SOIL MECHANICS ratte LimitedSOIL MECHANICS. 1. Palanicmat (© 2013 by PHE Learning Pivole Lentod, Dish. All ih resorved. No pat ol this book may be mprocicod im ey Torn, Bp mimeograph at any omer means, wicu? permission im rarS fram tha publser t9gN 970-81 209-4n30-7 “Te expt chs a ths: books are vested sally with the pebaer Publimed by Asoka K. Ghoeh, PHI Lesmaing Punts Lime, impos Hoss, 111, Papen Irdusinal Esse, Deas 110082 are Pyried By Pera Impeezscn, New Gath 1006,Contents Preface xi Nowawoms xk 1, INTRODUCTION 113 1.1 Soil Mechanics, Rock Mechanics and Seil Engineering 12 y of Soil > 1.3. Development of Soil Mechanics 14 Apphsation of Soil Mechanics to Cival Engineering 4 41 Foundations 4 142 Design of Pavements 5 13. Erbankinetts saul Custives 3 4a Farth Retaining and Underground Sirustares 143 Earth Dams and Uipdrachs Staashies 6 LS Soil Formation and Types 151 Formation af Sols 6 152 Soil Types 7 1.6 Soil Siructuee and Clay Mineralogy 9 P64 Sol Stuewre 9 62 Clay Mineralogy 11 2. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONS ean. 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Definitions of Some Important Terms 15 face Content or Moisture Cena 1 Balk Un Hetghi or Bulk Dewey 13 Diy Unit Weight or Bry Density 7 Uist Weight or Density of Solids 16 Spealie Gravity af Sods 16 Soitsated Unit Wig Submerged Uint Saturated Diensty fight or Paaayact Unit Weight 17vi 228 Voed Ratio 8 229 Porosy 18 2210 Deprve of Satwation 18 221 Ag Content 19 2212 Pewenluge Av Yinks 19 223 Density Indes or Relative Density 19 2.3 Derivation of Relations among the Various Terms 22 231 Relation amoag Se. wankG 27 232° Expressions for Unit Wenhls 20 233° Relation botwssa Porosity and Vol Ratio 22 234 Relation among Biull: Unit Weight, Dry Unit Weight and Water Content 2 23.5 Bulk Unt Weg at a Given Degsee of Saturation in Texsis of its Dry ‘and Saturated Unit Weivhls 22 23.6 Relative Density im Terms of Unit Weights 23 24 Numerical Examples 25 Exons 9 Obyeete Type Qwesmons 30 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3.1 Introduction 32 3.2 Colour of the Sol #2 33 Grin Shape 33 34 3a AML Gvensdeying Method 38 342 Pyenometer Metbod #4 3444 Infrasod Lamp Torsion Balance Mojsture Meter Method S44 Sanf Bath Metis 36 35. Spocific Gravity of Solids 36 A541 Le-Charelior Method 7 352 Density Battle Matto’ 39 3.6 Gasin Size Distribution — 39 36.1 Seve Anise 1 3.62 Wet Steve Analisis 4 263 Sedimenistion Analysis 45 3.7 Consistency of Fine Grained Soils 52 S71 Consistency Lisuls—Diebintion 42 3.72. Labomniory Determination of Aterbere Limits 33 38. Other Properties af Fine Grained Soils 62 ISL Veconlinod Compose Strength — 62 382 Sensinaty 62 383 Thixolmpy — 4F 384 Actinty 6 3.9 Numerical Examples Exenises 72 Diyeciwe Type Questions — 78 32-76 saCLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 137 4.1 Intedustion 77 42 US. Bureau of Soil Textural Classification System 78 43 AASHTO Classification System 79 {31 Numezeal Examples 5] 44 Indian Standard Soil Classification System 82 44.1 Major Deve 4420 Subdivisions 83 63 Groups ad Sukgroups 84 Symbols asd Flow Chast for Classiicetion Proeeture 87 Namerical Examples 91 4s ion Tests 95 Reastion to Shahin) 98 (Consstiney Neat Plastic Lani) 9s (Crushing Resistance) 98 Peercises 96 Oyeeive Type Questions COMPACTION ganized S.1 Inweduction 98 5.2. Factors Inilucneing Compaction 29 52.1 Moisture Content 522 Campactixe Enersy 523 Sive and Gradation Laboratory Compaction — 103 or Compnetion Test 1 Proctor Compaction Te 533 Indi Sandieds Speciheanons 534 Beroeair Voids Line 10? 5.4 Strustore and Engineering Behaviour of Compacted Cohesive Soils 109) S41 Situsure 8 S012 Enginooring Beh 3443 logement Water Content snd ats Signi 55 Field Compaction 4 Importance of Compactive Enersy to bs Used i Field Compaction qui 2 Compaction Control 183 of Compacied Cohesive Soils Ho a 561 Relative Compaction 113 5.7 Numerical Examples J18) Froreses 122 Oyeetve Type Quesnons 123 SOIL WATER, PRINCIPLE GF EFFECTIVE STRESS AND PERMEABILITY 125-159 6.1 Inuoduetion 125 6.2 Soll Water and Capillorisy 125viii 6.3. Stresses in Soils 631 Concept . 632 Tolal, Neutral and Peet vous Purposes 18 633 Nomeseal Examples 3 64 Flow through Soils 641 Dwey'slaw 156 6.42 Relation bermeen Discharge Velocity and Scopnge Vi 138 643 Factors Initucncing Coxtlicient of Per 6.44 ‘Typical Volucs of Cocfliicnt af Permeability foe § 6.5 Dotormination of Cocfficiom of P 6.5.1 Laboratory Determn a 632 Field Determination wf Coe rnccity 63% Bguivale Pesmenbiity Yor Layered Deposits #4 6.6 Numerical Exarmph wail 50 Feercises 1S? Dlyecnve Type Questions — 158 SEEPAGE THROUGH Soms 160-189 TA Seepage Pressure 168) 7.2 Quick Sand Condition 7.3. Numerical Examples on Scepage and Quick Sand Condition I¢. 