Effects of Industrial Revolution

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY
A PROJECT OF
LEGAL HISTORY
ON
EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. Priya Darshini Gaurav Kumar Singh
(Faculty of Legal History) Roll No. - 1621
Semester 2nd
B.BA LL.B
Session 2016-2021
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DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I hereby declare that the work reported in the BB.A. LL.B (Hons.) Project Report entitled
EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION submitted at Chanakya National Law
University, Patna is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of Dr.
Priya Darshini. I have not submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma. I
am fully responsible for the contents of my Project Report.
(Signature of the Candidate)

GAURAV KUAMR SINGH
Chanakya National Law University, Patna
20/04/2017
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IF YOU WANT TO WALK FAST GO ALONE

IF YOU WANT TO WALK FAR GO TOGETHER
A project is a joint endeavor which is to be accomplished with utmost compassion, diligence

and with support of all. Gratitude is a noble response of ones soul to kindness or help
generously rendered by another and its acknowledgement is the duty and joyance. I am
overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge from the bottom of my
heart to all those who have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity
and into something concrete effectively and moreover on time.
This project would not have been completed without combined effort of my revered Legal
History teacher Dr. PRIYA DARSHINI whose support and guidance was the driving force to
successfully complete this project. I express my heartfelt gratitude to her. Thanks are also due
to my parents, family, siblings, my dear friends and all those who helped me in this project in
any way. Last but not the least; I would like to express my sincere gratitude to our Legal
History teacher for providing us with such a golden opportunity to showcase our talents. Also
this project helped me in discovering the various facts related to the development of law in
India. This project also made me aware of the various effects of the Industrial Revolution in
India and the world. It was truly an endeavour which enabled me to embark on a journey
which redefined my intelligentsia, induced my mind to discover the various events and
provisions after the industrial revolution.
Moreover, thanks to all those who helped me in any way be it words, presence?
Encouragement or blessings...
- Gaurav Kumar Singh

- 2nd Semester
- B.BA LL.B
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
Acknowledgement .3
Table of Contents...........4
Aims and Objectives..5
Research Methodology..5
Limitations.5
1. Introduction.6-9
2. The Industrial Revolution...10-13
3. Manufacturing Before Industrialization..14-16
4. Effects of Industrial Revolution..17-35
5. Technology Used During The Revolution..36-46
6. Conclusion..47-48
Bibliography49
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims and objectives of this project are:

1. To study about the various effects of Industrial Revolution in India.
2. To study the consequences of the Industrial Revolution in India and the world.
3. To study the causes of the revolution.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The researcher has used the doctrinal method of research in the completion of this project on
Development of Law in India. The researcher intends to examine the secondary sources in
thus project. The secondary sources include books, websites, photographs, articles, e-articles
and reports in appropriate form, essential for this study.
LIMITATIONS
The presented research is confined to a time limit of one month and this research contains
only doctrinal works which are limited to library sources.
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INTRODUCTION
Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and
handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This process
began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world.
Although used earlier by French writers, the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized
by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (185283) to describe Britains economic
development from 1760 to 1840. Since Toynbees time the term has been more broadly
applied.
The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic,
and cultural. The technological changes included the following:
(1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel,
(2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the
steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine,
(3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy,
(4) a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased
division of labour and specialization of function,
(5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam
locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and
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(6) the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made
possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of
manufactured goods.1
There were also many new developments in nonindustrial spheres, including the following:
(1) agricultural improvements that made possible the provision of food for a larger non-
agricultural population,
(2) economic changes that resulted in a wider distribution of wealth, the decline of land as a
source of wealth in the face of rising industrial production, and increased international trade,
(3) political changes reflecting the shift in economic power, as well as new state policies
corresponding to the needs of an industrialized society,
(4) sweeping social changes, including the growth of cities, the development of working-class
movements, and the emergence of new patterns of authority, and
(5) cultural transformations of a broad order. Workers acquired new and distinctive skills,
and their relation to their tasks shifted; instead of being craftsmen working with hand tools,
they became machine operators, subject to factory discipline.
Finally, there was a psychological change: confidence in the ability to use resources and to
master nature was heightened.2
In the period 1760 to 1830 the Industrial Revolution was largely confined to Britain. Aware
of their head start, the British forbade the export of machinery, skilled workers, and
manufacturing techniques. The British monopoly could not last forever, especially since
some Britons saw profitable industrial opportunities abroad, while continental European
businessmen sought to lure British know-how to their countries. Two Englishmen, William
and John Cockerill, brought the Industrial Revolution to Belgium by developing machine
shops at Lige (c. 1807), and Belgium became the first country in continental Europe to be
transformed economically. Like its British progenitor, the Belgian Industrial Revolution
centred in iron, coal, and textiles.
France was more slowly and less thoroughly industrialized than either Britain or Belgium.
While Britain was establishing its industrial leadership, France was immersed in its
Revolution, and the uncertain political situation discouraged large investments in industrial
innovations. By 1848 France had become an industrial power, but, despite great growth under
the Second Empire, it remained behind Britain.
1
https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution
2
https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution
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Other European countries lagged far behind. Their bourgeoisie lacked the wealth, power, and
opportunities of their British, French, and Belgian counterparts. Political conditions in the
other nations also hindered industrial expansion. Germany, for example, despite vast
resources of coal and iron, did not begin its industrial expansion until after national unity was
achieved in 1870. Once begun, Germanys industrial production grew so rapidly that by the
turn of the century that nation was outproducing Britain in steel and had become the world
leader in the chemical industries. The rise of U.S. industrial power in the 19th and 20th
centuries also far outstripped European efforts. And Japan too joined the Industrial
Revolution with striking success.3
The eastern European countries were behind early in the 20th century. It was not until the
five-year plans that the Soviet Union became a major industrial power, telescoping into a few
decades the industrialization that had taken a century and a half in Britain. The mid-20th
century witnessed the spread of the Industrial Revolution into hitherto nonindustrialized areas
such as China and India.
Despite considerable overlapping with the old, there was mounting evidence for a new
Industrial Revolution in the late 19th and 20th centuries. In terms of basic materials, modern
industry began to exploit many natural and synthetic resources not hitherto utilized: lighter
metals, new alloys, and synthetic products such as plastics, as well as new energy sources.
Combined with these were developments in machines, tools, and computers that gave rise to
the automatic factory. Although some segments of industry were almost completely
mechanized in the early to mid-19th century, automatic operation, as distinct from the
assembly line, first achieved major significance in the second half of the 20th century.
3
https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Encyclopedie
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Ownership of the means of production also underwent changes. The oligarchical ownership
of the means of production that characterized the Industrial Revolution in the early to mid-
19th century gave way to a wider distribution of ownership through purchase of common
stocks by individuals and by institutions such as insurance companies. In the first half of the
20th century, many countries of Europe socialized basic sectors of their economies. There
was also during that period a change in political theories: instead of the laissez-faire ideas
that dominated the economic and social thought of the classical Industrial Revolution,
governments generally moved into the social and economic realm to meet the needs of their
more complex industrial societies.4
4
https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Revolution-and-the-growth-of-industrial-society-1789-
1914
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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, was a period
during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and America became
industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late
1700s, manufacturing was often done in peoples homes, using hand tools or basic machines.
Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass
production. The iron and textile industries, along with the development of the steam engine,
played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved systems of
transportation, communication and banking. While industrialization brought about an
increased volume and variety of manufactured goods and an improved standard of living for
some, it also resulted in often grim employment and living conditions for the poor and
working classes.5
Britain: Birthplace Of The Industrial Revolution
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, most people resided in small, rural
communities where their daily existences revolved around farming. Life for the average
person was difficult, as incomes were meager, and malnourishment and disease were
common. People produced the bulk of their own food, clothing, furniture and tools. Most
manufacturing was done in homes or small, rural shops, using hand tools or simple machines.
The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is
derived from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and
destroyed machinery as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned
Ludd, though he may have been an apocryphal figure.
A number of factors contributed to Britains role as the birthplace of the Industrial
Revolution. For one, it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which proved essential for
industrialization. Additionally, Britain was a politically stable society, as well as the worlds
leading colonial power, which meant its colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as
well as a marketplace for manufactured goods.
As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-effective methods of
production, which led to the rise of mechanization and the factory system.
5
http://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution
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Innovation And Industrialization
The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization. Before
mechanization and factories, textiles were made mainly in peoples homes (giving rise to the
term cottage industry), with merchants often providing the raw materials and basic
equipment, and then picking up the finished product. Workers set their own schedules under
this system, which proved difficult for merchants to regulate and resulted in numerous
inefficiencies. In the 1700s, a series of innovations led to ever-increasing productivity, while
requiring less human energy. For example, around 1764, Englishman James Hargreaves
(1722-1778) invented the spinning jenny (jenny was an early abbreviation of the word
engine), a machine that enabled an individual to produce multiple spools of threads
simultaneously. By the time of Hargreaves death, there were over 20,000 spinning jennys in
use across Britain. The spinning jenny was improved upon by British inventor Samuel
Comptons (1753-1827) spinning mule, as well as later machines. Another key innovation in
textiles, the power loom, which mechanized the process of weaving cloth, was developed in
the 1780s by English inventor Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823).
Developments in the iron industry also played a central role in the Industrial Revolution. In
the early 18th century, Englishman Abraham Darby (1678-1717) discovered a cheaper, easier
method to produce cast iron, using a coke-fueled (as opposed to charcoal-fired) furnace. In
the 1850s, British engineer Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) developed the first inexpensive
process for mass-producing steel. Both iron and steel became essential materials, used to
make everything from appliances, tools and machines, to ships, buildings and infrastructure.
The steam engine was also integral to industrialization. In 1712, Englishman Thomas
Newcomen (1664-1729) developed the first practical steam engine (which was used primarily
to pump water out of mines). By the 1770s, Scottish inventor James Watt (1736-1819) had
improved on Newcomens work, and the steam engine went on to power machinery,
locomotives and ships during the Industrial Revolution.6
Transportation And The Industrial Revolution

