CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AN IDEA ABOUT THE PROJECT

An idea involves thinking is the best exercise for clearing the concepts. Thinking is just like
a simulator where different ideas, through & actions are compiled to get results. Thinking
needs experience to testing result experience comes by evaluating our thinking by a perfect
mocker and eliminating flows from it. Thinking is the first step to projection. By this project
we get a chance to think and testing our book and knowledge.

The idea of pneumatic lifter is not only to lift goods but also to exercise that how an
engineering subject can be utilized to get an output or a product which can ease the human
workings. We are using scissors for simple sheet metal cutting. It is a manual method so that
sheet metals are to be wasted sometime because of mistakes happened such as wrong
dimensions etc., and also even a simple cutting may take long time. Hydraulic machines are
also available for sheet metal cutting. But this method is used for only heavy metal cutting
and its cost is very high.We are using a pneumatic system for sheet metal cutting in a easy
way. It is operated by a pneumatic hand lever of two way control valve. Control valve is
operated by a compressor.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

Basically the project pneumatic lifter is designed to lift the goods to small height as in small
scale industries. It will be manual operated machine which is designed in order to meet the
basic requirements such as lifting material at small heights or working at small heights.
Because of its manual operation it is less costly. It will also decrease the muscular
operations done by workers which increase their efficiency to do work.

1.3 SUBJECTS COVERED UNDR THE PROJECT

The Project "Pneumatic sheet cutter" is not a single book project. It links the several
discipline and mechanical engineering and general physics several derivations and
formulates from different subjects are mention in next chapters. Some of the subjects need
to be studied before starting the projects are.

1
 1. Kinematics of machine: The study of this subject will help us to understand the
mechanism and design the mechanism and its basic elements. This subject will help
us to achieve a perfect stroke from the eccentricity of the disk.
2. Dynamics of Machine: This subject will help us to balance the project
mechanically. The mechanical balancing of the rotating parts is very essential to
achieve the proper functioning of the machine.
3. Mathematics: Mathematics is the heart of engineering. Every single element of the
project has definite dimensions and these dimensions are calculated from derived
formulae.
4. Pneumatics: This subject will help us to understand the basic of pneumatics.

1.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE

One of the applications as we are using it in our project. We will attach one air compressed
pump with wooden table at its top. Both the pumps will be connected and attached to a
valve, then the supply will be given to that common valve through air pressure pump as
used to fill air in vehicle tyres. When we press the pedal, it will supply the compressed air
into the two air pressure pumps, which will raise the piston height or raise the material
which is placed on it. When we release the valve, the pressure which was generated earlier
will be released and the piston will come down to its original position.The Project
"Pneumatic sheet cutter" is not a single book project. It links the several discipline and
mechanical engineering and general physics several derivations and formulates from
different subjects are mention in next chapters.

2
 FIG 1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE DIAGRAM

In Pneumatic sheet cutter generally tends to oscillate the lever from right to left side and
then left to right side to cut the sheet.The air regulation in the cylinder is maintained by the
solenoid valve. The air used is generally compressed air flow through solenoid valve to
cylinder. The pressure of air used in compressor is 6 bar. The length of piston is 200mm
and diameter is 50mm. The diameter of pipe used is 8mm. Joints are made by arc welding.

3
 CHAPTER-2

SHEET METAL

Sheet metal is simply a metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metal working and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.
Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary
significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces
thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

The thickness of the sheet metal is called its gauge. Commonly used steel sheet metal
ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal.
Gauge is measured in ferrous (iron based) metals while nonferrous metals such as
aluminum or copper are designated differently; i.e., Copper is measured in thickness by
Ounce.

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as aluminium,
brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet metals
include silver, gold and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a catalyst.)

Sheet metal also has applications in car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for
buildings (Architectural) and many other things. Sheet metal of iron and other materials
with high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in
transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in
plate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses,
including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "Tin Bashers",("Tin
Knockers") which is derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.

2.1 SHEET METAL CUTTING:

Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a great
enough force to cause the material to fail.

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The most common cutting processes are performed by applying a shear force, and are
therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes.

When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will exceed
the ultimate shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut locate

This shearing force is applied by two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether
these tools are a punch and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a
quick downward blow to the sheet metal that rests over the lower tool.

A small clearance is present between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which
facilitates the fracture of the material. The size of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the
material thickness and depends upon several factors, such as the specific shearing process,
material, and sheet thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible on the
edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance
between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and rollover the edge. As the tool
penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of material.

Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr
formed at the edge. The height of these portions of the cut depends on several factors,
including the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

Fig 2.1SHEET METAL CUTTER

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the
fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes.