74 ‘Two-dimensional Flow in 169 740 Laplace Fa 342 Flow Net 75 Unconfined Scepage Flow 177 7.6 Sccpage through Anisoxropic Soil 18 7.7 Deviation of Flow Lines at the Interface between Two Soils with Different Cosflicienls of Permeability — 183 2.8 Piping Phenomenon and its Prevention by Provision of Filter Medium 134 7.9 Numerical Example [lasting Calculation of Safewy against Quick Sand Condition 18% Frerciscs IS? Objecsive Type Questions — 188 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 190-220, 8.1 Introduction 19 8.2 Boussinesq's Suress Distritution Theory 197 RA Vertical Sess beneath Uniform Line Load 295 Ro Vertical Suess bencath Stip Loat — 127 BS. Vertical Stress duc to Uniformly Distributed Load on Circular Arca 207 8.6 Vertical Stress duc to Uniformly Bistritutcd Load on Rectangular strca Wid 5.7 Vertical Stress due to Long Embankment Loading 207 RS Newmark’s Influence Chari 2/0 BSI W Wo Mabe Use of the Chant?” 2989 sApprosimate Stress Distribution Methods SOL Pauivalent Point Lewd Method 242 892 21 Le 3 Dispersion Method RIM Concept af Isobar or Pressure Bulb 2/4 SL Westergoardl’s Equation 217 Fxevcnscs 218 Objective Type Questions — 219 9, CONSOLIDATION 9.1 Anreduction 221 9.2 Fundamentals of Consolidation 93 Laboratory Coasolidation Test 2 9.4 Ineretation of Results ef Consolidation Test DAL Height of Solids Methow 227 942 Compression Index 230 94% Caatlictent of Compressinity — 251 9.5 Estimation of Coasolidation Setlemsat 946 Time Raic of Consolidation — 235 9.7 Determination of Coofficient of Consolidation 031 ff vy Dit Reatiog Matbod 240 932 tees. Dat Renkng Method 2¢r S54, Camp af hee Metals 308 vx Sacomdayy Cunsoldaion 23 99 Numerical Examples 44 Premier 252 Objective Type Quectome 288 10, SHEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 101 Inbodustion 284 221-257 29 258-201 102 Roview of Principal Suosses, Principal Planes and the Concept of Mobe Circle 3. Mobe-Coulomls Failure Crit Ind Teraghi's Effective Stress Principle 264 1015 Determination of Shear Strength 367 nit 262 1052 Disect Shar Test 268 054 Traci Compression Tox 4 Unconfinad Compress 2055 Vine Shear Test 106 Skemplon's Pore Pressure Parameters 107 Sensitivity and Thisotropy af Clay 283 108 Numerical Examples 284 Kxercises 297 Objective Type Questions — 29 8 (UEC) Te 276X Contents AL, STABILITY OF SLOPES 302-339 HLL Inwedustion 302 112 Stability Analysis of In 12 Cokes 122 e@Sal 305 11.3 Stability Analysis of Finite Slopes TA Swedish Circle Method — 309 141 Purely Cohesive Sols $09 1142 epsSois 510 HLS Felignius Method for Locating Cente of Critical Slip Cirsle 342 6 Slability of Side Slopes of Earth Dam 373 11.61. Stbibiy of Downstrcam Slope during Steady Seepage 312 1162 Subility of Upstream Slope during Sudden Trowdomn 304 11.63 Siobibity of Both Upstrarn and Downstream Slopes daring end Immediately afer Cansiraction 34S 11.7 Friction Circle Method of Analysis 346 E18 Stability Analysis Using Taylor's Stability Number S18" 119 Bishop's Method of Stability Analysis 322 TMT Poosolore of Ditstmining F 32 TLD Numerical Examples 328 Prercies 337 Objeesive Type Quesmuns 338 REFERENCES 341-343 moex 345-350Preface ‘This book on ‘Soil Mechanics’ is the outcome off my 24 yours ef experience im teaching rocearch, esting and consulianzy’in the field of geotechnical engineering I have put in as mac elfort as possibis 50 that ths reader alruostexperieness the classroom tcaching-Ieaming process, The book is designed in such a way thatthe syllabus af the sare course ‘Soil Mechanics or “Gsotsehnical Engineering 1 prescribed in he course curriculum of most ef the Indian Universities is 1 ss alimost Billy yeats since St sytem of units were inkadueed afler MKS and COS sysioms. But, even now, MKS and CGS sysisms are wsod along with SI system ow the pretest that in the tension cme, both are required. Buc this has lod w confusion: in many cumerical samples. The confusion 4s Because af the fact that there Is no distinction betwesn mass and weight in MKS and CGS systems. For example. the unit of weight is given in terms of 3 and density ia terms of KNim®. Moreover, same novation is used for densigy and unit weight Jn my spunion, the mansition pestod is over and hence only SI system of units is usta i this book. This will avoid comfusio as well as encourage practising engineers to use SI system In addition, this book hae some special features. To mention a Few, Uke difference betwcen specifi gravity of solids and that of soil. ciference botween unit weights and densitics, dierent notations for distinguishing between fisin. calculation of cempactive encrzy for light compaction and siandate Procior crapaction tests and explanation of Terzaphi's effective stress eancept fn a different way, hase found a place in the book, Spocinl emphasis se given 0 the relevant provisions of Indian Standard Codes so shat practising engineers are also benefited ‘orgs number of numerical examples have boew included in every chapier which illustrate vividly the conceprs cxplained in tht chapter Problems that are drsctly applicable te the practice in Soil Engineering have been chosen. Apant from this, objective type questions with ansivers ave given at the snd of sack chapter, whieh will help the stadenis preparing for competitive examinations like GATE, Civil Service and State Public Service Examinations