The transportation industry also underwent significant transformation during the Industrial
Revolution. Before the advent of the steam engine, raw materials and finished goods were
hauled and distributed via horse-drawn wagons, and by boats along canals and rivers. In the
early 1800s, American Robert Fulton (1765-1815) built the first commercially successful
6
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steamboat, and by the mid-19th century, steamships were carrying freight across the Atlantic.
As steam-powered ships were making their debut, the steam locomotive was also coming into
use. In the early 1800s, British engineer Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) constructed the first
railway steam locomotive. In 1830, Englands Liverpool and Manchester Railway became
the first to offer regular, timetabled passenger services. By 1850, Britain had more than 6,000
miles of railroad track. Additionally, around 1820, Scottish engineer John McAdam (1756-
1836) developed a new process for road construction. His technique, which became known as
macadam, resulted in roads that were smoother, more durable and less muddy.
Communication And Banking In The Industrial Revolution

Communication became easier during the Industrial Revolution with such inventions as the
telegraph. In 1837, two Brits, William Cooke (1806-1879) and Charles Wheatstone (1802-
1875), patented the first commercial electrical telegraph. By 1840, railways were a Cooke-
Wheatstone system, and in 1866, a telegraph cable was successfully laid across the Atlantic.
The Industrial Revolution also saw the rise of banks and industrial financiers, as well as a
factory system dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was established in
London in the 1770s; the New York Stock Exchange was founded in the early 1790s. In
1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith (1723-1790), who is regarded as the founder
of modern economics, published The Wealth of Nations. In it, Smith promoted an
economic system based on free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and
lack of government interference.7
Quality Of Life During Industrialization

The Industrial Revolution brought about a greater volume and variety of factory-produced
goods and raised the standard of living for many people, particularly for the middle and upper
classes. However, life for the poor and working classes continued to be filled with challenges.
Wages for those who laboured in factories were low and working conditions could be
dangerous and monotonous. Unskilled workers had little job security and were easily
replaceable. Children were part of the labour force and often worked long hours and were
used for such highly hazardous tasks as cleaning the machinery. In the early 1860s, an
estimated one-fifth of the workers in Britains textile industry were younger than 15.
Industrialization also meant that some craftspeople were replaced by machines. Additionally,
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urban, industrialized areas were unable to keep pace with the flow of arriving workers from
the countryside, resulting in inadequate, overcrowded housing and polluted, unsanitary living
conditions in which disease was rampant. Conditions for Britains working-class began to
gradually improve by the later part of the 19th century, as the government instituted various
labour reforms and workers gained the right to form trade unions.
Industrialization Moves Beyond Britain