5
Countless everyday objects are constructed with sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary
significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than
6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

The thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure

known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used
steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. Gauge differs between
ferrous (iron based) metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper; copper
thickness, for example is measured in ounces (and represents the thickness of 1 ounce of
copper rolled out to an area of 1 square foot).

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass,copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important
sheet metals includesilver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as
a catalyst.)

Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings
(architecture) and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with
high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications
intransformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was
inplate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses,
including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin
knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.

6
 CHAPTER-3

PNEUMATICS

Pneumatics is a section of technology that deals with the study and application
of pressurized gas to produce mechanical motion.

Pneumatic systems , that are used extensively in industry, and factories, are commonly
plumbed with compressed air or compressed inert gases. This is because a centrally located
and electrically powered compressor, that powers cylinders and other pneumatic devices
through solenoid valves, can often provide motive power in a cheaper, safer, more flexible,
and more reliable way than a large number of electric motors and actuators.

Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.

Various examples of pneumatic system are:

Air brakes on buses and trucks

Air brakes on trains

Air compressors
Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles
Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching electricity
Pipe organs:
Electro-pneumatic action
Tubular-pneumatic action
Pneumatic actuator
Pneumatic air guns

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 Pneumatic bladder
Pneumatic cylinder

Pneumatic Launchers, a type of spud gun

Pneumatic mail systems

Pneumatic motor

Pneumatic tire

Pneumatic tools:

Jackhammer used by road workers

Pneumatic nailgun

3.1 PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY:

The reason for using pneumatics, or any other type of energy transmission on a machine, is
to perform work. The accomplishment of work requires the application of kinetic energy to
a resisting object resulting in the object moving through a distance. In a pneumatic system,
energy is stored in a potential state under the form of compressed air. Working energy
(kinetic energy and pressure) results in a pneumatic system when the compressed air is
allowed to expand. For example, a tank is charged to 6 bar with compressed air. When the
valve at the tank outlet is opened, the air inside the tank expands until the pressure inside
the tank equals the atmospheric pressure. Air expansion takes the form of airflow.

To perform any applicable amount of work then, a device is needed which can supply an air
tank with a sufficient amount of air at a desired pressure. This device is positive
displacement compressor.
3.1.1 What a Positive Displacement Compressor Consists of
A positive displacement compressor basically consists of a movable member inside
housing. The compressor has a piston for a movable member. The piston Is connected to a
crankshaft, which is in turn connected to a prime mover (electric motor, internal combustion
engine). At inlet and outlet ports, valves allow air to enter and exit the chamber.

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3.1.2 How a Positive Displacement Compressor Works:
As the crankshaft pulls the piston down, an increasing volume is formed within the housing.
This action causes the trapped air in the piston bore to expand, reducing its pressure. When
pressure differential becomes high enough, the inlet valve opens, allowing atmospheric air
to flow in. With the piston at the bottom of its stroke, inlet valve closes. The piston starts its
upward movement to reduce the air volume which consequently increases its pressure and
temperature. When pressure differential between the compressor chamber and discharge
line is high enough, the discharge valve opens, allowing air to pass into an air receiver tank
for storage.

3.2 Control of Pneumatic Energy:

Working energy transmitted pneumatically must be directed and under complete control at
all times. If not under control, useful work will not be done and machine conveyor machine
operators might be harmed. One of the advantages of transmitting energy pneumatically is
that energy can be controlled relatively easily by using valves.
3.2.1 Control of Pressure:
Pressure in a pneumatic system must be controlled at two points - after the compressor and
after the air receiver tank. Control of pressure is required after the compressor as a safety
for the system. Control of pressure after an air receiver tank is necessary so that an actuator
receives a steady pressure source without wasting energy.
3.2.2 Control of Pressure after a Compressor:
In a pneumatic system, energy delivered by a compressor is not generally used immediately,
but is stored as potential energy in air receiver tank in the form of compressed air.
In most instances, a compressor is designed into a system so that it operates intermittently.
A compressor usually delivers compressed air to a receiver tank until high pressure is
reached, then it is shut down. When air pressure in the tank decreases, the compressor cuts
in and recharges the tank. Intermittent compressor operation in this manner is a power
saving benefit for the system .A common way of sensing tank pressure and controlling
actuation and de-actuation of relatively small (2-15 HP) compressors, is with a pressure
switch.

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3.3 ADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATICS

Simplicity of design and controlMachines are easily designed using standard

cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control.

ReliabilityPneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and requires

little maintenance. Because gas is compressible, Equipment is less subject to shock
damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers
force. Compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical
power is lost.