Tam fartunace io have studiod moder good teachers in my exseer, and Lams deopls indebied to all of them for their inspiration and encouragement. T have had the opportunity of teaching brilliant students in my’ carcer. The interaction I had with them inside and outside the classtoam avered, xixii Helped me ta improve my knowledge in the subject. I mever hesitate to say that | learnt (have stil] been learning) a lot in soil mechanics while teaching, them. Acknowledgement is due to my Dast-students (practising engineers, now) who all cggsd me on te writs 2 book on this subst express my sinccee thanks lo my wile, Vasanthi and my daughters, Ranjitha aad Bobby Preethi for their sacrifice, unstiated support and help during preparation of this book. Special thanks are due tw my pateats-indaw Mr. R. Kulathwran and Mis. K. Pushpavathi for thet continuous encouragement and tremendous support. A book of this kind mould nol havs been passible without the excellent cooperation and valuable sngpostions offered from sime xe time by the Publishers, PHT Leaming to improve the quality @f this work, | gratefully aeknow ledge their encosiragerent andl help im Uke eae eh processing OF the manuscriph In spite of the best efforts, i¢ is possible that some crocs might have erept ja. It willl be appreeiated iF such errors are brought to the notice of the author or dhe publisher. Any constructive comments and suggestions to improve the coments of the baok are welcome from the sluclents, teachers and engineers M. PalanikumarNotations D Db, by Dye Activity of clay. Area of cross section, Skempion’s pore pressure parameter Tntonmal area of the jar of voids al area, wf grass section nplon’s pote pressure parameter Air contemt Surface area of solids Coefiicient of compressibility Width, Skempon’s pore pressure parameter Clay Coettic Compression index Defloceulating agent correction Consistency andex or Relative com Magnitude of gorrection Temperature correction Uniformigy eoeticient Coefficient af consolidation CosiMicient of sezcacdary consolidatten Cohesion Neobilizsd cohesion Undzained cohesion EMfective cohesion Diameter, Dial reas Dopth factor Size comrespondiny to 10% finer Size comesponding to 15% finer xi ingNotations Size conesponding to 30% finer Size comesponding, to 60% finer Size comesponding to 85% Diameter of glass cube, Maximum distance of drainage path Void ratio Void ratio st the loosest possible Void ratio at the densest possible iste Void ratio at the natural state Initial void ratio Faslor of safety Factor of safety with respect ve cohesion eh Faslar of safety with respest (hs Nowmal cempaneat of weight Seepage foree Tangeatial component of the seepay ‘Tangeatial component of weight Spocitic gravity of solids, Gravel Group indes Specitic gravity of soil High compressibility. dhichness. height, depth Critical height of embankansnt or cutting Height of solids Head of waier Capillary tise. Henry's constant of solubility of air in water by volume Medisim compressibility, Newmank’s influence coefficient Flow index Plasticity indo Iiiuence coefticiont Hiydeaulic: eradient Critical hydraulic gradiem Essit gradi Biowssinesq's inllueace factor Westergaard’s influence Factor Coeticient oF permeability Coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction Coedticient af percolation Coefficient af permeability in the vertical direction Low compressibility, Length Liquidity inde. Initial length Are lengthyocr omc Pp * Pr fy 2 4 om " # (Chon Length Total mass of soil, Inorganic silt Mass of dry soi Mass. of solids Mass of water Mass of wet soil Hydrantic mean radius, Bishop’ stair coefficient Coefficient of volume compressibility Number of blows, Normal force Number of flow channels Nunber of equipeveatial doops Effective normal force Porosty, Bishop's stability coefficient Peccentage air voids Organic silt Over Consolidation Ratio Qprinmum Moisture Content Poorly graded, Consolidation pressure ‘Air peossure in voids, after compaction Preconeolidation pressure Iniial eifeesive pressute Seepage pressure Magnitude of point load Intensity of succhaage, steip load, Disel Unconfined compressive strenzth Intensity of uniform line loos Hydrometer reading, Sheinkage ratio, Relative compaction, Rey old's suanber, Radiat distance, Reaction Relative density or Dew Radius Pore pressure ratio Degree of sataration, Sand, Shear force Stability nusnber Sencitivity iy indes Surface tension, Tarsion, Tangential Farce Toughness index Tine Factor ime Degiee of consolidation, Neuteal fosce [Neuual sess, Pore water pressure Talal volume of soil, Yolume af waterXVI Notations ¥ Volume of air Fy, Volume of dy sail ¥, Volume of hsdeometer ¥ Volume of solids b Volume of voids K Volume of water Foy Mirlame of wet soil my Initial volume y Terminal velocity of setling particles, Velocity of flow y Seepage velocity ¥ Inward velocity w Total weight of soul, Well graded, Weight of prise of soi. Initial weight of solids in the suspension Weight of solids Weight of particle in suspersion Weight of water " Water content