The British enacted legislation to prohibit the export of their technology and skilled workers;
however, they had little success in this regard. Industrialization spread from Britain to other
European countries, including Belgium, France and Germany, and to the United States. By
the mid-19th century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of
Europe and Americas north-eastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S. had become
the worlds leading industrial nation.8
8
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MANUFACTURING BEFORE INDUSTRIALISATION
Before the dawn of the Industrial Revolution Britain was a quite different place to the one
that exists today. Industrialisation brought with it new types of roads, trains and many other
forms of communications which simply did not exist prior to industrialisation. So before the
Industrial Revolution it was very hard to keep in touch with people in other parts of the
country. News was spread by travellers or through messengers and goods were distributed
largely within the locality in which they were produced.
Because it was so hard to move around: and remember, there were no cars, aeroplanes or
even tarmac roads, people had to rely upon themselves and their communities to provide the
vast majority of the things that they needed. Food was produced locally, agriculture could
provide for but a few large commercial towns. Clothing was made locally, making use of
animal hides and furs: nylon wasn't an option and cotton wasn't imported in large quantities
until developments enabled mass production of goods. There certainly weren't any G Star T-
shirt Factories at this stage!
Life was, for the bulk of the population, the life of a farmer. By the 18th century the feudal
system was long gone, but in its place was a system in which the people were as reliant upon
each other and their master as before.9
In general then, people worked in villages and small towns, working the land and relying
upon the local community to provide for them. Some people were fortunate enough to benefit
from imported goods which came into ports such as London and Bristol in increasing
quantities from the Elizabethan age onwards. What was manufactured was done making use
of natural elements. Windmills for example could make the life of a miller easier.
9
http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/IndustrialRevolution/beforeindustrialisation.htm#.WPfntdKGPIV
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Education was poor, only the rich being catered for by nannies and private tutors. There were
of course schools and several universities. These were not for the ordinary man or woman
though. Politics was based upon land ownership and military honours won, with women and
ordinary men given few rights. Life as a result was a constant battle against famine, a wicked
landlord, overwork and sheer bad luck. Industrialisation would change only some of these
worries.
Although clothmaking dominates our view of medieval English industry, among the most
important industries were milling, tanning and ironworking.
The watermill was an ancient device for grinding corn but in the Middle Ages it was adapted
for use in the cloth and metal industries and some corn mills were converted or extended as
fulling or tucking mills and blade mills. However, not every community had access to
suitable waterpower and animal-powered mills for grinding were not very efficient. European
windmills appear to have been invented in the 12th century and became very popular. Large
numbers were built in England in the 13th and 14th centuries. Some remain in use but most
have been converted or demolished. They were important in inland counties like Derbyshire
and also around large towns like Sunderland to supply local bakeries. Like watermills they
could be adapted for other uses and many were employed in the Fens in the 17th century for
draining.10 Small windmills were used to raise well water. Grist and flour milling with stones
was universal until well after the Industrial Revolution. Early grindstones were made locally
10
https://www.victoriacountyhistory.ac.uk/explore/themes/industry/industry-industrial-revolution
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and the resulting bread was often inimical to human teeth but the introduction first of
Derbyshire millstones and later of French burrstones improved milling. Mills employed the
skills not only of millers but also of millwrights who were often at the forefront of
mechanical invention. As mills were the earliest and most common users of non-human
power the word mill came to be used for any building containing powered machinery.
Tanning was practiced wherever there were plentiful animal skins and a water supply. It was
an antisocial industry usually driven to the eastern outskirts of towns and villages and often
accused of polluting local water supplies. Early tanneries might be find surprisingly near the
centre of market towns like Ledbury, Herefordshire and Burford, Oxfordshire although the
actual tanning was probably done in pits elsewhere and only dressed in town. Burford has a
street called Leather Alley and many towns and villages have Tanyard, Tannery or Tanner
street names. Leather was an important product needed by shoemakers and cordwainers,
glovers, girdlers, saddlers, harness makers, bookbinders, tailors who made leather breeches
and corsets from the 16th century, bottlemakers, and upholsterers. A related industry
important in a pre-industrial age was parchment making for books and documents.11
The refining of lead and iron was often done near the mines especially in remote areas like
Exmoor in Somerset, the Derbyshire and Yorkshire Pennines but iron bloomeries were also
found in the Kentish Weald and parts of Cheshire and Herefordshire. Most communities had
at least one blacksmith to make and repair tools, ploughshares, and fire irons. Horseshoes
were the mainstay of many country smiths but large industrial forges produced cannon and
armour. Although most smiths might be regarded as craftsmen bellfounding in the Middle
Ages was more of an industry. Although there were itinerant bellfounders bells were also cast
at foundries in towns like Bristol. By the early 18th century copper and brass foundries had
been established at Warrington, Cheshire and in villages around Bristol and Bath. Montacute
in Somerset made cauldrons and skillets for the kitchen on an industrial scale.
Other early industries included papermaking, carpentry, glassmaking as at Sunderland,
pottery and porcelain production, and tobacco pipe making as at Bolsover in Derbyshire.
Some early local industries survived the industrial revolution such as pottery making in
Staffordshire, papermaking at Snodland, Kent and bellfounding in Whitechapel but others
declined in the face of competition.
11
http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-fabricating/history-of-the-industrial-revolution
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EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution brought about dramatic changes in nearly every aspect of British
society, including demographics, politics, social structures and institutions, and the economy.
With the growth of factories, for example, people were drawn to metropolitan centres. The
number of cities with populations of more than 20,000 in England and Wales rose from 12 in
1800 to nearly 200 at the close of the century. As a specific example of the effects of
technological change on demographics, the growth of coke smelting resulted in a shift of
population centres in England from the south and east to the north and west.
Technological change also made possible the growth of capitalism. Factory owners and
others who controlled the means of production rapidly became very rich. As an indication of
the economic growth inspired by new technologies, purchasing power in Great Britain
doubled and the total national income increased by a factor of ten in the years between 1800
and 1900. Such changes also brought about a revolution in the nation's political structure.
Industrial capitalists gradually replaced agrarian land owners as leaders of the nation's
economy and power structure.
Working conditions were often much less than satisfactory for many of those employed in the
new factory systems. Work places were often poorly ventilated, over-crowded, and replete
with safety hazards. Men, women, and children alike were employed at survival wages in
unhealthy and dangerous environments. Workers were often able to afford no more than the
simplest housing, resulting in the rise of urban slums. Stories of the unbelievable work
conditions in mines, textile factories, and other industrial plants soon became a staple of
Victorian literature.
One consequence of these conditions was that action was eventually taken to protect
workersespecially women and childrenfrom the most extreme abuses of the factory
system. Laws were passed requiring safety standards in factories, setting minimum age limits
for young workers, establishing schools for children whose parents both worked, and creating
other standards for the protection of workers. Workers themselves initiated activities to
protect their own interests, the most important of which may have been the establishment of
the first trade unions.12
Overall, the successes of the technological changes here were so profound internationally that
Great Britain became the world's leading power, largely because of the Industrial Revolution,
for more than a century.
12
http://science.jrank.org/pages/3574/Industrial-Revolution-Effects-Industrial-Revolution.html
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Political Effects
From 1800 to 1850, the population of England and Wales doubled, from nine million to
eighteen million. During the same period, the proportion of people living in cities rose from
10 percent to 50 percent. Put together, the population of the cities of England and Wales rose
from about nine hundred thousand to nine million, a 1,000-percent increase, in fifty years.
The increase in population shocked people at the time. As early as 1798, the English
economist Thomas Robert Malthus (17661834) wrote an essay, "The Principles of
Population," predicting widespread famine on the grounds that while population seemed to be
proceeding at a geometrical rate (2, 4, 8, 16), food production was only growing at an
arithmetical rate (2, 4, 6, 8). Malthus, and many others, feared that the population would
rapidly outstrip England's ability to produce enough food to feed the millions of new people.
Malthus blamed the lower classes for having too many children and proposed that laws be
passed limiting the number of children people were allowed to have.
Although the catastrophe predicted by Malthus never occurred (partly because there was a
huge increase in productivity in agriculture, partly because the rate of increase in population
slowed), his opinions were widely accepted at the time, particularly his conclusion that poor
people were to blame for the profound social changes that accompanied the Industrial
Revolution. The jump in population cannot be attributed to industrialization, but
industrialization certainly added to the impact of England's shift from a rural, agrarian society
to an urban, industrial society as the nineteenth century unfolded.13
13
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/DocumentToolsPortletWindow?displayGroupName=
Reference&jsid=6a91e6fe7e4c566356c1effd177d6502&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX342580001
3&u=mlin_n_wsparker&zid=57dfac2eb73a6e60979ddffee9961e23
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The nature of work in factorieslong hours (sixteen-hour work-days were not uncommon),
monotonous labor, widespread employment of childrenworsened issues of health. Low
wages resulted in crowded housing, inadequate sanitation, and inadequate diets.
Serious environmental changes took place. Coal was the universal fuel to power factories and
heat homes. Soot, a byproduct of burnt coal, covered English cities, turning many buildings
black over time and contributing to air pollution, both inside poorly ventilated factories and
outside. Lack of sewage treatment plants resulted in raw human waste running into streams
and rivers. As late as 1855, a leading English scientist, Michael Faraday (17911867), wrote
a letter to the editor of the Times of London describing a boat ride on the River Thames,
which runs through London:
The appearance and the smell of the water forced themselves at once on my attention. The
whole of the river was an opaque pale brown fluid. The smell was very bad, and common
to the whole of the water; it was the same as that which now comes up from the gully-holes
in the streets; the whole river was for the time a real sewer.
Two decades before Faraday's letter, in 1833, British surgeon Philip Gaskell had published
his observations of the physical conditions of factory workers in The Manufacturing
Population of England:
Their complexion is sallow and pallidwith a peculiar flatness of feature, caused by the
want of a proper quantity of adipose substance [fat] to cushion out the cheeks. Their stature
lowthe average height of four hundred men, measured at different times, and different
places, being five feet six inches. Their limbs slender, and playing badly and ungracefully. A
very general bowing of the legs. Great numbers of girls and women walking lamely or
awkwardly, with raised chests and spinal flexures. Nearly all have flat feet, accompanied with
a down-tread, differing very widely from the elasticity of action in the foot and ankle,
attendant upon perfect formation. A spiritless and dejected air, a sprawling and wide action
of the legs, and an appearance, taken as a whole, giving the world but "little assurance of a
man," or if so, "most sadly cheated of his fair proportions."14
At around the same time, in 1836, a factory owner and member of Parliament, John Fielden,
wrote The Curse of the Factory System, in which he described his own factory and the impact
of new laws passed by the British government regarding the maximum work week:
We have never worked more than seventy-one hours a week [just under twelve hours a day,
six days a week] before Sir John Hobhouse's Act was passed [in 1831; the bill limited the
14
https://prezi.com/deaekqfpidou/positive-and-negative-effects-of-the-industrial-revolution/
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working hours of children to sixty-four hours a week, or slightly over nine hours a day for six
days a week]. We then came down to sixty-nine; and since Lord Althorp's Act [the Factory
Act] was passed, in 1833, we have reduced the time of adults to sixty-seven and a half hours
a week, and that of children under thirteen years of age to forty-eight hours in the week,
though to do this latter has, I must admit, subjected us to much inconvenience, but the elder
hands to more, inasmuch as the relief given to the child is in some measure imposed on the
adult. But the overworking does not apply to children only; the adults are also overworked.
The increased speed given to machinery within the last thirty years, has, in very many
instances, doubled the labour of both.
Changes in English society as a result of industrialization gave rise to changes in government
as well.15
The Reform Bill of 1832