Safetythere is a very low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Machines are
usually overloading safe.

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATICS OVER HYDRAULICS

Like hydraulics, pneumatics is a type of fluid power application where instead of an

incompressible liquid, pneumatics employ gas in their system. Hydraulics present certain
advantages over pneumatics, but in a given application, pneumatic powered equipment is
more suitable, particularly in industries where the factory units are plumbed for compressed
air.

The air used in pneumatic devices is dried and free from moisture so that it does not create
any problem to the internal parts of the system. Moreover, to avoid corrosive actions, oil or
lubricants are added so that friction effects can be reduced. Compressed air is used in most
of the machines and in some cases compressed carbon dioxide is used. As most of the
pneumatic devices are air based, they have a less complicated design and can be made of
inexpensive material. Mass production techniques can be adopted to produce pneumatic
systems, which not only save money but save time too.

Other major advantages are listed below.

1. Initial cost is less; hydraulics equipment cost as much as twice the price of
pneumatic equipment.
2. A pneumatic water treatment automation system reduces the costs of
installation and operation compared with conventional electrical installations. For

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 opening and closing of underwater valves, pneumatic systems work well because they
can sustain overload pressure conditions.
3. Pneumatic actuators also have long life and perform well with negligible
maintenance requirement throughout their life cycle.
4. Very suitable for power transmission when distance of transmission is more.

The major disadvantage of pneumatic systems is that they cannot be employed for tasks that
require working under high pressures. However, modern technology is working on finding
better solutions to this address this problem so that heavy engineering tasks can be executed
using pneumatic devices. In a nutshell, in order to execute low scale engineering and
mechanical tasks, pneumatic devices would be the best suited and a viable alternative over
hydraulic systems.

One of the applications of pneumatics we are using in our project. In place of pneumatic
cylinder we are using air pumps and connected to a common supply. Compressed air will be
supplied through pedal air pump. When the compressed air is supplied to the air pumps their
shaft started get raising which in turn will lift table. A handle valve is also connected with
the other end of the supply, which is used to relieve the pressure to bring back the table lift
to their original position.

3.5 PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS

Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use
the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.

Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to
be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner,
and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics
are used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

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Air cylinders are available in a variety of sizes and can typically range from a small 2.5 mm
air cylinder, which might be used for picking up a small transistor or other electronic
component, to 400 mm diameter air cylinders which would impart enough force to lift a car.
Some pneumatic cylinders reach 1000 mm in diameter, and are used in place of hydraulic
cylinders for special circumstances where leaking hydraulic oil could impose an extreme
hazard.

A pneumatic cylinder simply converts air pressure into linear motion. When selecting a
pneumatic cylinder, you must pay attention to:

how far the piston extends when activated, known as "stroke"

surface area of the piston face, known as "bore size"

action type

must be rated for compressed air use

3.6 Types of Pneumatic cylinders:

Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, they generally fall
into one of the specific categories shown below. However there are also numerous other
types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of which are designed to fulfil specific and
specialized functions. Some types are:

3.6.1 Single-acting cylinders

Single-acting cylinders (SAC) use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a
driving force in one direction (usually out), and a spring to return to the "home" position.
More often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the
compressed spring takes up. Another downside to SACs is that part of the force produced by
the cylinder is lost as it tries to push against the spring.

3.6.2 Double-acting cylinders

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extends and retract
strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for in stroke. Stroke
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length for this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling
and bending Additional calculations should be performed as well By "action type", we mean
how the cylinder acts when pressure is applied and removed.

13
 CHAPTER-4

WORKING

A
"single-
acting"
cylinder
has a
single
port for

compressed air. When air pressure is removed, the cylinder does nothing to retract the
piston.

Fig 4.1 SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

Whatever the piston pushed out must push the piston back in.
A cylinder that is "single-acting with spring return" has hookups like the "single-acting"
cylinder. When air pressure is removed, the spring pushes the piston back into the resting
position.

In some cases the cylinder is sealed and the trapped air performs as an "air spring".

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 Fig 4.2 AIR SPRING CYLINDER

single-acting cylinder with spring return requires more air pressure to activate because you
are pushing against both the load and the spring. A "double-acting" cylinder has two ports
for compressed air.

Fig 4.3 DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

Note that a double-acting cylinder requires a more complex solenoid valve. When you want
to return the piston to its resting position, you must not only apply pressure to the second
port, but also open up the first port so that the gas in it can be expelled.

A double-acting cylinder consumes more air than the equivalent single-acting cylinder,
because you need air to push the cylinder in each direction. A pneumatic cylinder simply
converts air pressure into linear motion.