ar Moisture content w Water content comesponding 40 init Liquid Timi wy, Natural water somtent Ws Plastic lait Shrinkage limit Horizental centroid distance Deep, length Depth of tension crack Slope angle Unit weight of liquid, soil Bulk unit weight of soil ary unit weight of soil Unit weight of solids. Unit weight of the setthng, particles Saruraied unit weight af sail Submerged unit weight of soil hi of suspension ight of suspension at time 1 Specific w Unit weight of water fective unit weight of soil e Linear str a Embankment compression. expressed as fraction of original total combankment volume ae Change an void ratio AM Change in thickness AL Change a lengthau ui, (iho dain Wout Inetease in pressure ov stess Excess pore water prossure Increase on pave pressure eorrespanding to increase i xvii Aviator stress Inoreaso in pose pressure eerrespanding 1 increase in cell pressure Change in volume Devigtor sires Deeviator sitess at failure Ingrease in major pringipal stress Increase in eell pressure Dynamis viscosity of water Density of liquid Book density of soil Diy density of soil Density of mercury Density of solids Density of water Field diy density of 201 Masinuum dry density of sail Minimam dry density of coil Diry deusity corresponding to ene air voids line ‘Total suress, Normal stress on the given plane Normal stresses in x and y directions Additional venical stross Majer principal stress Major principal stress at failure Intermediate prin Manor principal sites Effective stress ar Intergranular stress siress an the given plane sf suces st failure or Shear strength Mobilized shear strength Maximum shear stress Complimentary shear stress Angle of internal friction Mobilized angle of internal Friction Unudsained angle of internal fe Weighted friction angle Bitective angle of intemal friction Failure angle‘cure | Introduction 1.1 Soil Mechanics, Rock Mechanics and Soil Engineering, ‘The term “soil” derives ats origin thom the Latin word sof, If has different meanin different scientific fields To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material overlying the parem: rack which has not been ansported from its place of origin, To an aprioulturis it means the top loose material formed by the disinlegration of rocks, with an admixture of onpanic matter to support the plant life. But, to a civil engineer, the term soil means the unconsolidated, ino J by weathering of being either residual of uansported Soil ot oly suppers tke foundations of all structures Dut is also used as a construction material, Heace. the eis engineers are interested ta stuity the properties of soil including grain size distribution, plasticity characteristics. permeability shear sirongh, compressibility and hearing capacity Soil Mechanics” i$ the branch of ssience that deals with the study’ of the physical properties of soil and the behaviour of soil masses subjected 10 various types of forces. This is ane af the youngest branches of civil engineering The publication of the book Frdbwumecheut enuf Bodenphysikalisher Grundiage by Karl Vou Tetzaghi in 1923 ted to the bin of modern and systematized soil mechanics. For the éfemendeus contributions made by Tereaghi to the development of modern soil mechanics, he is rightly regarded as the “Father of Soit Mechanics’. Some of his conspicuous contritations incl the development of Effestive Stress Theory and Bearing Capacity Thssey for shallow Foundations, Avconding Soil Mechanics is the applicator of the lans of mechanics and bydraulies to problems dealing with sedimems and other unconsolidated accumulations of soil parties praduced by the mechanical and chemival disiategeation of rocks regardless of whether fF not they contain an admisture of organic constituents Though bath soit and rock consist af mincral yrains, the bond between the mincral grains ig relat 1 im rocks ‘Tetaghi made the distnetion betwee soil and sock based of how sraans cant be separated fiom each other, Soul gains can be casily separated by a gentle mechanical means like agiistion in water, whereas in rock it cannot be dane that easily. Rock Mechanics is that branch of science that deals with nic material on the crust of exith, prod a, Consolidatis ely weak in soil, whereas2 the application of the principles of mechanics to the understanding, of the behaviour of rack masses. The development of Rock Mechanics is necessitated by the situations where heavy re 1 be transfered 4 the eoek below amd algo while taming, én the Soil Engincering is the term that deals with the application of principles of sail mechanies 0 engincoring problems. This includes soil mechanies, geology, structural engineering, soil dynamics and other fields of enginecring that arc required fo obtain practical solutions to stl rolatsel problsms. Geotechnical enginscring is another new term that includes soil mechanics, Foundabon engineering, design of foundation struciures and soil and rock enginesring, 1.2 Complexity of Soil Soil is a somples material boeause iis nok fatory-anade wwlihe some otier materials, foe