The British Parliament in the early 1800s was a far different institution than it has become.
For generations, the Parliament in London included aristocrats and high church officials,
sitting in the House of Lords, and wealthy, prominent citizens who sat in the House of
Commons. Only people who owned a significant amount of property could vote in
parliamentary elections for the House of Commons (no one in the House of Lords was
elected; everyone there either inherited a seat as an aristocrat, or became a member by virtue
of his position in the Church of England, the official religion). The majority of people,
including all women and working men without property, had no voice in government.16
The members of Parliament reflected the social structure of England's medieval period (about
5001400), when social, economic, and political power were based on ownership of land, or
15
https://prezi.com/deaekqfpidou/positive-and-negative-effects-of-the-industrial-revolution/
16
http://science.jrank.org/pages/3574/Industrial-Revolution-Effects-Industrial-Revolution.html
20 | P a g e
on religion. And since members of the House of Commons often represented towns, rather
than a specific number of people, changes in England over the centuries had created some
odd situations.
For example, centuries of land erosion had caused much of the coastal town of Dunwich to
fall into the sea; its population in 1831 had fallen to thirty-two voters. Nevertheless, the town
still sent a representative to Parliament, as it had for generations. On the other hand,
Manchester, England, had become an important center of manufacturing, with sixty thousand
residents. But Manchester had no representation in Parliament, since it was not a large town
when the composition of Parliament had last been changed hundreds of years earlier.
Small towns like Dunwich that still sent representatives despite their reduced size were called
"rotten boroughs," a term that reflected another fact of British democracy: the absence of a
secret ballot. Since it was public knowledge how a person voted, voters could be (and were)
bribed to vote for a particular person as a member of Parliament. In some cases, a single
wealthy individual controlled Parliamentary representation by monitoring voters to make sure
they voted as he had paid them to vote. In other instances, wealthy individuals, such as
business owners, traveled to a rotten borough and in effect bought a seat in Parliament by
bribing voters in a small town.
By 1830, the Industrial Revolution had created a new source of social and economic power:
ownership of factories. So it was not surprising that wealthy business owners wanted to share
in political power as well. The major landmark of political change brought about by the
Industrial Revolution was the Reform Bill of 1832.17
In November 1830, the leader of the Whig party, an aristocrat named Charles, Earl Grey
(17641845), organized a campaign to make Parliament more representative of the
population. Such a campaign arose from fears that the growing population of cities could lead
to a violent revolution by desperate workers who had no voice in government, much like the
French Revolution of 1789. During that conflict, mobs of workers, facing starvation,
overthrew the king, executed aristocrats, and declared a republic (a system of government in
which there is no monarch and officials are elected by the people). The reform movement
was opposed by the Conservative Party (also called the Tories), whose parliamentary
majority rested partly on Conservative representatives from rotten boroughs.
17
http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/modernworldhistorytextbook/industrialrevolution/ireffects.html
21 | P a g e
In 1831, despite Conservative opposition, the House of Commons passed a reform act that
would give more people a vote and would send representatives to Parliament from cities like
Manchester. But the House of Lords defeated the bill. In response, rioting broke out in
several English cities. The Bishop of Exeter complained to the Prime Minister, the Duke of
Wellington, that he did not feel safe coming to Bristolan industrial city, like Manchester,
without parliamentary representationto consecrate a church, due to the threat of violence.
Anger over being left out of representation was widely felt, and the bishop told Wellington he
had heard of plans for a revolt against land owners among the poorest citizens. This report
hardly came as news to the Duke of Wellington. His own house was attacked by a mob that
broke thirty windows before it was disbursed by a servant firing a rifle from the roof.
Four months later, the Reform Bill passed, on April 13, 1832, giving industrial cities like
Manchester and Liverpool representation in Parliament. But even so, British democracy was
sharply limited. Only about 14 percent of British males were qualified to vote (to qualify, a
man had to own a minimum amount of property, which excluded most men who worked in
factories). Women were not allowed to vote. Some members of Parliament represented fewer
than three hundred people, while other members from urban districts such as Liverpool
represented over eleven thousand.
However limited in scope, the Reform Act of 1832 was a direct reflection of the widespread
changes spurred by the Industrial Revolution. The growth of cities caused by industrialization
put in sharp focus how outdated the English parliamentary system had become. And many
citizens realized after the act was passed just how much more reform was needed.18
Social Effects
Industrialization increased material wealth, restructured society, and created important new
schools of philosophy. The social impact of industrialization was profound. For the first time
since the Neolithic Revolution, people worked outside of the local environment of their
homes. They arose every morning and travelled to their place of employment. This was most
often in a workplace known as a factory. The new machinery of the Industrial Revolution was
very large and sometimes required acres of floor space to hold the number of machines
needed to keep up with consumer demand. 19
18
http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/modernworldhistorytextbook/industrialrevolution/ireffects.html
19
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/DocumentToolsPortletWindow?displayGroupName=R
22 | P a g e
As in all productive revolutions, skill greatly determined the quality of life. The most
important aspect of this new economic order was the fact that the skills needed to succeed
were in many ways different from those that had been needed in the earlier economy.
Artisans had the easiest time transitioning to the new economic paradigm. The fact that they
had highly developed manual skills enabled them to adapt to the new machinery much easier
than their agricultural counterparts. This was also the case when it came to dealing with the
new, enclosed work environment and strict schedules. The worker from the countryside had
over the centuries constructed a cycle of labor that followed the seasons. There were times,
especially during planting and harvesting, when he was expected to put in long hours, usually
from sunrise to sunset. The term "harvest moon," which today is looked upon as a quaint
metaphor for autumn celebrations, was in preindustrial Europe a much-needed astronomical
occurrence that allowed the farmer extra time to harvest his crops. In turn, the long winter
months were a relatively easy time. The lack of electricity and central heating kept most
people in bed ten to twelve hours a day, affording them relief from the busy periods of
planting and harvesting.
The industrial economy had a new set of rules and time schedules for the common laborer.
The work environment not only moved indoors, but the pace of the work changed drastically.
Instead of driving a horse that pulled a plow or wagon, the machines drove the worker. The
seasons of the year were no longer relevant to the time spent at work. Adult males were now
expected to labor twelve to fourteen hours a day, five-and-a-half days a week, all year long.
This was a very hard transition to make. A great many people who had once been considered
highly productive agricultural workers were unable to hold jobs because of their inability to
adjust to this new regime.
In many ways women suffered more than men. In both the urban artisan economy and the
rural agricultural world, women were traditionally regarded as playing an equally important
role as men. They were full partners in the family's quest for economic success. Their status
changed substantially as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Their labor became a
commodity to be exploited. They were as a rule given the lowest-skilled, lowest-paying jobs.
They were regularly bullied by both their bosses and their husbands. In many ways their labor
and responsibilities doubled. They were not only responsible for their jobs in industry, but
they were also expected to continue their traditional roles at home. They labored for ten hours
in the factory and continued for untold hours once they arrived home. It must be remembered
eference&jsid=6a91e6fe7e4c566356c1effd177d6502&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3425800013
&u=mlin_n_wsparker&zid=57dfac2eb73a6e60979ddffee9961e23
23 | P a g e
that by law men still controlled their families. Women had no political, social, or economic
rights outside the home. They were forbidden to vote or own property. The "rule of thumb"
was still supported by most courts in the Western world. This "rule of thumb" referred to the
fact that a man could beat his wife with a stick, as long as it was not larger than the width of
his thumb. Women did make some strides in their ability to choose a marriage partner;
traditionally, marriages had been arranged for the most part to establish economic
connections between families. When young women moved to the cities to work in the
factories, they most often chose a marriage partner from among the young men they came
into contact with at their boarding houses or place of employment.20
Child labor also changed as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Children were expected to
help the family in the traditional economy, but usually they had been assigned tasks that were
commensurate with their age. Not unlike their mothers, young children began to be exploited
by their bosses. The most dangerous assignment for children in the factories was unjamming
the great textile machines that wove cloth. Since their hands and arms were so small, they
could reach into small spaces where the fabric tended to jam. The foreman would not turn the
machine off but would insist the child reach in to dislodge the jam. If he were not quick
enough, his hand or arm would become caught in the mechanism, and this could result in
severe damage to the child. All laborers, male, female, and children, were eventually looked
upon as interchangeable parts. As technology increased and machines became more
sophisticated, the employer began to value machinery more than his work force. This would
remain the case until the early 1830s, when legislation was passed to protect the workers.
The Industrial Revolution also accelerated the growth of the urban population. One of the
more important consequences of urbanization was a rapid increase in crime. This was the
result of three factors that dominated the urban landscape. The first two were poverty and
unemployment. There was no job security or social security for the factory worker. If
someone was injured on the job or laid off, he had little chance to replace his lost income.
The few charitable organizations that were available were so over-taxed their aid never
matched their good intentions. Overcrowding was the third important source of crime.
Industrialization drew thousands of people to the urban areas in search of employment. Cities
such as Manchester, England, were completely unprepared for the great influx of workers.
This overcrowding fueled social dysfunction that resulted in a rapid increase in crimes
against property and people.
20
http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/social-impact-
industrial-revolution
24 | P a g e
One major attempt to deal with these problems was the creation of a professional, full-time
police force whose members were trained in the latest techniques of crime prevention.
Secondly, there was a vigorous attempt to reform the prison system. It was accepted among
most intellectuals of the time that prisons should not be solely places of punishment. There
was widespread acknowledgement of the belief that, through proper training and guidance,
criminals could be reformed. Education would allow prisoners to find a productive place in
the new urban industrial society.
The Industrial Revolution also accelerated change in the area of political and economic
thought. The dominant economic model of the early industrial period was mercantilism, a
command economy based upon the belief that there are a finite number of resources in the
world. The primary economic goal of each nation was to control as many of these resources
as possible. Its trade policies were a form of eighteenth-century protectionism. Great Britain
not only forbade its colonies to develop any domestic industry, but the government also
controlled colonial trade. Everything was done for the betterment of the "mother country."21
The first major political economist to challenge this concept was Adam Smith (1723-1790).
He was one of a number of Enlightenment thinkers who believed there were natural laws that
governed the economic, political, and social relationships of men. These natural laws were
discernible through the exercise of human reason. Smith believed that the natural law of
economics revolved around the exercise of economic choice. He argued that the best way to
bring about economic expansion was to allow people to make decisions regarding the
products they wished to produce. The Industrial Revolution, because of its increased
productivity, greatly expanded peoples' ability to choose. At the same time, it also raised
expectations concerning issues of quality of life. Smith believed that through proper
application of Enlightenment scientific principles, a nation could produce a society free of
poverty. This revolutionary theory, that a government was obliged to create an environment
in which these expectations could be met, would act as the foundation of the Declaration of
Independence crafted by American revolutionaries in the 1770s.22
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, economic thought became very pessimistic
because of the inability of society to solve the conditions of the industrial working class. Over
time it became widely accepted that the quality of life of the working class would remain
21
22
25 | P a g e
forever wretched. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), in fact, believed this condition was
necessary to prevent widespread political and social unrest as the result of famine. Malthus's
theory centered on the belief that if left unchecked, the population would outstrip
agriculture's ability to feed it. Industrial wages were kept low in order to control the size of
working families. This began the modern fear of the population bomb, which is still a hotly
debated issue. This pessimism continued in the writing of David Ricardo (1772-1823). He
formulated the Iron Law Of Wages, which mandated that monetary compensation be kept
low. Ricardo believed that there were only a finite number of jobs available in industry. If a
particular generation experienced too much economic security, they would marry earlier and
have larger families. This would result in their children's generation experiencing the
frustration of competing for a limited number of jobs. The resulting political and social
upheaval would undermine the social stability of the nation. It is quite evident that both
Malthus and Ricardo were still under the influence of a mercantilist world view in which
humanity would be forever governed by the limits of its productive capacity.
The success of the Industrial Revolution in expanding both productivity and jobs eventually
changed the economic pessimism of the early nineteenth century. The dismal view of the
future of the working class would eventually be replaced by utilitarianism and socialism.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) helped create a philosophy based upon the concept that all
social, political, and economic models should be concerned with creating the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people. This was based upon confidence in the correct
application of reason. All social models would be judged on their ability to create utility.
Thus, if properly implemented, the fruits of industrialization would be shared by all.23
Socialism was an alternative theory, based upon the premise that true economic equality
could only be attained if the workers controlled the means of production as well as the
distribution of goods. This was a reaction against both the hardships of the working class and
the economic inequality of capitalism. Basic socialist theory predicted that competition, the
lifeblood of the free market, would eventually reduce to a small minority the number of
capitalists controlling the economic system. Eventually, the large number of exploited
workers would rise up and overthrow this small, very rich capitalist class. Economic, social,
and political equality would then be achieved. The power of industrialization would be used
to create a socialist utopia based upon the practice of the equal and rational distribution of
goods.
23
26 | P a g e
In the end, utility carried the day. Over time reform legislation increased the basic social,
economic, and political rights of the working class. They in turn realized it was in their own
best interest to work for continued change through the existing political system.24
The Industrial Revolution increased the material wealth of humanity, especially among the
nations of the West. It increased longevity and accelerated the growth of the middle class. It
helped to create the modern world view that through the proper use of science and
technology, a more fruitful quality of life could be achieved.
Economic Effects
Industrial Revolution, term usually applied to the social and economic changes that mark the
transition from a stable agricultural and commercial society to a modern industrial society
relying on complex machinery rather than tools.
Dramatic changes in the social and economic structure took place as inventions and
technological innovations created the factory system of large-scale machine production and
greater economic specialization, and as the labouring population, formerly employed
predominantly in agriculture (in which production had also increased as a result of
technological improvements), increasingly gathered in great urban factory centres.25
The Industrial Revolution has changed the face of nations, giving rise to urban centers
requiring vast municipal services.
24
25
https://schoolworkhelper.net/economic-changes-during-industrial-revolution/
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It created a specialized and interdependent economic life and made the urban worker more
completely dependent on the will of the employer than the rural worker had been
The picture to the right shows several major inventions that were created during the Industrial
Revolution.
As economic activities in many communities moved from agriculture to manufacturing,
production shifted from its traditional locations in the home and the small workshop to
factories.
Large portions of the population relocated from the countryside to the towns and cities where
manufacturing centres were found.
The overall amount of goods and services produced expanded dramatically, and the
proportion of capital invested per worker grew.
New groups of investors, businesspeople, and managers took financial risks and reaped great
rewards.
The existing system could not keep up with the demand of goods
More consumers had sufficient income to afford exotic goods such as cotton cloth and china
These were the rising middle class
Traders realized that if they could produce goods in greater quantity at a cheaper price, they
could find more consumers and make a higher profit.26
Multiplier Effect
Refers to the cycle of consumer demand, investment and innovations that drove the Industrial
Revolution
Cycle works as follows: increased consumer demand prompts entrepreneurs to invest in

