Inomata Plazas Performers Spectators

Plazas, Performers, and Spectators: Political Theaters of the Classic Maya
Author(s): TakeshiInomata
Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 47, No. 5 (October 2006), pp. 805-842
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for
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Current Anthropology Volume 47, Number 5, October 2006 805
Plazas, Performers, and Spectators

Political Theaters of the Classic Maya
by Takeshi Inomata
Theatrical performances not only communicate preexisting ideas but also define political reality as
it is experienced by participants. Theatrical events thus constitute a critical process of integration
and conflict in a wide range of societies and have particularly significant effects on the maintenance
and transformation of premodern centralized polities. The study of performances allows archaeol-
ogists to explore the interrelations between political, social, and cultural factors and provides an
approach to action and meaning different from the one that views the material record as text. The
analysis of plazas in Classic Maya society (AD 250900) suggests that the performances of rulers
depicted on stone monuments involved a large audience and that securing theatrical spaces for mass
spectacles was a primary concern in the design of Maya cities. Such events gave physical reality to
a Maya community and counteracted the centrifugal tendency of nonelite populations.
How did large societies of the past achieve a certain degree entities in the premodern world. The way ancient people ex-
of cohesion underscored by collectively held cultural and perienced the presence of such political organization was not
moral values? Anderson (1991, 6) has argued that all com- always the same as ours. Whereas today the notion of the
munities larger than primordial villages of face-to-face contact state is internalized in the political consciousness of numerous
(and perhaps even these) are imagined in the sense that individuals, many early states may not have had resources and
individuals never know most of their fellow members or meet mechanisms to assert their constant presence in the minds
them but nevertheless bear the image of their communion and daily lives of their subject populations. Foucault (1977
(see Canuto and Yaeger 2000). There is, however, a vast gap [1975], 187) noted that, in premodern Europe before the
between primordial villages and the modern nation-states technologies of discipline were developed, state power was
for which Anderson developed his concept. Whereas he has what was seen. Likewise, before the rise of modern nation-
emphasized the role of the written media in the creation of alism, individuals identities as members of states may often
imagined communities, many large communities in the past have been weaker than their identities as members of smaller
emerged without much benefit of writing. While avoiding social groups such as kin groups and local communities (An-
nave concepts of a true or natural community, we need to derson 1991). In certain historical contexts, then, subject pop-
recognize that human sociality and identity are rooted in our ulations perception and experience of authorities and na-
sensory perceptions of the presence and actions of others. tional unity were highly uneven, accentuated in the specific
Many communities in antiquity were probably not totally temporal and spatial contexts of state-sponsored events such
imagined but groups based to some degree on direct inter- as ceremonies and construction projects but diluted or even
actions between individuals. In addition, no organization can nonexistent in the routines of daily lives. In those cases, what
exist without symbols that give concrete, sensible forms to many individuals consciously recognized and thought about
group identities (Kertzer 1988, 15). The values, traditions, may have been the tangible images of the rulers body, state
and identities of a community are not timeless, transcendent buildings, and collective acts but probably not the abstract
entities but anchored in the tangible images and acts that each notion of a state.
individual can directly sense. These considerations call attention to the political impli-
The relation between the tangible and the imagined aspects cations and consequences of theatrical performances in public
of society is particularly important when we examine political events in which many individuals sense and witness the bodily
existence and participation of other members and the cultural
Takeshi Inomata is Associate Professor of Anthropology at the and moral values of the community are objectified and em-
University of Arizona (P.O. Box 210030, Tucson, AZ 85721, U.S.A. bodied. In particular, I argue that the development of large
[inomata@u.arizona.edu]). The present paper was submitted 21 IX centralized polities would have been impossible in any his-
04 and accepted 14 II 06. torical context without heavy reliance on public events. Classic
2006 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved 0011-3204/2006/4705-0004$10.00

806 Current Anthropology Volume 47, Number 5, October 2006
Maya society (AD 250900), in which rulers and elites actively

sponsored and participated in public rituals and festivals, pro-
vides fertile ground for an exploration of the intersection of
theatrical performances and politics (fig. 1). By analyzing the
spatial contexts of public performances at Maya centers, I
examine how public events facilitated and conditioned the
integration and identity formation of a community and set
the stage for the imposition and negotiation of asymmetrical
power relations.
Theater, Community, and Power