example, sicel. The physical and mechanical peopzrics of some of the most commonly used materials such as timber, steel, concrete and reinforced concrete are well established and she analysis of any structural member mads of these materials is easier. An cngincer can select the material that is best suite for the given situation and that matsrial bshaves ina way that iis expected to behave in But, fora soil engineer, there i no such choice. He hat accept the geil in ls natural state, though 3 he eam change ils properties by the process of clsiical o1 mechanical stabilization. Another problem encountered by ihe soil enginece isthe wide variation in the soil profile within 2 small arca. The Leaning Tower of Pisa is lassie example for this. Iti suppared by a citcwlar base of diameter of only 20m. Within a distance af 20/1, the variation in te soil profile ts So ercal that the tower has been out of plumiy by more than 5 ra! Therefore, an engine ion data, Also, the physical properties and strength of soils chan to time. A soll investigated during summer whon she wale table is far Bek, appears to be stronger, Bu when the water table rises, the soil Becomes subwnerged and loses almast one half of its weight. Granular soils like sond, which derive dir strength purely based on theic ‘wei, lose one half oftheir strength Clay 1s very hard when it is dry, BuL goes on losing its strength whan the moisture const increases, hs plasticity characterises also Keep on chan change in the moistare coment ‘The complexity in the behavious of soils ie duc wo the presence of large volumes of voids between the solids. These voids may be sccwpied partly by ait and by watee ia the remaining paris. Sometincs. they are fully occupiod by water or air. Even the othor materials have voids bbutthe volume of voids is not lage chowplt tee cansidcred forthe analysis. For these matcria the difference heween the specific gravity of individual grime and thot of tke overall mixers 4s very somal, But in soils, there is a large difarence between spstic gravity of solids of the soil and that of soil 1 judvemen! is requited in the interpretation of soil inves e frome time 1.3 Development of Soil Mechanics From time immemorial, soit has been used for enaiucering purposes sush as supporting structures through foundations, construction of embankments. pavements and relaining structures, BeforeInerndvction the development of sil mechanics his was done pucly based on knowledge guined though thal and erorappronch and experince, People probably lar from ther mistakes and some thumb rics were developed, housh soms ofthese rcs were very conssrative Wry aflen, the Bhayiag ndens of Babylon are cited hs an example Tor the use of Atnowledge of soil meckanis, though empirical in natr, in the ancient eines, These gardens sere supported by hage retaining wall, comsiicin of which would have deftly required fame knowledge of cath pressuts, Romans ould not have exes i architctae as carly 88 the rst cenury. n,withou the know edge in enginering bshaviour of ool In dia, books traction science were writen by Mansar and Vswakarma dung the modal period The Bribadoesara tomple bil by Raja Raja Chola Tin x 1010 in Tanivus, Tamil is 4 momumnehal example 16 prove some bind of Keowledge porsesed in the Bald of sol mechanic millenium years ago. Taj Mahal, considera to be one of the wonders of the ek ‘as consruted between ap 1632 nad a> 168, Ths inamunten is Known te have some of ts strctres suppor on well foundation. TRe Leaning Tower of Psa. constructed between 19 17hand 40 1330 isa proof of te mulation of empirical methods adopted in those days. This strate his ted becanee of lack of knowledge fa the dsign of foumfatons on compresible soils amd te eee of lenin gsiement on susie, The ninjr beaktivough inthe siete study of si Behaviour is credited ta Coulomb a French Engler who published hls wedge tcory of ean pressure in L776. He uaed maxima and minima principles of mathamatcs fr Tosaing the eral slip surfse of airs. Com vas also the ft to fvodace Ie gancept thas shear resstonss ofa sail can bs spit mks two components, snmely cohesion and inemal (Hicion, Poncelt exiended Conor's Wedge Theory by developing a waphical eth for obtaining he mogakde of fairl ear presets on sting walle With srticl and tacinsd backs. In 1856, Darcy's law wat puescled for Taminar fow and Siche presented his low en sedimentation ofeollodal parle in an infinite Teguid mdm. Rankine’ Earih Pressure Theory, which sa simpli of Coulomb's Wedge Theos na psemsd in ISS7, Rankine assumed the surface ofa staining wal o Be emoeth and ignored the cohesion conaponcnt ef shear aren of soils and hence le Uhcoty is ach Simply than that of Coulomb In 1885, Bousinesq presented the thcory of Stess Distribution tnder loaded bearing reas in the homogeneous, sient, clase and ietrople sted ‘The phenomenon of diatancy in sand was dsmonsated by Reynolds sv 1887 The defintion of Consistency Limits in clas, amclyfigud. plasic and shrinkage limits ty: Avorbery fond hence named afer him) in TDI fo 