machines to speed up production, and thereby increase profit.
26
https://schoolworkhelper.net/economic-changes-during-industrial-revolution/
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Faster production in one area of manufacturing prompts investment in another area.
Profit from increase production used to invest further innovations and inventions.
Multiplier effect caused Industrial Revolution to gather momentum and prompt new
technologies.
The cotton industry becomes the largest single employer of industrial labour, and cotton cloth
became the most valued commodity in Britains export trade.
In the realm of technical innovations and in the number of people employed, the combination
of coal, iron, and steam had an even greater multiplier effect than the cotton industry.
Impact would become visible in the 1830s and 1840s with the introduction of steam
locomotion and the boom in railroad construction.27
Cultural Effects
Industrialisation had a dramatic effect upon all aspects of Victorian life. Before the rise of
industrialism, the cycle of seasons regulated peoples lives. Christmas and summer solstice
were occasions for communal enjoyment; spring renewal was marked by May Day rituals;
harvest homes celebrated the end of the growing season. Itinerant showfolk travelled an
annual circuit from village to village, assembling at fairs, offering kinds of entertainment
which dated from the Middle Ages: stilt-walking, puppet shows, singing, dancing,
performing animals, freaks and games. Violent sports such as cock-fighting had largely
disappeared by the early years of the 19th century, but amusement was robust, largely male,
and well lubricated by drink. Above all it was local and participatory.
In the towns, street performers and costers selling their goods with lively patter were ever-
present, but urban settings lacked space for recreation, and rapidly expanding industrial towns
were designed to support work rather than to provide leisure facilities. The population more
than doubled in the first half of the century; that, and migration to the cities broke down the
social cohesion of rural villages. In addition, crowded slums made mere survival precarious
and turned the public house into a vital social centre, as unsanitary conditions made water and
milk less safe to drink than beer and gin. Low wages and long hours left workers with little
time and money for any activity other than work. The rise of industrialism imposed a wholly
new concept of time, based on rigid clock-discipline and divorced from seasonal patterns.
Repressive measures
27
https://schoolworkhelper.net/economic-changes-during-industrial-revolution/the-multiplier-effect
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Increasingly, those in authority fought the very existence of popular culture. Evangelical
Christianity considered idleness the root of evil and opposed any activity other than worship
on Sunday, the one day in the week when workers had leisure time. Utilitarian philosophy
promoted life based on hard-working self-interest rather than outgoing communal enjoyment.
Temperance reform struck at a basic ingredient of social cohesion the shared act of drinking
together.
The gradual collapse of the old, stable, conservative society, under the pressures of a quarter-
century of war against France and repressive measures taken by reactionary governments,
fearful of the mob and a potential repetition on home soil of the French Revolution, further
undermined traditional popular culture. The government was hopelessly out of touch with the
populace, passing repressive legislation, suppressing literature deemed to be seditious,
sending in the troops when people gathered peacefully (Peterloo), and fighting tooth and nail
against the slightest reform to a hopelessly antiquated form of government. The Times
referred to anyone who wanted more (like Oliver Twist; like the Chartists) as destructives.
During the 1830s and 1840s the old cultural traditions were fading faster than new forms
were emerging to replace them. The precarious existence of Punch and Judy showmen, stilt-
walkers, canine performers and travelling waxworks which Dickens presented in The Old
Curiosity Shop records the social reality.28
The rise of commercial entertainment