When selecting a pneumatic cylinder, you must pay attention to:

how far the piston extends when activated, known as "stroke"

15
 surface area of the piston face, known as "bore size"

action type

pressure rating, such as "50 PSI"

type of connection to each port, such as "1/4" NPT"

must be rated for compressed air use

4.1 GASES USED IN CYLINDERS

Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a
sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has
moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent
corrosion and lubricate mechanical components.

Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the
gas is usually just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that
present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogenoften referred to as OFN (oxygen-free
nitrogen) when supplied in cylinders.

Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazardincluding nitrogen, which
makes up 78% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 21% of air) would not asphyxiate, but is
not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and
offers no performance advantage over air.

Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles, such as Robot Wars machines and other
hobbyist applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide, because containers
designed to hold it such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available,
and the phase change between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of
compressed gas from a lighter container than compressed air requires. Carbon dioxide is an
asphyxiate and can be a freezing hazard if vented improperly.

4.2 PARTS OF CYLINDERS ARE:

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 1. Basic Frame
2. Top Base
3. Pump
4. Pressure gauges and switches
5. Protective accessories
6. Ball valve

4.2.1 BASIC FRAME

It is the frame which provides stand on to which all other parts are assembled. It provides
rigid support to the machine. It is made of mild steel square pipe.

Fig 4.4 BASIC FRAME

4.2.2 TOP BASE

The base is the rectangular piece of plywood. It is the stationary & rigid part of the
machine. Upper portions of the air pump will be attached with this wooden base, which will
lift people and goods.

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 Fig 4.5 TOP BASE

4.2.3 PUMP

A bicycle pump is a type of positive-displacement pump specifically designed for inflating

bicycle tires.
tires. It has a connection or adapter for use with one or both of the two most
common types of valves used on bicycles, Schrader or Presta.
Presta. A third type of valve called
the Woods valve exists, but tubes with these valves can be filled using a Presta pump.[1]

Several basic types are available:

Floor models or track pumps

Frame mounted

Compact or mini

Foot operated

Double action

In its most basic form, a bicycle pump functions via a hand-operated piston. During the up-
stroke, this piston draws air through a one-way valve into the pump from the outside.

18
During the down-stroke, the piston then displaces the air from the pump into the bicycle
tire. Most floor pumps, also commonly called track pumps, have a built in pressure gauge to
indicate tire pressure.

Caution must be used when using a gas station air pump. Some are designed to cut off
before the high pressures used in many bicycle tires are reached. Others operate at such a
high pressure that the tire can be burst. There is also a slight difference between the modern
standard for Schrader valves on an automobile and that on a bicycle which makes some
more recent valves on gas station pumps a poor fit

4.2.4 BICYCLE PUMP TYPES

There are three main types of bicycle pumps

Stand pump

Hand pump

Foot pump

4.2.4.1 Stand pump

Also known as a floor or track pump. To operate the user rests the base of the pump on the
floor, resting feet at the base, and pulls and pushes full strokes with handles. An additional
tube must connect the pump to the fill valve, which may create dead volume.

4.2.4.2 Hand Pump

.

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 Fig 4.6 HAND PUMP

There are two basic types: tubed and integral. The tubed type requires a separate tube to
connect the pump to the valve. These have the advantage that they are cheap, but are
inefficient compared to other pumps. They also have a lot of joints from which air can
escape.

Integral pumps have a hole in the side with a rubber washer that fits round the valve. This is
frequently compressed on to the valve by an extra lever. Because it is well sealed, rigid and
has little dead volume, this type of pump is very efficient. An 8" integral will typically
pump faster than an 18" tubed.

A simple pump has a cupped fiber or plastic piston. On the forward stroke the air pushes the
sides of the cup against the cylinder, so forming a seal; it provides its own valve. Then this
piston can push the air out of the hole at the far end.

Some of the most efficient pumps are double action pumps. By sealing the piston in the
cylinder at both ends they can force air into the tire on both strokes.

Pumps can be fitted to a bracket on the bike frame, either a clamp-on or a braze-on peg, or
carried by the rider in a backpack, pocket, etc.

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4.2.4.3 FOOT PUMPS

Fig 4.7 FOOT PUMP

These pumps are often not specifically designed for bicycle use. They do not generate very
high pressures so don't work well for narrow road-bike tires, but are fine for large low-
pressure tires as found on mountain bikes.