4 the several publications of results of ravtareh comdutted on chy The asks llc eetch a vasiou ys vir uraiae Hat tess om clays andr consanl vertical load by. Fronard in [914 ltrs pesanre and resistance of ely, bearing eapaiy of clay and hear box leis for maturing undrined chear rng tkng undistrbed samples by Bell x 1913, and sip cle analyse of sarod elo slopes by Fellnius in 1918. Later. the very fans Coasoidaton Theory for Chys was polished by Terenghi in 1923 Terzaghi coined te term Soil Mechanics (Faia mecha in German) when he published his fist book an 1928 and ns mentioned thy: tiaking tremendous contibutioas to is developeent, Later on, Prote Peck, Hance, Thorburn and host of cthrs followed Terraghi to make Soil Mechanics an important dssiplig of sivatenginesingA Soil Mechanics Meanwhile, Prandil gave his Bearing Capacity Thoory, based on the theory of plastic equilibrium, in 1920, which became the basis for the development of various tearing capacity theories imchicing those of Fellemius €1938), Terzaghi (1943), Meygthof (1951), Skemptom (U9S1), Biringh Hansen (1961) and Wesie (1973) ‘The first conference ofthe International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Enginceting (ISSMFE), now renamed as the International Society of Soil Mechanies and Geoiechnical Engincsring, ISSMGE, was held i 1936 under the chnicmanship of Terzaghi, Seventeen conferences have fcen hold so far uncler the auspices of this Internalianal Society. The venue and the year in which each of these conferences has been held are given in Table 1.1 TABLE 1-1 Details sfconfereoses of ISSMIFE and ISSMGE since Tnerrational Conference Cie Couaniny jon Year Harvard, MA, TICSNEF WICSMPE, ML ICSMIE Iv Lena V IsME VEICSME: VIL ICSMER. VIL IeSMFE Inc 1C 48 de resis [XU ISM: [XLV ICSMFE XW ICSMGE XL ICSMGE [XYIL IESG 1.4 Application of Soil Mechanics to Gi Rotersam ures Lorton Paris: Monts Mesico sity Moscane Tayo suck San Francisen, CA. Rio de Janeino New Delhi Hamibong Istaria Osaka Alesandsia USA The Netherlands Switeerlanad UK France Canada Mexices uss Sg Sweden 1934) oss oss vost 1961 oes L969 1973 lon 1981 oR L989 994 io 2001 003 2008 il Engineering A thorough knowledge of soil mechanics is required for several fields of chil cagincering including the following Lad Soil Mechamies firme the basis for Foundation Engines ng, Cast, the ig 9 thm lime which separates Foundation Engineering fiom soil mechanics, Any structure hag 10 transmit its Hostlution 5 {0 the soil through the foundations. Obviously, a kaowledge in soil mechanics is required to decide the wpe of foundation based on the given soil profile and the load coring on the column or wall. Once the (wpe of foundation is desided, the bearing sapacity (fer shallow Foundations) or load carrying capacity (Ir piles) is to be determined, For finding this, sh strength characteristics of soil are requited. Foundations ace nwt only guatded against shen fil but also from the excessive settlement. Far predicting the sotlement under the actual load, the compressibility charocteristies of the soil are required Some of the soils like expansive soils, roquirs special foundations far which the plasticity characteristics of the soil are essential. ‘To make these judgernents, knowledge and application of soil mechanics principles are required. 1.4.2. Design of Pavements Broadly, pavements are classified into mor calegories: (i) exible (i rigid. The performance of these pavements very much depends on the quallly of the natural soul (known as subgrade) om biel they vest. In other wards. the required thickness of a pavement, designed for a particular set of conditions, depends on the strength af the subgrade. Unlike the stractural cloments, the ropstition of the loads plays a mayor part in the design of pavements. The swell-shrinknge characterislic of the soil also influences the performance of the pavement, All the paxement materials, inclnding the subyrade soil, are compacted in the field and hence the compaction charactaristies of the runterials are requieed for the execution ofthe projet Ax far as pavements aig consemed, saving oF even ous ct thickaess will god long way in reducing the overall cost of the project because they run in kilometers. This is possible only with the application Of principles of soil mechanics 1.4.3, Embankments and Cuttings The top width and the height of an embankment (or the bottom widily and the depth of curing, in els) are functional eequitements, For the given top wid and height of aa embankanent ana albe for the given properties of sail, these is a slope hil not only has an adequate Factor al) safety against failure but is also econerical. For obaining this slope, onc has 10 carry out slope stability analysis for which the nowiedge of soil mechanics is required, The volume of sort that is compacted in embankments is huge and hence not only the compaction characteristics of the coil but also the methads of fatd compactian and compaction control are to be known 1.4.4 Earth Ret ining and Underground Structures ‘Any sumcrure