In the long term, old patterns of participatory popular culture gave way to larger scale,
commercially based entertainment in which spectators paid to watch professional performers.
Theatres and circuses grew in size and number, and in the second half of the 19th century
music hall and organised sport burgeoned in popularity. These offered intimacy between the
largely working class audience and the stars, and included ritual participation as everyone
joined in singing the chorus or cheering their team.
But increasingly entertainment was big business, with high salaries, professional
management, strict licensing in the halls and codified regulations for football and rugby.
Dickens loved the theatre and the circus (although he was appalled by the introduction after
mid-century of daredevil acts by Leotard on the flying trapeze and Blondin on the tightrope)
but the commercial developments of entertainment held no attraction for him; instead, he
turned repeatedly in his writing to the humble enjoyment of carefree fun with friends and
28
https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/popular-culture-and-the-impact-of-industrialisation
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family, the shared delight of being entertained, and above all the values of imaginative
delight and fellow-feeling which entertainment promoted.29
Every-Day Life and Every-Day People, the subtitle of Dickenss first published volume,
Sketches by Boz, announces the subject which was to be the focus of his writing throughout
his lifetime (18121870). Dickens cared passionately about the social and economic
opportunities of ordinary people and actively defended their right to leisure and amusement.
Dickens first began publishing sketches in 1833 in magazines and newspapers. His purpose in
writing them, he declared, was to record his own amusement from observing people at work
and play, and to provide amusement for his readers. The sketches take us to a private theatre,
a circus, a pleasure garden, a song and supper club; Boz observes people singing, dancing,
drinking, and pottering in their garden. The same year that the sketches were collected as
Sketches by Boz (1836) the adversarial nature of his stance was registered in his pamphlet
Sunday Under Three Heads, which contains a stinging attack on proposed legislation to
restrict Sunday leisure pursuits. Dickens insists that nothing but good humour and hilarity
prevail in the innocent and harmless pleasures which working people share with their
friends and families (ch. 1).
Nicholas Nickleby, dedicated to his friend William Charles Macready, the foremost tragedian
of the day, includes a lovingly observed portrayal of a troupe of strolling actors, and records
the sheer delight in performance which motivates them, as seen when Vincent Crummles
exuberantly embraces Nicholas on a public street and takes histrionic leave of his lion-
hearted boy (ch. 30). The circus performers in Hard Times dramatise Dickenss conviction
that love of theatrical performance is innate and essential to human well-being; the
ringmaster Mr Sleary asthmatically gives voice to Dickenss axiom, People must be
amuthed. . .they cant be alwayth a working, nor they cant be alwayth a learning. Make the
best of uth, not the wurtht (ch. 6) And in the character of Dick Swiveller in The Old
Curiosity Shop Dickens creates his most engaging case for the values associated with love of
entertainment: Swivellers lively imagination makes him receptive to the mysterious little
servant he discovers lurking beneath the law-office; playing games with her, offering her
food and drink, and inventing an exotic identity for her as the Marchioness, he creates for us
real a heroine as wonderful as anything out of a fairy tale or the Arabian Nights.
29
https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/popular-culture-and-the-impact-of-industrialisation
31 | P a g e
From the fire-gazing visions of Lizzie Hexam and Louisa Gradgrind, the cricket match
between the Dingley Dellers and All-Muggleton, the Christmas dinner of the Cratchits, or the
night out of Smithers and Potter, Dickenss many depictions of entertainment and
amusement, and his conviction of the importance of imaginative receptivity, provide some of
his most engaging writing and take us to the core of his values.30
Ecological Effects
The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in Earths ecology and humans
relationship with their environment. The Industrial Revolution dramatically changed every
aspect of human life and lifestyles. The impact on the worlds psyche would not begin to
register until the early 1960s, some 200 years after its beginnings. From human development,
health and life longevity, to social improvements and the impact on natural resources, public
health, energy usage and sanitation, the effects were profound.
It wasnt that the Industrial Revolution became a stalwart juggernaut overnight. It started in
the mid-1700s in Great Britain when machinery began to replace manual labor. Fossil fuels
replaced wind, water and wood, used primarily for the manufacture of textiles and the
development of iron making processes. The full impact of the Industrial Revolution would
not begin to be realized until about 100 years later in the 1800s, when the use of machines to
replace human labor spread throughout Europe and North America. This transformation is
referred to as the industrialization of the world. These processes gave rise to sweeping
increases in production capacity and would affect all basic human needs, including food
production, medicine, housing, and clothing. Not only did society develop the ability to have
more things faster, it would be able to develop better things. These industrialization processes
continue today.
The most prolific evidence of the Industrial Revolutions impact on the modern world is seen
in the worldwide human population growth. Humans have been around for about 2.2 million
years. By the dawn of the first millennium AD, estimates place the total world (modern)
human population at between 150 200 million, and 300 million in the year 1,000. The
population of the United States population is currently 312,000,000 (August 2011). The
world human population growth rate would be about .1 percent (.001) per year for the next
seven to eight centuries.
30
https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/popular-culture-and-the-impact-of-
industrialisation#sthash.wh6brTg4.dpuf
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At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the mid 1700s, the worlds human population
grew by about 57 percent to 700 million. It would reach one billion in 1800. (Note: The
Black Plague reduced the world population by about 75 million people in the late 1300s.) The
birth of the Industrial Revolution altered medicine and living standards, resulting in the
population explosion that would commence at that point and steamroll into the 20thand 21st
centuries. In only 100 years after the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the world population
would grow 100 percent to two billion people in 1927 (about 1.6 billion by 1900).
During the 20th century, the world population would take on exponential proportions,
growing to six billion people just before the start of the 21stcentury. Thats a 400 percent
population increase in a single century. Since the 250 years from the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution to today, the world human population has increased by six billion
people!
Human population growth is indelibly tied together with increased use of natural and man-
made resources, energy, land for growing food and for living, and waste by-products that are
disposed of, to decompose, pollute or be recycled. This exponential population growth led to
the exponential requirements for resources, energy, food, housing and land, as well as the
exponential increase in waste by-products.31
There were many indicators that the Industrial Revolution propelled the world human
population into an era of living and production at the ultimate expense of the human
condition. It also impacted the resources that had been taken for granted for the entire prior
history of humankind. There had always been more resources than the demand for them.
It would take just one person in the 1960s to make the general public aware of the cause and
effect of human outgrowth from the Industrial Revolution. Rachel Carson took on the
31
http://www.ecology.com/2011/09/18/ecological-impact-industrial-revolution/
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powerful and robust chemical industry in her globally acclaimed 1962 book, Silent Spring. In
it she raised important questions about humans impact on nature. For the first time, the
public and industry would begin to grasp the concept of sustainable production and
development.
It was the fossil fuel coal that fueled the Industrial Revolution, forever changing the way
people would live and utilize energy. While this propelled human progress to extraordinary
levels, it came at extraordinary costs to our environment, and ultimately to the health of all
living things. While coal and other fossil fuels were taken for granted as being inexhaustible,
it was American geophysicist M. King Hubbert who predicted in 1949 that the fossil fuel era
would be very short-lived and that other energy sources would need to be relied upon.
Hubbert predicted that fossil fuel production, in particular oil, would reach it s peak starting
in 1970 and would go into steady decline against the rising energy demands of the
population. The decline in production started in the United States in 1971 and has spread to
other oil producing nations as well. This peak production is known as Hubberts Peak. By
the time the world began to heed Hubberts prediction, the use of fossil fuels so heavily
relied upon to fuel the Industrial Revolution had become so firmly interwoven into human
progress and economy, that changing this energy system would drastically alter the very way
we have lived our lives. It will happen, but it will take time, continued ingenuity and vast
economic incentives to transform dependence on this fuel that fostered the growth and
prosperity launched by the Industrial Revolution.32
ooking back at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, it is difficult to realize how what
took place then is having such complicated and vast effects today. This is the principle of
32
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environmental unity a change in one system will cause changes in others. Certainly, the
seeds of progress and the ramifications of that progress were planted then. And with the
very same mechanisms and effects that brought about both the progress and the indelibly
connected results of that progress to our ecology the good, the bad and the ugly over the
last 250 years, we are entering a new era of sustainability. That is the next revolution.33
33
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TECHNOLOGY USED DURING THE REVOLUTION
The term Industrial Revolution, like similar historical concepts, is more convenient than
precise. It is convenient because history requires division into periods for purposes of
understanding and instruction and because there were sufficient innovations at the turn of the
18th and 19th centuries to justify the choice of this as one of the periods. The term is
imprecise, however, because the Industrial Revolution has no clearly defined beginning or
end. Moreover, it is misleading if it carries the implication of a once-for-all change from a
preindustrial to a post-industrial society, because, as has been seen, the events of the
traditional Industrial Revolution had been well prepared in a mounting tempo of industrial,
commercial, and technological activity from about 1000 ce and led into a continuing
acceleration of the processes of industrialization that is still proceeding in our own time. The
term Industrial Revolution must thus be employed with some care. It is used below to
describe an extraordinary quickening in the rate of growth and change and, more particularly,
to describe the first 150 years of this period of time, as it will be convenient to pursue the
developments of the 20th century separately.34
The Industrial Revolution, in this sense, has been a worldwide phenomenon, at least in so far
as it has occurred in all those parts of the world, of which there are very few exceptions,
where the influence of Western civilization has been felt. Beyond any doubt it occurred first
in Britain, and its effects spread only gradually to continental Europe and North America.
Equally clearly, the Industrial Revolution that eventually transformed these parts of the
Western world surpassed in magnitude the achievements of Britain, and the process was
carried further to change radically the socioeconomic life of Asia, Africa, Latin America, and
Australasia. The reasons for this succession of events are complex, but they were implicit in
the earlier account of the build up toward rapid industrialization. Partly through good fortune
and partly through conscious effort, Britain by the early 18th century came to possess the
combination of social needs and social resources that provided the necessary preconditions of
commercially successful innovation and a social system capable of sustaining and
institutionalizing the processes of rapid technological change once they had started. This
section will therefore be concerned, in the first place, with events in Britain, although in
discussing later phases of the period it will be necessary to trace the way in which British
technical achievements were diffused and superseded in other parts of the Western world.
34
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Power technology
An outstanding feature of the Industrial Revolution has been the advance in power
technology. At the beginning of this period, the major sources of power available to industry
and any other potential consumer were animate energy and the power of wind and water, the
only exception of any significance being the atmospheric steam engines that had been
installed for pumping purposes, mainly in coal mines. It is to be emphasized that this use of
steam power was exceptional and remained so for most industrial purposes until well into the
19th century. Steam did not simply replace other sources of power: it transformed them. The
same sort of scientific inquiry that led to the development of the steam engine was also
applied to the traditional sources of inanimate energy, with the result that both waterwheels
and windmills were improved in design and efficiency. 35
Numerous engineers contributed to the refinement of waterwheel construction, and by the