Theory of Performance
Recent developments in performance theory, theater studies,
and dramaturgic analysis provide a theoretical basis for this
study. The concepts of performance used by social scientists
have a wide range of meanings. On one end of this continuum
is a prescribed act in modern theater. Schechner (1977, 75;
1988, 616; 1994) distinguishes theater from other types of
performances such as rituals, sports, and games by noting
that it requires the physical presence of an audience that
observes and evaluates it with an emphasis on entertainment.
Beeman (1993, 379) stresses the symbolic reality of theater,
in which the performers represent themselves in roles de-
tached from their lives outside the performance. On the other
end of the continuum is a broad definition of performance
as an enactment of what it refers to (Pearson and Shanks
2001). In this view, the emphasis is on what human beings
Figure 1. The Maya area, showing the locations of the centers
do as opposed to thoughts and abstract structures. An explicit
mentioned in the text.
theoretical formulation of this perspective is found in the
concept of the performative utterance in speech-act theory.
Certain utterances do not simply describe social relations but Theatricality is defined in terms of the emotionalincluding
effect them (Austin 1962). Goffman (1959, 22; 1967) has also both positive and negativeresponses that the performance
proposed a broad definition of performance: all the activity produces in participants and its symbolic reality, with a se-
of an individual which occurs during a period marked by his miotic system distinct from that of unconscious, routine acts
continuous presence before a particular set of observers and (Fischer-Lichte 1992, 13940; 1995; Pavis 1998[1980], 395).
which has some effect on the observers. He has emphasized In addition, theatricality involves the use of material images
the theatricality that is present even in everyday activities and in dynamic motion as media of expression and communi-
has examined their communicative and expressive qualities, cation in which the human body takes a central role (Grimes
through which people project different identities and images 1987; Read 1993, 10). In this sense, theatricality is present in
under different circumstances. many contexts outside of the modern formal theater. Al-
The present study builds on these diverse theoretical views. though many of the events that I discuss may be called rituals,
Nonetheless, the purpose of my research requires a definition I often use the term theatrical performance to make my
of performance that is tighter than those of Austin and Goff- theoretical approach explicit (see Moore and Myerhoff 1977).
man yet broad enough to include various activities which take The significance of these theoretical developments con-
place outside of formal theaters (see MacAloon 1984a, 6). cerning performance can be situated in a broader trend in
Following Hymes (1975, 1319), I define performance as cre- archaeology and other social sciences which, inspired by prac-
ative, realized, achieved acts which are interpretable, report- tice theory and agency theory, calls attention to what people
able, and repeatable within a domain of cultural intelligibility. do (Bourdieu 1977[1972]; Giddens 1984). This view is ac-
What distinguishes it is the qualities that are consciously rec- companied by a conceptualization of political processes as
ognized by performers and an audience. I am particularly indissolubly tied to the so-called cultural domain of society.
concerned with its theatricality, that is, the quality of com- By demonstrating that even tastes for certain types of art are
municative acts that requires the presence of an audience closely associated with asymmetrical power relations, Bour-
acting as observers and evaluators (Beeman 1993, 38384). dieu (1984[1979]) has criticized narrow conceptualizations of