whch retains east led backfill in dhs eae) is subjected to lateral earth pressure For designing such structures, the distribution of earth pressure and the anagnitude and porot application of the resullant thrust are to be deisrmined. The latezal earth pressure depends om the unit-weight and strength paramctcrs of the sail, For checking the siaility of retaining, walls ‘against sliding, the coefficient of friction between soil and ths material of the wall is required, which is alsa 3 function of the properties of soil, Fer the desi pipelines, drainage stmciures and tunnels, the principles of seilsstuctare interaction are requited of uaderground structures likeIndex 21 lon dispersion meibod ee 635% dispersion Boussinesq's influence faxtor, 192 method, 203, 214 Boussinesa’s sressdistabution theory, 1 “Uva reading metbad, 240, Bulk deny, 15 Bulk un eight. 1S Bulking of send, 10 Daly grains 33 Bupa unit AASHTO clasiicaioa san, 78,79 Asti 63 ‘ttc es, 99 ‘Somes wou rset Aa mis 318 cone eat Hazen equation, 14 Capillary fringe Aas sation, 1 pl ne 13 internal frietion, 263 rgranse apparatus, 33 ie i ccteme Chis clay 7 Anaoiropte weil, 180 ee Classification tests 32 ‘siterberp limits, 52 hay, 6,39 Clay kam, 78 Hace faibure, 308, 320 Clay mineralogy. 9.1 lering capacity, 1 Conrse grained faetion, 40 Hesiomts, 7 Coarse grained sil, 6 82, 84 shop's method of stability analysis, S008,322 Course sand. 94 [lack cota si, 7 Cobble 9 Hianving conditions guicksandeanditimor boiling Coefficient of fl sand. 162 compessiflity. 21 ollie condision or quick sandennditienar blowin consolidation, tf saa. 162 Houlder.39| oulderelav, 7 pernoeabeby. 197 Hound water, 125. sooenndary eonselation. 243 Hounary How le. 178 ‘volume compressibility, 238 a5346 index Cohesion, 3, 262 Compaction, ‘ompaetion soto 11 Compaetive erry, 102, (Compressibility, 1, 120 ‘Compression indes, 230 Cone penet sn, 87 Comfne fe gest, 143 Consistensy, 51 (Consistency ides or rlaive consistency, $8 Consisensy lintis, 3,32 igus int, 3,37 plastic mit, 3, stninkae ioe 3, St (Consolidated coined Yes, 272 (Consolidated undrained west, 272 (Consntidation, 3, 8, 2 (Consolidation fesuune, 227 [Consolidation rig, 225 (Consatidation satilernert, 232 (Consnlidometer or eedomet Constant bead amet, 143 Construction pore prassure, $14 (Cone cutter method. 114 Comectinnetatnatametes readings, $7 ‘Selocetilating agent correction, 47 meniscus correction, 7 temperature cerrection. 4 Critial Irate gradient, 162 Critical slpeircle, 312 Critical veal ratio, 270 Citing. 5 25 Dart lw, 3,138 Deflaceulating apent, Destee of cmmialaton, 238 saturation, 18 renmity bole method, 38 Density index or relative density. 19 eh fact, 320 Dresiator stress, 272 Exferential sotlemeal 3,221 Dilatanes: 3,95 Batata 270 [iret shesr tes, 268 ons method of Lud it te Dhsty sar, 81 Discharge velocity ot superticial veosity, 137 Dispersed structure, 109 Dispersive cays 7 avodown Water tabs, FI Dring meine, 309 Dry deity, 18 Dry side of optimara, 11 Dy steoapsh, 93 ry unit weight skeleton unit wept, 16 Dune sand, Diysame vssosity of wae, AS e-log F cunve, 228 arth dain, 313, arin preseae, arts ramamers, 11 Filesive major prinsipal sess, 273 festive minor preneipal sess, 274 Effective size, M11 Etlecive sese lay, 129 Fflesive sites on intespranular stress, 128 Fifecsive nit weigh, 18 Embankment “Embarkanent compression, 33 Eqgipotential Lines, 171 Higaivalent enolicien of permeability, LAT Equivalent ost Ho tbo, 22 acess pore water pressure. 222 sit gradient, 6, [75 Essponson curve, 2% Expansive sol, Face failure, 308 Factor of safety, 3 304 ‘paint slicing. 37 wh respect to ealesion. 307 woth rexpost to bog, 307 ads char, 205, Faudure exvelope, 263 Faure plane. 264 Falling bead or variate head method, 54 elfeotus metho, $12 Field compaction, 111 Field dessaty by sind replicement metbad, 115 Fie grained fraction,Fine grained soi, 82, 84 Fine send, 39 Finite slope, 38,308 Fishy grains, 33 Fle. 41 Flocetlated structure, 109 Flow index, la hn, 171 love na 6, 171 Friction sree, 318 Friction crete meth, 308, $16 ravitonal sist, 262 Gap graded soi, 3 Goosiase sres, 128 Goatentiies, 136, fibhsite shoe, 11 Glacial uth. 7 Grace filter inverted fer, 186 Grain properties, #2 Grain shape, 33 angola, 35 rounded, 92 subangular 33 suhvounded, 33, well rounded, $3 jain ie distribu 138 Grain sve distribution Gare, 42 Gravel, 9, 39 Group index, 79 Hagan, 8 Heavy compaction tes, 105 Het of silts metho. 227 Hight engansc sal, 82.88 His equation, 315 Hydrated water. 125, Hydraubie gradicat. 16 Habe mean asks, 89° Hydrometer analysis. 