Because they are designed for cars they fit Schrader valves. If the bicycle has presta valves
a small brass reducer is required in order to use the pump

4.2.4 Pressure Gauges and switches

Pressure gauges and switches are among the most often used instruments in a plant. But
because of their great numbers, attention to maintenance--and reliability--can be
compromised. As a consequence, it is not uncommon in older plants to see many gauges
and switches out of service. This is unfortunate because, if a plant is operated with a failed
pressure switch, the safety of the plant may be compromised. Conversely, if a plant can
operate safely while a gauge is defective, it shows that the gauge was not needed in the first
place. Therefore, one goal of good process instrumentation design is to install fewer but
more useful and more reliable pressure gauges and switches.

One way to reduce the number of gauges in a plant is to stop installing them on the basis of
habit (such as placing a pressure gauge on the discharge of every pump). Instead, review the
need for each device individually. During the review one should ask: "What will I do with
the reading of this gauge?" and install one only if there is a logical answer to the question. If

21
a gauge only indicates that a pump is running, it is not needed, since one can hear and see
that. If the gauge indicates the pressure (or pressure drop) in the process, that information is
valuable only if one can do something about it (like cleaning a filter); otherwise it is useless.
If one approaches the specification of pressure gauges with this mentality, the number of
gauges used will be reduced. If a plant uses fewer, better gauges, reliability will increase.

Pressure gauges and switches are among the most often used instruments in a plant. But
because of their great numbers, attention to maintenance--and reliability--can be
compromised. As a consequence, it is not uncommon in older plants to see many gauges
and switches out of service. This is unfortunate because, if a plant is operated with a failed
pressure switch, the safety of the plant may be compromised. Conversely, if a plant can
operate safely while a gauge is defective, it shows that the gauge was not needed in the first
place. Therefore, one goal of good process instrumentation design is to install fewer but
more useful and more reliable pressure gauges and switches.

One way to reduce the number of gauges in a plant is to stop installing them on the basis of
habit (such as placing a pressure gauge on the discharge of every pump). Instead, review the
need for each device individually. During the review one should ask: "What will I do with
the reading of this gauge?" and install one only if there is a logical answer to the question. If
a gauge only indicates that a pump is running, it is not needed, since one can hear and see
that. If the gauge indicates the pressure (or pressure drop) in the process, that information is
valuable only if one can do something about it (like cleaning a filter); otherwise it is useless.
If one approaches the specification of pressure gauges with this mentality, the number of
gauges used will be reduced. If a plant uses fewer, better gauges, reliability will increase.

Two common reasons for gauge (and switch) failure are pipe vibration and water
condensation, which in colder climates can freeze and damage the gauge housing. Figure 1
illustrates the design of both a traditional and a more reliable, "filled" pressure gauge. The
delicate links, pivots, and pinions of a traditional gauge are sensitive to both condensation
and vibration. The life of the filled gauge is longer, not only because it has fewer moving
parts, but because its housing is filled with a viscous oil. This oil filling is beneficial not
only because it dampens pointer vibration, but also because it leaves no room for humid
ambient air to enter. As a result, water cannot condense and accumulate. Available gauge
features include illuminated dials and digital readouts for better visibility, temperature
compensation to correct for ambient temperature variation, differential gauges for

22
differential pressures, and duplex gauges for dual pressure indication on the same dial.
Pressure gauges are classified according to their precision, from grade 4A (permissible error
of 0.1% of span) to grade D (5% error).

4.2.5 Protective Accessories

The most obvious gauge accessory is a shutoff valve between it and the process (Figure 5-
2), which allows blocking while removing or performing maintenance. A second valve is
often added for one of two reasons: draining of condensate in vapor service (such as steam),
or, for higher accuracy applications, to allow calibration against an external pressure source.

Other accessories include pipe coils or siphons (Figure 5-2A), which in steam service
protect the gauge from temperature damage, and snubbers or pulsation dampeners (Figure
5-2B), which can both absorb pressure shocks and average out pressure fluctuations. If
freeze protection is needed, the gauge should be heated by steam or electric tracing.
Chemical seals (Figure 5-2C) protect the gauge from plugging up in viscous or slurry
service, and prevent corrosive, noxious or poisonous process materials from reaching the
sensor. They also keep the process fluid from freezing or gelling in a dead-ended sensor
cavity. The seal protects the gauge by placing a diaphragm between the process and the
gauge. The cavity between the gauge and the diaphragm is filled with a stable, low thermal
expansion, low viscosity and non-corrosive fluid. For high temperature applications, a
sodium-potassium eutectic often is used; at ambient temperatures, a mixture of glycerine
and water; and at low temperatures, ethyl alcohol, toluene, or silicon oil.

The pressure gauge can be located for better operator visibility if the chemical seal is
connected to the gauge by a capillary tube. To maintain accuracy, capillary tubes should not
be exposed to excessive temperatures and should not exceed 25 feet (7.5 m) in length. The
chemical seal itself can be of four designs: off line, "flow-through" type self-cleaning,
extended seal elements, or wafer elements that fit between flanges.