middle of the 19th century new designs made possible increases in the speed of revolution of
the waterwheel and thus prepared the way for the emergence of the water turbine, which is
still an extremely efficient device for converting energy.
Windmills
Meanwhile, British windmill construction was improved considerably by the refinements of
sails and by the self-correcting device of the fantail, which kept the sails pointed into the
wind. Spring sails replaced the traditional canvas rig of the windmill with the equivalent of a
modern venetian blind, the shutters of which could be opened or closed, to let the wind pass
through or to provide a surface upon which its pressure could be exerted. Sail design was
further improved with the patent sail in 1807.
35
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technology
37 | P a g e
In mills equipped with these sails, the shutters were controlled on all the sails simultaneously
by a lever inside the mill connected by rod linkages through the windshaft with the bar
operating the movement of the shutters on each sweep. The control could be made more fully
automatic by hanging weights on the lever in the mill to determine the maximum wind
pressure beyond which the shutters would open and spill the wind. Conversely,
counterweights could be attached to keep the shutters in the open position. With these and
other modifications, British windmills adapted to the increasing demands on power
technology. But the use of wind power declined sharply in the 19th century with the spread of
steam and the increasing scale of power utilization. Windmills that had satisfactorily
provided power for small-scale industrial processes were unable to compete with the
production of large-scale steam-powered mills.36
Steam engines
Although the qualification regarding older sources of power is important, steam became the
characteristic and ubiquitous power source of the British Industrial Revolution. Little
development took place in the Newcomen atmospheric engine until James Watt patented a
separate condenser in 1769, but from that point onward the steam engine underwent almost
continuous improvements for more than a century. Watts separate condenser was the
outcome of his work on a model of a Newcomen engine that was being used in a University
of Glasgow laboratory. Watts inspiration was to separate the two actions of heating the
cylinder with hot steam and cooling it to condense the steam for every stroke of the engine.
By keeping the cylinder permanently hot and the condenser permanently cold, a great
economy on energy used could be effected. This brilliantly simple idea could not be
immediately incorporated in a full-scale engine because the engineering of such machines
36
https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology/The-Industrial-Revolution-1750-
1900/windmills
38 | P a g e
had hitherto been crude and defective. The backing of a Birmingham industrialist, Matthew
Boulton, with his resources of capital and technical competence, was needed to convert the
idea into a commercial success. Between 1775 and 1800, the period over which Watts
patents were extended, the Boulton and Watt partnership produced some 500 engines, which
despite their high cost in relation to a Newcomen engine were eagerly acquired by the tin-
mining industrialists of Cornwall and other power users who badly needed a more economic
and reliable source of energy.37
During the quarter of a century in which Boulton and Watt exercised their virtual monopoly
over the manufacture of improved steam engines, they introduced many important
refinements. Basically they converted the engine from a single-acting (i.e., applying power
only on the downward stroke of the piston) atmospheric pumping machine into a versatile
prime mover that was double-acting and could be applied to rotary motion, thus driving the
wheels of industry. The rotary action engine was quickly adopted by British textile
manufacturer Sir Richard Arkwright for use in a cotton mill, and although the ill-fated Albion
Mill, at the southern end of Blackfriars Bridge in London, was burned down in 1791, when it
had been in use for only five years and was still incomplete, it demonstrated the feasibility of
applying steam power to large-scale grain milling. Many other industries followed in
exploring the possibilities of steam power, and it soon became widely used.
Agriculture
The agricultural improvements of the 18th century had been promoted by people whose
industrial and commercial interests made them willing to experiment with new machines and
processes to improve the productivity of their estates. Under the same sort of stimuli,
agricultural improvement continued into the 19th century and was extended to food
processing in Britain and elsewhere. The steam engine was not readily adapted for
37
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engines
39 | P a g e
agricultural purposes, yet ways were found of harnessing it to threshing machines and even to
plows by means of a cable between powerful traction engines pulling a plow across a field. In
the United States mechanization of agriculture began later than in Britain, but because of the
comparative labour shortage it proceeded more quickly and more thoroughly. The
McCormick reaper and the combine harvester were both developed in the United States, as
were barbed wire and the food-packing and canning industries, Chicago becoming the centre
for these processes.38
The introduction of refrigeration techniques in the second half of the 19th century made it
possible to convey meat from Australia and Argentina to European markets, and the same
markets encouraged the growth of dairy farming and market gardening, with distant
producers such as New Zealand able to send their butter in refrigerated ships to wherever in
the world it could be sold.
Civil engineering
For large civil-engineering works, the heavy work of moving earth continued to depend
throughout this period on human labour organized by building contractors. But the use of
gunpowder, dynamite, and steam diggers helped to reduce this dependence toward the end of
the 19th century, and the introduction of compressed air and hydraulic tools also contributed
to the lightening of drudgery. The latter two inventions were important in other respects, such
as in mining engineering and in the operation of lifts, lock gates, and cranes. The use of a
tunneling shield, to allow a tunnel to be driven through soft or uncertain rock strata, was
pioneered by the French migr engineer Marc Brunel in the construction of the first tunnel
underneath the Thames River in London (182542), and the technique was adopted
elsewhere. The iron bell or caisson was introduced for working below water level in order to
lay foundations for bridges or other structures, and bridge building made great advances with
the perfecting of the suspension bridgeby the British engineers Thomas Telford and
38
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40 | P a g e
Isambard Kingdom Brunel and the German American engineer John Roeblingand the
development of the truss bridge, first in timber, then in iron. Wrought iron gradually replaced
cast iron as a bridge-building material, although several distinguished cast-iron bridges
survive, such as that erected at Ironbridge in Shropshire between 1777 and 1779, which has
been fittingly described as the Stonehenge of the Industrial Revolution. The sections were
cast at the Coalbrookdale furnace nearby and assembled by mortising and wedging on the
model of a timber construction, without the use of bolts or rivets. The design was quickly
superseded in other cast-iron bridges, but the bridge still stands as the first important
structural use of cast iron. Cast iron became very important in the framing of large buildings,
the elegant Crystal Palace of 1851 being an outstanding example.39
This was designed by the ingenious gardener-turned-architect Sir Joseph Paxton on the model
of a greenhouse that he had built on the Chatsworth estate of the duke of Devonshire. Its cast-
iron beams were manufactured by three different firms and tested for size and strength on the
site. By the end of the 19th century, however, steel was beginning to replace cast iron as well
as wrought iron, and reinforced concrete was being introduced. In water-supply and sewage-
disposal works, civil engineering achieved some monumental successes, especially in the
design of dams, which improved considerably in the period, and in long-distance piping and
pumping.
Road locomotive
The second form in which steam power was applied to transport was that of the road
locomotive. There is no technical reason why this should not have enjoyed a success equal to
that of the railway engine, but its development was so constricted by the unsuitability of most
roads and by the jealousy of other road users that it achieved general utility only for heavy
traction work and such duties as road rolling. The steam traction engine, which could be
39
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readily adapted from road haulage to power farm machines, was nevertheless a distinguished
product of 19th-century steam technology.
Steamboats and ships