46 Hygroscopac water, 27 White, Iredale sellsment, 2 sapien flue cova, 261.278, 505 Index properties, 92 Inukex 347 steess, 128, 190 Infritsd lat torsion balance moisture sete ‘miethou, 36 Inorganis sl, £4 Intergranular stess, 128 90,3 Trot llr or pradesilter, 186 1S classication syst, 78,82 Teobar of presire hal, 214 Iecchrone, 224 "aoenonphos substitution, 12 Konkan & Kool, TE Lacusteine Lente, # Le-Chatelier method, 37 Light compaction test, 195 Ligusd att Ligusdsty index, 58 Lor, € Loess, 7. Jog (5, dial reasng ethos, 231 ‘Major principal plane, 259 Mayor principal stese, 259 ‘Marane 7 Marl, 8 ‘Mavimum chear sess, 259, ‘Maximum dhooeetical dry deat 107 ‘Mein coarse sand, 39 ‘Method of slices or Swaaish citcle method or slip circle method, $08 ‘Minor principal plane ‘tint prineipal ress, 2 ‘Mobilired angle of internal fiction, 321 . ‘Mutiicad cohesion, 30 ‘Mobilise shea stength, $21 Modified area. 275 Modifed fate envelope, ‘Movie festa cies, 318 ‘Moviled Proeior soenposton test, 105 Mokreiele, 258 ‘Moke~Coulomb flare criterion, 262 5348 ‘Meine coment or water sant ‘Mesatnilonat 1 Muck, usr, 8 N-Curve, 301 ‘Needle-sapel gras, 83 ural sees pare water posse, 128 [Nowmark'snflusre coef, 205 fevumark’ nflaenee ea, 210 ‘Newnnark'snulusre Vale, 211 Now-plastis, 38 fn staess, 259, 304 [Nonally sosolidsed clay, 229 (Osometer or consoltdometer, 225 ‘Ohe-timenstonal comsataon, 225 ‘One point metbd of liquid lini deteomination. 36 ‘Optimuer moisture eonteot, 10 (Organe st, 81 ‘Otc cart, 208, Gvenirying method, 38 (Gvereeaeolated clay, 229 ‘Oversoenolation sath, 229 Partially thivotzopic material, 284 Pavement exible, § Beal Peak sheer strength Pra Perventage air aids, 19 Permeability. 188, 10, 136 Permeabslty fio, 186 Permean, 14] Permissible sctlement, 2 Phacaic lin, 178, 313, Piles. 3 Prping, 6 Prping phenomence, 184 Piping robo, 185 Placement water content, 1 Plastic Fie, $7 Plasticity, S2 Plasticity charwclerisies, 0 Plate shspet grains, 33 Praeuenatie tyre rollses, 112 Pooiseuilie's squats, 139 Poorty graded sands 84 Poorly graded soi, 42,102 Pots piessure mi, 325 Pos water, 125 Pore ater pressure er neural sess, 128, 268 Potosi, 18 Preconsolidaion pressure, 226, 228, 229 Present ress, 228 Pressure bulbs, 24 Praneapal plane, 258 Prinespal sess, 258 Prosior newdle metho Progressavesastare, 27 Proving ring, 268, 272 ‘Public road sdinttration classification sys Pyencmeter metho 3 279 quick don cof sad, 161 conistonor blowing -Recompresston curve, 229 Relative compaction, 113 Relative consistency or consistency index, $8 Relative density or density sex, 19,114 Remoulded clay. 288 Residual sei, 6 Revising moment, 309 Reprokl' wabes, 136 Rock mechanics. 1 Sauad boil meth, 36 saa pouring evlinder, 116 Sandy clay. 75 Saundy lay fom, 78 Sarady loa, 98 Saturated density, 17 Salesated nat eiek!, 17 Seating presre, 225, ‘Secondary consolidation, 243 1s Sediznsnation analyst, Seenpe. 6, 308 Sespape pressure, 160 Sesnape velosity, [3SSesiiity, 62,289 Settlsmsat, 21 ‘Shea stisngth oF Shearing resistance, 258 Sass strong, 259 Shasgsfoot rollers, 112 Shrine limit, 39 Shrinkage rata or specie gtataly af ay soi, 61 Sieveumalyts, 4 Signifieans depth of fw estigat Sila dst, 11 Si, 39 Sil een, 78 Silty clay Yarn, 78 Salty loan, 78 ‘Sue corresponding ta 109% finer, 43 3095 finer, 3 (5055 fine, 5595 es, 18 ‘Skeleton unit weight ry emit weight, 16 ‘Skenplon ome preseure params, 2M Sip citcle method or Swediee circle method ot ‘maths af slices, 308 Sip surface, 302 Slope sgte, 305 Slope stabiiy analysis, 302 Smaocth wheel rollers, 112 Soil ‘eoline, t alluvial 7 lasifcation, 77 igh Tcustrine, 7 ‘marin, 7 5 to, residual 6 transparied. 6 Soil apsregate properties, 32 Soil scare, 9 disperse 10 ‘nwsulate 10 bony combed, single rauned, Spxiie eravity of ry soi or shrinkage rao, 6 soak 7 sols, 16, 36, Specie surface area, 13, 102 Slabilisy eveflisients, 325 inchs 349 Stabby sabe 307 Standard stooving Wo, $3 Stand Proctor cori st 108 Steady ssepags, 313 Sterna sal Seeks Li 48 Seengihemlope or flare emslpe, 263 sus isto. 228 Sunueury of ol, 140 Sogn, 3 ‘Senergd unit weight, [7 Sn sarong, $3 Susie velo of disshnge ost 137 Ssvedish cele method or sop sitle taethod ot tho o sses, 208 Svelling potentn | 10 08 Theure 31 lagenrial tres, 80. Taylor's stability char, 308, 31 Fay oe stably arabes, 319) Teruson cracks, 310) Terminal velocity, 23 Teva's effective stress priesple, 286 Iewaglt’s onestimensinnal conssinasion theory, 235 Thivotropy. 68, 288 Three phase diggraca, Hb Tine phase mem, 64 Time rate of consolidation, 288 Toe fare, 308, 320 Toughnces 9S Toughness, 8 Transported soil. 6 Taina eampecssion ie, 271 Ill Tae, 8 Uhiimats shear strength, 240 Vneonfined compressor lest 276 Uneonfined eumpressve strength, 62,278 Vnsonfiod flowtes, 115 Vnsontined seepage law, 17? Visonsolidated winded lel, 272 ‘listed cay, 285 ation syste, 82350 index oe ‘Wan shu st, 278 rine hese or taling Bead eth Nerignan’s theorem, 318 ‘arved slay, 2 ‘erga ies oreo ‘np Bod, 199 unoers tie lew, 195 erica sess due ta ong embankment easing, 2 ‘unfoemky distributed Jaton arouse anes, 201 rectangular aren 8 bureau of soil Lestural slassilicabion stem, ‘ertcal aress uncer point load, 191 ‘ivatory sollers, 112 ‘Virgin sompoessionseurve, 22 ond eat, 1 laine of Ge ai voids, 315 ‘Wier sorte 15, 33 ‘Wall prod sandigravs, 34 ‘Wall gre soil, 42.102 ‘Westergaand’s equstion, 217 ‘Westerguund's lluence lastot, 217 ‘et side of optmum, 111 Wel seve analysis ‘ato-vir voids line, 107 ene of zation, 126 saturation, 126