Inomata Plazas, Performers, and Spectators 807
cultural practices as nonpolitical acts operating in closed sys- and defines their social relations (Palmer and Jankowiak 1996;
tems of aesthetics (see also Inomata 2001b). He has also bro- Turner 1957, 1972).
ken away from the other theoretical extreme, the treatment It follows that performance creates and communicates
of art, theater, and other cultural domains strictly in terms meaning differently from text. Although a performance usu-
of the expression or imposition of dominant ideologies. He ally has a conventional meaning shared by the majority of a
has emphasized these domains relations to cultural capital, society, such acts are multivocal at a deeper level, representing
or valued cultural knowledge, which can be converted into different meanings for different people and in different sit-
symbolic capital and political power. Likewise, Gramscis con- uations (Turner 1967, 50). The ambiguity and diversity of
cept of hegemony has urged social scientists and humanists meanings in performance, however, do not necessarily imply
to examine all-encompassing political processes. Building on ineffective communication. Seeing is believing. Bodily per-
Gramscis ideas, Williams (1977) has noted that hegemony is formance may sometimes have more persuasive power than
a process of dominance and subordination in which political, verbal communication (Rappaport 1999; Robbins 2001). We
social, and cultural forces are interlocked. Thus, the concept need to explore the persuasive, creative, and transformative
of hegemony as a whole body of practices and expectations, power of performance while recognizing the fluidity, ambi-
over the whole of living, is broader than that of ideology. guity, and indeterminacy of its meaning.
Such theoretical developments provide critical inspiration for These considerations have important methodological im-
the archaeological study of performance, which crosscuts the plications for archaeologists. Because of the inherent multi-
political, social, and cultural domains. vocality of performance, an overly optimistic view about the
The archaeological study of performance has the potential possibility of recovering meaning in the past may result in
of going beyond approaches inspired by practice theory. A the imposition of the researchers own internal narratives.
central issue in this regard is how we grasp the immediacy Wuthnow (1987, 33244) has suggested that what he calls the
of material presence and physical action. As important as the dramaturgic approach in social sciences, with its focus on the
influence of practice theory has been, it does not sufficiently observable dimensions of actions, utterance, and interactions
elaborate how the materiality of space in which peoples prac- in human lives, shifts researchers attention from the pursuit
of subjective or semantic meaning to a more productive in-
tices are situated empowers and constrains agents (Munn
quiry into the conditions under which symbolic acts are
1992; Smith 2003, 15; see also Hall 1966). Likewise, it does
meaningful. This observation is particularly true for archae-
not fully address the bodily presence of audiences that perceive
ology (see Barrett 1994). Instead of presupposing preexisting
and affect the practices of actors. The study of performance
fixed meanings, archaeologists need to place more emphasis
urges us to examine specific details and processes of embodied
on examining dynamic processes in which meanings are cre-
acts, material and spatial contexts, and interactions between
ated and contested through embodied performance.
actors and observers (Inomata and Coben 2006). Increased
attention to the materiality of space and body also provides
an encouraging avenue for archaeological engagement in po- Spectacles of Unity and Division
litical thinking.
Performances may take place on diverse scales, ranging from
At the critical intersection of culture and politics are the
a solitary act of one individual with deities, ancestors, or
generation, negotiation, and contestation of meaning. The
natural beings serving as a perceived audience to a mass spec-
focus on performance provides a perspective different from
tacle involving thousands of people. Theatrical events of dif-
the one that views the archaeological record as text (see Hod- ferent sizes all have important political implications. Even
der 1986). The text-based notion of meaning assumes the daily practices on a small scale can be highly political, re-
priority and preexistence of generative rules, thoughts, and flecting and re-creating the power relations of the society at
ideas over bodily actions, sensual perceptions, and lived ex- large (Bourdieu 1977[1972]). Therefore we need to explore
perience (see Geertz 1973; Levi-Strauss 1963). This assump- diverse operations and functions of theatrical events on dif-
tion is not unrelated to the nature of academic practice cen- ferent scales without falling into mechanistic categorization.
tered on intellectual reflections that are detached from the At the same time, the implications of different scales should
practical concerns of the world (Bourdieu 2000[1997], 51; not be underestimated. In the interest of tight argument, this
Stahl 2002, 29). The study of performance explores the du- paper focuses on large-scale performances involving a sub-
alityrather than the dichotomyof thought and action stantial number of participants, such as public ceremonies,
without privileging either (see Meskell and Joyce 2003). In festivals, and courtly interactions. MacAloon (1984b, 24346)
other words, a performance does not simply transmit pre- and Handelman (1990) call them spectacles and public
existing meaning but also creates new meaning and trans- events, respectively.
forms the existing one. It acts upon the world as it is expe- Public events physically bring together numerous individ-
rienced by participants and produces social changes (Bell uals and allow them to sense the presence of others and to
1992; 1997, 7283; 1998; Schechner 1994, 62632; Tambiah share an experience. In other words, the large public perfor-
1979). The performance shapes the identities of participants mance grounds the constitution of a community that exceeds

