G. Mclaren and M. A. Redfern, "Fourier series techniques ap-
plied to distance protection", Proc. IEE, Vol. 122, 1975, pp.
1301-1305.
[B] G. S. Hope, 0. P. Malik and M. E. Rasmy, "Digital transmission
line protection in real-time", ibid, Vol. 123, 1976, pp. 1249-1254.
Manuscript received July 25, 1980.
A. G. Phadke (A.E.P. Service Corp.) and J. S. Thorp (Cornell University):
The authors present an interesting technique for calculating the distance
to a fault on a transmission line. We would like to have the authors'
comments on the following points:
1) It was not clear from the paper whether the fault location
procedure is intended as a relaying algorithm. If this is so, the
question of being able to do it in real-time is of paramount
importance. It does not seem likely that the Newton proce-
dure used for solving equation ( 13) is well suited for real-time
solution on a micro-computer. Also, if this is intended to be
a relay, its speed (at the quoted accuracy) seems to be 11/2
cycles, which is somewhat slower than most other currently
available relaying algorithms.
2) How is the dc offset in the currents handled in the "Half-
Cycle Fourier Transformation" method?
3) We wonder whether the use of hyperbolic functions in equa-
tions (6) - (13) is really necessary for overhead lines. For lines
as long as 300 miles, the quantity Xx is of the order of 1/10
of one radian (using the authors assumption of loss-less lines).
One could use the approximations:
cosh Xx 1 imate forms for hyperbolic functions. Some efforts have been made
sinh Xx Xx
- along this direction and results have encouraged the use of approxima-
so that equations (4) and (5) become
VF = Vs - jXR Is
- ~~~IFS= -Is + jXcS-
where XR and Xc is the inductive and capacitive reactance of
the line.
The last of these two equations can usually be replaced by
IFS Is
1323
without much loss of accuracy for most medium length over-
head lines. Note that the equations derived above are no dif-
ferent from the conventional line models used in most relay-
ing applications.
In view of these considerations, would the authors comment on
the need to use equation (13) for overhead lines also?
Is it the authors' intention that these techniques be used for cable
faults?
4) Considering the relatively inaccurate result obtained (a of
0.28 km for a fault at 11 km), is the use of the Newton-Raphson pro-
cedure on equation (13) justified? It would seem that a more accurate
result would be obtained (for fault location purposes, NOT for relay-
ing) if the data from the remote end is used.
Manuscript received August 4, 1980.
T. Takagi, Y. Yamakoshi, J. Baba, K. Uemura, and T. Sakaguchi: The
authors would like to express their thanks to Messrs. Malik, Phadke, and
Thorp for their interests in our paper.
In reply to the first comment by Mr. Malik, the data sampling is
assumed to be made at 12 samples per cycle at the nominal frequency,
or in other words sampling is not synchronized to the waveform of the
system voltage. Attempts were made to estimate the system frequency
deviation not only in normal operating state but in emergency state.
The maximum deviation is limited to within 0.2Hz in normal state.
Although it might be expected that the system frequency will deviate
during a severe faulted period, the deviation is very small in the first few
cycles that are critical to estimate a location because of the large gener-
ating capacity. The efforts to synchronize the sampling to the wave-
form would be large, but the benefits would be small. Therefore, the
authors have come to the conclusion that the sampling is made to the
nominal system frequency.
In reply to his second comment, we would like to emphasize that
the reactance measured by the distance relay is not necessarily a good
indicator for fault location. There are some factors that might affect
the correct reactance measurement: fault resistance, and pre-fault power
flow. These are primary reasons to make the distance relay succeptible
to failure in measuring correct impedance. However, if we had an ac-
curate fault locator that would be fast enough to real time application,
it would become an ideal relay in which the fault detection, the fault
discrimination, and the fault location were combined together. This is
one of the authors' motivations to start the research for a computerized
fault locator. At the present time, the time has not yet come.
In reply to the first comment by Messrs. Phadke and Thorp, our
efforts are basically made to develop a relaying algorithm. The present
algorithm, however, is considered so complex and long to be applied to
real time calculation. At this time our algorithm should be understood
in terms of a fault location application, not a relaying one.
On their second comment, no efforts were made to handle the DC
offset current in our theoretical and experimental studies. There are
some methods applicable to the DC offset current problem: the use of
a mimic impedance, the use of band pass filter, and so on.
In reply to their third comment, we agree with the use of approx-
tions. This consideration will benefit us in applying to the Japanese
power system, because most high voltage transmission lines are relatively
short. It is not our intention that these techniques be used for cable
faults. The key thing is that the technique be applied to a line where the
system has large short circuit levels toward a faulted point.
In reply to their last comment, it is reasonable to expect that more
accuracy will be obtained if the data from the remote end is used. Then,
the problem will be solved almost trivially, and this is not our intention.
One of our objectives was to explore the possibility to locate a fault
without depending on the remote end data.
Manuscript received September 8, 1980.