The spring rate of the diaphragm in the chemical seal can cause measurement errors when
detecting low pressures (under 50 psig, 350 kPa) and in vacuum service (because gas
bubbles dissolved in the filling fluid might come out of solution). For these reasons,
pressure repeaters often are preferred to seals in such service. Pressure repeaters are

23
available with 0.1% to 1% of span accuracy and with absolute pressure ranges from 0-5 mm
Hg to 0-50 psia (0-0.7 to 0-350 kPa).

4.2.6 Ball valve:-A ball valve is a valve with a spherical disc, the part of the valve which
controls the flow through it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when
the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the
hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle or lever will
be inline with the port position letting you "see" the valve's position. The ball valve, along
with the butterfly valve and plug valve, are part of the family of quarter turn valves.

Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of
disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often
preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine
control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this
purpose.

Ball valves are used extensively in industrial applications because they are very versatile,
supporting pressures up to 1000 bar and temperatures up to 482F (250C). Sizes typically
range from 0.2 to 11.81 inches (0.5 cm to 30 cm). They are easy to repair and operate.

The body of ball valves may be made of metal, plastic or metal with a ceramic center. The
ball is often chrome plated to make it more durable.

A ball-check valve is a type of check valve with a ball without a hole for a disc, and is not
covered in this article.

The genericized trademark ball-o-fix is occasionally used after the original UK market
leader.

The Ballofix was invented by the Danish company Broen, and are still in production

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 Fig 4.8 BALL VALVE

A ball valve is a valve with a spherical disc, the part of the valve which controls the flow
through it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line
with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is
perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle or lever will be
inline with the port position letting you "see" the valve's position. The ball valve, along with
the butterfly valve and plug valve, are part of the family of quarter turn valves.

Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of
disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often
preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine
control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this
purpose.

Ball valves are used extensively in industrial applications because they are very versatile,
supporting pressures up to 1000 bars and temperatures up to 482F (250C). Sizes typically
range from 0.2 to 11.81 inches (0.5 cm to 30 cm). They are easy to repair and operate.

The body of ball valves may be made of metal, plastic or metal with a ceramic center. The
ball is often chrome plated to make it more durable.

A ball-check valve is a type of check valve with a ball without a hole for a disc, and is not
covered in this article.

4.2.7 TYPES OF BALL VALVE

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There are five general body styles of ball valves: single body, three piece body, split body,
top entry, and welded. The difference is based on how the pieces of the valveespecially
the casing that contains the ball itselfare manufactured and assembled. The valve
operation is the same in each case. In addition, there are different styles related to the bore
of the ball mechanism itself:

A full port or more commonly known full bore ball valve has an over-sized ball so
that the hole in the ball is the same size as the pipeline resulting in lower friction
loss. Flow is unrestricted but the valve is larger and more expensive so this is only
used where free flow is required, for example in pipelines which require pigging.

In reduced port or more commonly known reduced bore ball valves, flow through
the valve is one pipe size smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in flow area
being smaller than pipe. As the flow discharge remains constant and is equal to area
of flow (A) times velocity (V), A1V1 = A2V2 the velocity increases with reduced area
of flow.

A V port ball valve has either a 'v' shaped ball or a 'v' shaped seat. This allows the
orifice to be opened and closed in a more controlled manner with a closer to linear
flow characteristic. When the valve is in the closed position and opening is
commenced the small end of the 'v' is opened first allowing stable flow control
during this stage. This type of design requires a generally more robust construction
due to higher velocities of the fluids, which might damage a standard valve.

A turn-on ball valve has additional mechanical anchoring of the ball at the top and
the bottom, suitable for larger and higher pressure valves (say, above 10 cm and 40
bars).

Cavity filler Ball Valve. Many industries encounter problem with residues in the ball
valve. Where the fluid is meant for human consumption, residues may also be health
hazard, and when where the fluid changes from time to time contamination of one
fluid with another may occur. Residues arise because in the half open position of the
ball valve a gap is created between the ball bore and the body in which fluid can be
trapped. To avoid the fluid getting into this cavity, the cavity has to be plugged,

26
 which can be done by extending the seats in such a manner that it is always in
contact with the ball. This type of ball valve is known as Cavity Filler Ball Valve.

Way valve is the main valve which is shown in the figure.

Fig. 4.9 Way valve

In three way valve, one hole is the main supply which will be connected with the
compressed air pump and other two holes or attachment of the valve are connected
with other two pressure pumps. When the compressed air is supplied into the main
hole, then compressed air is transmitted equally in other two pumps which will lift
the table due to pressure.