The third application was considerably more important, because it transformed marine
transport. The initial attempts to use a steam engine to power a boat were made on the Seine
River in France in 1775, and several experimental steamships were built by William
Symington in Britain at the turn of the 19th century. The first commercial success in steam
propulsion for a ship, however, was that of the American Robert Fulton, whose paddle
steamer the North River Steamboat, commonly known as the Clermont after its first
overnight port, plied between New York and Albany in 1807, equipped with a Boulton and
Watt engine of the modified beam or side-lever type, with two beams placed alongside the
base of the engine in order to lower the centre of gravity. A similar engine was installed in
the Glasgow-built Comet, which was put in service on the Clyde in 1812 and was the first
successful steamship in Europe. All the early steamships were paddle-driven, and all were
small vessels suitable only for ferry and packet duties because it was long thought that the
fuel requirements of a steamship would be so large as to preclude long-distance cargo
carrying. The further development of the steamship was thus delayed until the 1830s, when
I.K. Brunel began to apply his ingenious and innovating mind to the problems of steamship
construction. His three great steamships each marked a leap forward in technique. The Great
Western (launched 1837), the first built specifically for oceanic service in the North Atlantic,
demonstrated that the proportion of space required for fuel decreased as the total volume of
the ship increased.40
40
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42 | P a g e
The Great Britain (launched 1843) was the first large iron ship in the world and the first to be
screw-propelled; its return to the port of Bristol in 1970, after a long working life and
abandonment to the elements, is a remarkable testimony to the strength of its construction.
The Great Eastern (launched 1858), with its total displacement of 18,918 tons, was by far the
largest ship built in the 19th century. With a double iron hull and two sets of engines driving
both a screw and paddles, this leviathan was never an economic success, but it admirably
demonstrated the technical possibilities of the large iron steamship. By the end of the century,
steamships were well on the way to displacing the sailing ship on all the main trade routes of
the world.41
Printing and photography
Communications were equally transformed in the 19th century. The steam engine helped to
mechanize and thus to speed up the processes of papermaking and printing. In the latter case
the acceleration was achieved by the introduction of the high-speed rotary press and the
Linotype machine for casting type and setting it in justified lines (i.e., with even right-hand
margins). Printing, indeed, had to undergo a technological revolution comparable to the 15th-
century invention of movable type to be able to supply the greatly increasing market for the
printed word. Another important process that was to make a vital contribution to modern
printing was discovered and developed in the 19th century: photography.
The first photograph was taken in 1826 or 1827 by the French physicist J.N. Niepce, using a
pewter plate coated with a form of bitumen that hardened on exposure. His partner L.-J.-M.
Daguerre and the Englishman W.H. Fox Talbot adopted silver compounds to give light
sensitivity, and the technique developed rapidly in the middle decades of the century. By the
1890s George Eastman in the United States was manufacturing cameras and celluloid
41
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43 | P a g e
photographic film for a popular market, and the first experiments with the cinema were
beginning to attract attention.
Telegraphs and telephones
The great innovations in communications technology, however, derived from electricity. The
first was the electric telegraph, invented or at least made into a practical proposition for use
on the developing British railway system by two British inventors, Sir William Cooke and Sir
Charles Wheatstone, who collaborated on the work and took out a joint patent in 1837.
Almost simultaneously, the American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse devised the signalling
code that was subsequently adopted all over the world. In the next quarter of a century the
continents of the world were linked telegraphically by transoceanic cables, and the main
political and commercial centres were brought into instantaneous communication.42
The telegraph system also played an important part in the opening up of the American West
by providing rapid aid in the maintenance of law and order. The electric telegraph was
followed by the telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 and adopted quickly
for short-range oral communication in the cities of America and at a somewhat more leisurely
pace in those of Europe. About the same time, theoretical work on the electromagnetic
properties of light and other radiation was beginning to produce astonishing experimental
results, and the possibilities of wireless telegraphy began to be explored. By the end of the
century, Guglielmo Marconi had transmitted messages over many miles in Britain and was
preparing the apparatus with which he made the first transatlantic radio communication on
42
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1900/telegraphs-and-telephones
44 | P a g e
Dec. 12, 1901. The world was thus being drawn inexorably into a closer community by the
spread of instantaneous communication.
Military technology
One area of technology was not dramatically influenced by the application of steam or
electricity by the end of the 19th century: military technology. Although the size of armies
increased between 1750 and 1900, there were few major innovations in techniques, except at
sea where naval architecture rather reluctantly accepted the advent of the iron steamship and
devoted itself to matching ever-increasing firepower with the strength of the armour plating
on the hulls. The quality of artillery and of firearms improved with the new high explosives
that became available in the middle of the 19th century, but experiments such as the three-
wheeled iron gun carriage, invented by the French army engineer Nicolas Cugnot in 1769,
which counts as the first steam-powered road vehicle, did not give rise to any confidence that
steam could be profitably used in battle. Railroads and the electric telegraph were put to
effective military use, but in general it is fair to say that the 19th century put remarkably little
of its tremendous and innovative technological effort into devices for war.43
In the course of its dynamic development between 1750 and 1900, important things happened
to technology itself. In the first place, it became self-conscious. This change is sometimes
characterized as one from a craft-based technology to one based on science, but this is an
oversimplification. What occurred was rather an increase in the awareness of technology as a
socially important function. It is apparent in the growing volume of treatises on technological
subjects from the 16th century onward and in the rapid development of patent legislation to
protect the interests of technological innovators. It is apparent also in the development of
technical education, uneven at first, being confined to the French polytechnics and spreading
thence to Germany and North America but reaching even Britain, which had been most
opposed to its formal recognition as part of the structure of education, by the end of the 19th
43
45 | P a g e
century. Again, it is apparent in the growth of professional associations for engineers and for
other specialized groups of technologists.
Second, by becoming self-conscious, technology attracted attention in a way it had never
done before, and vociferous factions grew up to praise it as the mainspring of social progress
and the development of democracy or to criticize it as the bane of modern man, responsible
for the harsh discipline of the dark Satanic mills and the tyranny of the machine and the
squalor of urban life. It was clear by the end of the 19th century that technology was an
important feature in industrial society and that it was likely to become more so. Whatever
was to happen in the future, technology had come of age and had to be taken seriously as a
formative factor of the utmost significance in the continuing development of civilization.44
44
46 | P a g e
CONCLUSION
Industrial revolution in England which started during the second half of 18th century was
almost in full swing by the first quarter of 19th century. The invention of the spinning Jenny
and steam engine in England brought in its wake increased application of mechanical power
to the manufacturing industry. There was revolution in transport industry due to new mode of
transport, ships and railways. The opening of Suez Canal and reduction in steamer freight
enabled the manufacturer and exporters to reach many countries hitherto difficult to
approach. The industrial revolution which was result of indigenous forces established a new
equilibrium on a more stable footing within the following socioeconomic and political
repercussions.
Industrial revolution led to mass production of various commodities. Mass production caused
glut (overflow of goods) in the market, this lead to increased consumption at cheaper rates.
To attract people newer types of commodities were manufactured. This helped change in
fashions at a fast speed.
In India, Industrialization resulted in urbanization accompanied by a number of civic and
unhygienic problems such as emission of foul smell, garbage heaps and slums. All these
factors caused lot of hardships to workers and affected their physical and mental health.
Institution of family came under heavy strain. People began to give up joint family system
with a view to switch over to single family system leaving behind the family members
economically poor. This migratory approach from rural to urban places in search of jobs in
factories and industries broke the nuclear family into small disintegrated (broken in parts)
units which are the most important social institutions.
A new rich class called wealthy class emerged as a result of industrialization because much
stress was laid on hard cash and machine rather than on land. In many cases this class had
different social customs and etiquettes (manners) than those followed by the rich landed
class.
Industrialization opened and enhanced the size of market where various commodities could
be sold. It encouraged opening of new markets and trade centers. These trading centers
became increasingly important with the development of industrial activity. People entered
into new professions and vocations which enabled the trading affairs more effectively and
efficiently.
Industrial revolution made wonders in the field of generating electricity and energy. The
distribution of electricity besides making revolution in the production of inventories
47 | P a g e
connected to distribution system also made breakthrough in the field of transport and
communication. This increased the social interaction and affected social institution at various
levels and fronts.
Industrial revolution replaced hands with machines which caused large scale unemployment.
The jobs which were done by hundreds and hundreds of workers and traditional craftsmen
could be done by a single machine operated by one man. The goods produced by machines
were cheaper besides being of good quality compared than those produced by traditional
craftsmen. Thus traditional craftsmen, who could not compete with factory produced goods,
were thrown out of their profession.
Industrial revolution had no use of traditionally skilled people. Only vocationally and
professionally trained workers could enjoy prestige and carried high monetary compensation.
People manning such jobs carried lot of esteem (respect) and regards were placed higher in
social hierarchy (from father to children).
Industrial revolution has created competition among the job seekers because jobs were less
and job-seekers were more, this lead to social conflicts and frustrations.
Technology revolutionized the caste-system. In urban areas, people belonging to all castes
were required to work brushing shoulder to shoulder with each other in the factories and
industries resulted from industrial development and technological advancement.
Modernization in industrial complexes reduced the scope of un-touchability. This was no less
achievement in the field of social institutions.
48 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1. The Industrial Revolution (Turning Points in World History) Brenda Stalcup
2. The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention
William Rosen
3. History: Modern History in 50 Events: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present
James Weber
4. The Industrial Revolution in World History Peter N Steams
5. A History Of The World: In 100 Objects Neil MacGregor
Websites
1. http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/Document
2. https://schoolworkhelper.net/economic-changes-during-industrial-revolution/
3. https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/popular-culture-and-the-impact-
of-industrialisation
4. https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology/The-Industrial-
Revolution-1750-1900
5. http://www.scholaradvisor.com/essay-examples/descriptive-essay-industrial-
revolution-effects/
6. http://www.ecology.com/2011/09/18/ecological-impact-industrial-revolution/
7. https://prezi.com/deaekqfpidou/positive-and-negative-effects-of-the-industrial-
revolution/
8. http://science.jrank.org/pages/3574/Industrial-Revolution-Effects-Industrial-
Revolution.html
9. http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/modernworldhistorytextbook/industrialrevolution/ire
ffects.html
10. https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution
11. http://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution
12. http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/IndustrialRevolution/beforeindustrialisation.htm#.
WPfoGtKGPIW
13. http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-fabricating/history-of-the-
14. https://www.victoriacountyhistory.ac.uk/explore/themes/industry/industrial-revolution
49 | P a g e

Effects of Industrial Revolution

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Effects of Industrial Revolution

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CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

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(Signature of the Candidate)

IF YOU WANT TO WALK FAST GO ALONE

A project is a joint endeavor which is to be accomplished with utmost compassion, diligence

- Gaurav Kumar Singh

Aims and Objectives..5

2. The Industrial Revolution...10-13

3. Manufacturing Before Industrialization..14-16

4. Effects of Industrial Revolution..17-35

5. Technology Used During The Revolution..36-46

The aims and objectives of this project are:

Transportation And The Industrial Revolution

Communication And Banking In The Industrial Revolution

Quality Of Life During Industrialization

Industrialization Moves Beyond Britain

The Reform Bill of 1832

Cycle works as follows: increased consumer demand prompts entrepreneurs to invest in

The rise of commercial entertainment

Numerous engineers contributed to the refinement of waterwheel construction, and by the

Steamboats and ships

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