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 Manually operated ball valves can be closed quickly and thus there is a danger of
water hammer. Some ball valves are equipped with an actuator that may be
pneumatically or motor operated. These valves can be used either for on/off or flow
control. A pneumatic flow control valve is also equipped with a positioner which
transforms the control signal

4.3 PNEUMATIC MACHINES

The pneumatic machine includes a table with support arms to hold the sheet, stops or guides
to secure the sheet, upper and lower straight - edge blades, a gauging device to precisely
position the sheet. The table also includes the two way directional valve. The two way
directional valve is connected to the compressor. The compressor has a piston for a movable
member. The piston is connected to a crankshaft, which is in turn connected to a prime
mover (electric motor, internal combustion engine). At inlet and outlet ports, valves allow
air to enter and exit the chamber. When the compressor is switched ON, the compressed air
is flow to inlet of the pneumatic cylinder.

The sheet is placed between the upper and the lower blade. The lower blade remains
stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper blade is slightly offset from
the lower blade, approximately 5 10% of the sheet thickness. Also the upper blade is
usually angled so that the cut progresses from one end to the other, thus reducing the
required fo

When the pneumatic hand operated lever is moved forward, the piston starts moving in the
forward direction. The upper blade which are then forced against the sheet, cutting the
material. When the pneumatic hand operated lever is moved backward, the upper blade will
come to the original position (i.e., the upper blade will move upwards).

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 Fig 4.10 MACHINE PROCESS DIAGRAM

After the material is cut, adjust the pneumatic hand lever to the mid position (i.e., normal
position) and then the compressor is switched OFF.

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 CHAPTER-5

OPERATION

A variety of cutting processes that utilize shearing forces exist to separate or remove
material from a piece of sheet stock in different ways. Each process is capable of forming a
specific type of cut, some with an open path to separate portion of material and some with a
closed path to cut out and remove that material. By using many of these processes together,
sheet metal parts can be fabricated with cut outs and profiles of any 2D geometry. Such
cutting process include the following

Shearing Separating material into two parts

Blanking Removing material to use for parts
Punching Removing material as scrap
Piercing
Slotting
Notching
Parting
Cutoff

Fig 5.1 CUTTING PROCESS

5.1 SHEARING

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As mentioned above, several cutting processes exist that utilize shearing force to cut sheet
metal. However, the term shearing by itself refers to a specific cutting process that
produces straight line cuts to separate a piece of sheet metal. Most commonly, shearing is
used to cut a sheet parallel to an existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts can be
made as well. For this reason, shearing is primarily used to cut sheet stock into amaller sizes
in preparation for other processes. Shearing has the following capabilities

Sheet thickness: 0.005 0.25 inches

Tolerance: 0.1 inches

The shearing is performed on a shear machine, often called asquaring shear or power shear,
that can be operated manually or by hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric power. A typical shear
machine includes a table with support arms to hold the sheet, stops or guides to secure the
sheet, upper and lower straight - edge blades, a gauging device to precisely position the
sheet. The sheet is placed between the upper and the lower blade, which are then forced
together against the sheet, cutting the material. In most devices, the lower blades remain
stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper blade is slightly offset from
the lower blade, approximately 5 10% of the sheet thickness. Also the upper blade is
usually angled so that the cut progresses from one end to the other, thus reducing the
required force. The knife edge and are available in different materials, such as low alloy
steel and high carbon steel.

5.2 HIGH SPEED STEEL BLADE:

A blade is used to cut the sheet metal in a desired dimension. Here we are
using high speed steel blades to cut the sheet metal.

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 Fig 5.2 BLADES

5.3 STAINLESS STEEL:

The three most common stainless steel grades available in sheet metal are 304, 316, and
410.

1. Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion
resistance while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B,
#3, and #4. Note that grade 303 is not available in sheet form.
2. Grade 316 offers more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures
than 304. It is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine
applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.
3. Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but does not offer as good corrosion
resistance. It is commonly used in cutlery. The only available finish is dull.

5.4 VALVES:

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports and fluid
paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are
connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are
isolated. If the valve is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is
termed normally open (N.O.). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not
energized, then the valve is termed normally closed. There are also 3-way and more
complicated designs. A 3-way valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two
other ports (typically a supply port and an exhaust port).

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Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can generate a
limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve, then a direct
acting solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship between the required
solenoid force Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice area A for a direct acting solenoid
value is:

Fig 5.4 VALVES

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4 lbf). An
application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 pounds per square inch (69 kPa)) gas with a
small orifice diameter

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required. To
generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design may be possible. In such a
design, the line pressure is used to generate the high valve forces; a small solenoid controls
how the line pressure is used. Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and
irrigation systems where the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch
(550 kPa) and the orifice diameter might be 34 in (19 mm).

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use a small,
complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve. While the second type
is actually a solenoid valve combined with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold
and packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much
less power to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full

33
power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full
power for a short period of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.

A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The operation

time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150 milliseconds.

5.4.1 Pneumatic solenoid valves

A pneumatic solenoid valve is a switch for routing air to any pneumatic device, usually
an actuator, allowing a relatively small signal to control a large device. It is also the
interface between electronic controllers and pneumatic systems

5.4.2 Hydraulic solenoid valves

Hydraulic solenoid valves are in general similar to pneumatic solenoid valves except that
they control the flow of hydraulic fluid (oil), often at around 3000 psi (210 bar, 21 MPa, 21
MN/m). Hydraulic machinery uses solenoids to control the flow of oil to rams or actuators.
Solenoid-controlled valves are often used in irrigation systems, where a relatively weak
solenoid opens and closes a small pilot valve, which in turn activates the main valve by
applying fluid pressure to a piston or diaphragm that is mechanically coupled to the main
valve. Solenoids are also in everyday household items such as washing machines to control
the flow and amount of water into the drum.

Transmission solenoids control fluid flow through an automatic transmission and are
typically installed in the transmission valve body.

Fig 5.5 SOLENOID VALVE

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A 5/2 way directional valve from the name itself has 5 ports equally spaced and 2 flow
positions. It can be use to isolate and simultaneously bypass a passage way for the fluid
which for example should retract or extend a double acting cylinder. There are variety of
ways to have this valve actuated.

5.5 GEARING SYSTEM:

A lever can be manually twist or pinch to actuate the valve, an internal or external hydraulic
or pneumatic pilot to move the shaft inside, sometimes with a spring return on the other end
so it will go back to its original position when pressure is gone, or a combination of any of
the mention above.

Fig 5.6 GEARING SYSTEM

In the Illustration given, a single solenoid is used and a spring return is installed in the
other end. The inlet pressure is connected to (P)1. (A)2 could possibly be connected to one
end of the double acting cylinder where the piston will retract while (B)4 is connected to the
other end that will make the piston extend. The normal position when the solenoid is de-
energized is that the piston rod is blocking (B)4 and pressure coming from (P)1 passes
through (A)2 that will make the cylinder normally retracted. When the solenoid is
energized, the rod blocks (A)2 and pressure from (P)1 passes through (B)4 and will extend
the cylinder.and when the solenoid is de-energized, the rod bounces back to its original
position because of the spring return. (E)3 and (E)5 is condemned or used as exhaust.

5.6 NUTS
35
To simplify the sealing issues, the plug nut, core, springs, shading ring, and other
components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well. The
requirements present some special problems. The core tube needs to be non-magnetic to
pass the solenoid's field through to the plug nut and the core. The plug nut and core need a
material with good magnetic properties such as iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless
steels can be used because they come in both magnetic and non-magnetic varieties.

Fig 5.7 NUTS

5.7 PNEUMATIC PUSH FIT COMPRESSOR AIR FITTING

Fig 5.8 PNEUMATIC PUSH FIT COMPRESSOR AIR FITTING

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 This valve
S.No Component Quantity has
3 Pressure
1. Pneumatic Pipe 8mm
Range
8
2. Nut 6 mm upto0 to 10
Solenoid valve 1 bar and
3. Vacuum
1
-750mm
4. Pneumatic cylinder
1 Hg (-29.5in
5. frame HG) and
6
6. connector
1
7. compressor
1
8. Shearing machine
temperature 0 -60 C (32 -140 F) Material used for making this joint is Nickel Plated Brass,
NRB Seal, and the plastic used is PBTPlastic,Stainless Steel Tube Grip.

Components used are:

37
38
 CHAPTER-6
RESULT
Basically the project pneumatic lifter is designed to lift the goods to small height as in small
scale industries. It will be manual operated machine which is designed in order to meet the
basic requirements such as lifting material at small heights or working at small heights.
Because of its manual operation it is less costly. It will also decrease the muscular
operations done by workers which increase their efficiency to do work.

39
 CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION

An idea involves thinking is the best exercise for clearing the concepts. Thinking is just like
a simulator where different ideas, through & actions are compiled to get results. Thinking
needs experience to testing result experience comes by evaluating our thinking by a perfect
mocker and eliminating flows from it. Thinking is the first step to projection. By this project
we get a chance to think and testing our book and knowledge.

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 REFERENCES
www.google.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.scribd.com

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