the range of daily face-to-face interaction in the physical re- Scott (1990, 219, 6790) particularly emphasizes schisms
ality made up of its members (Da Matta 1984; Handelman hidden behind superficial conformity. He contends that,
1990, 11635; Singer 1959, 1972; Turner 1986, 24). It presents whereas the public transcript enacted on public stages is
moments of a real community. In addition, performers in the representation of elites as they want themselves to be seen,
public events typically dramatize the moral and aesthetic val- both elites and nonelites have their own hidden transcripts,
ues of a community (Singer 1959). Theatrical performance is played out off-stage, which diverge from and contradict the
not simply a reenactment of timeless community traditions public one. In addition, theatrical events may be dangerous
but objectifies and embodies otherwise abstract notions (Bai- times in which the established order can be challenged and
ley 1996, 13; Connerton 1989; Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983; subverted (Van Gennep 1960). In particular, carnivals and
Rockefeller 1999, 123). This means that spectacles provided similar public events may provide occasions on which the
premodern communities, which may have lacked print media populace openly expresses dissent from and resentment of the
and other communication technologies, with opportunities powerful (Bakhtin 1968[1965]; Kertzer 1988, 14450; Scott
to create shared identities and common values among their 1990, 7275). The system of cultural and aesthetic values of
members. Theatrical events thus have real and direct political such events may also constrain the dominant, limiting their
effects. They create and re-create a community, sometimes power (Bloch 1986; Inomata and Houston 2001a). The par-
even transcending ethnic and linguistic boundaries (Futrell adox of theatrical performances is that even those designed
1997; Handelman 1990). to serve the dominant simultaneously empower those who
The central role of theatrical performance in the consti- are intended to be subjugated through emotional elevation,
tution of a political community implies that it is a critical affirmation of social identities, and renewed affinity to a com-
arena for the negotiation of meaning and power (Comaroff munity (Fernandez 1972).
and Comaroff 1991; Dietler 2001). One aspect of this process Geertz (1980, 12335) goes farther to claim that public
is the use of theatrical performance for and by the dominants performance in the theater state of historical Bali was the
as a means of conveying their worldviews, history, cultural states primary purpose. In this view, the elaborate dramati-
ideals, value systems, and social order (Baines and Yoffee 1998, zation of cultural themes through royal ceremonies was not
235; Demarest 1992; De Marrais, Castillo, and Earle 1996; a tool for the states political purpose; rather, the state served
Lucero 2003). Another important aspect is the effect of public for the realization of this cultural drama. This claim appears
performance that defines political reality. Bloch (1974, 5960) rather farfetched, and Geertzs interpretations have been crit-
has suggested that the formalized discourse of ritual does not icized by Balinese specialists (e.g., Lansing 1991). Theoreti-
allow deviation, leaving only the alternatives of participating cally, his view, which is at odds with the central proposition
in it and following the protocol faithfully or rejecting it al- of my own, gives primacy to cultural meaning that dictates
together. The implications of serious confrontation or pun- peoples actions. Still, his call for a poetics or aesthetics of
ishment in the latter choice force most individuals to opt for power as opposed to the Weberian notion of the mechanics
the former. Whether or not the participants quietly resent of power provides an important perspective (see Smith 2000;
such events, participation defines certain aspects of the social Reese-Taylor and Koontz 2001). Although we should probably
relations among the parties involved. Theatrical performance avoid Geertzs extreme argument, it is helpful to explore the
thus is not empty ritual behind which the real mechanism of historical conditions of theatrical events that stimulated po-
power works; it is the real process of politics (Bell 1992, litical centralization and stratification.
197223; Kertzer 1988, 77101). Small egalitarian societies, as well as large hierarchical ones,
Theatrical events are however, rarely unambiguous. The actively engage in public events. The preparation of a spec-
inherent multivocality of theatrical signs makes the propa- tacle, along with the construction of theatrical space, may
gation of dominant ideologies difficult if not impossible. The- have promoted the development of hierarchical organization
atrical performance does not homogenize the emotion and by requiring dramaturgical and logistical organizers. Clark
identity of participants (Evans-Pritchard 1974, 2078). The (2004; Hill and Clark 2001) presents fascinating data indi-
ambiguity of meaning and the uncertainty of effects are indeed cating that in Formative Mesoamerica extensive plazas were
critical aspects of ritual and other public events (Fernandez constructed at critical junctures of social transformation from
1972; Kertzer 1988, 5776; MacAloon 1984a, 9). As Bell (1992, small villages to larger, more centralized communities. Large-
22122) points out, ritual and other theatrical events tolerate scale spectacles with associated architectural spaces, instead
a fair degree of internal resistance and lack of interest among of being created after and as a result of the establishment of
the participants while requiring their consent in the form of hierarchical political authorities, may have preceded and fa-
their participation. Public events become effective because cilitated these political changes (Barrett 1994, 2732; Bradley
they ground and display a sense of community without over- 1984, 7374). Moreover, public events may have created a
riding the autonomy of individuals. Thus, the solidarity of a condition in which the emergence of central figures in the
community is produced by people acting together, not by form of dramatic protagonists was tolerated or even desired
people thinking together (Durkheim 1965[1915]; Kertzer and demanded by an audience. Such individuals may have
1988, 76). had the potential to become political leaders. In this regard,

rulers in many ancient polities appear to have shared certain leads to the relation between what are generally called the
qualities with ritual specialists in nonhierarchical societies and public and private spheres. It should be clear that by focusing
with actors or musicians today (see Schechner 1994, 623). on large-scale events I do not intend to privilege the public
The archaeological study of the development of large cen- and the extraordinary over the private and the ordinary.
tralized polities should direct its attention not only to the Moreover, an increasing number of archaeologists and an-
political maneuvering of a small number of aggrandizers thropologists question the uncritical distinction between the
but to the motivation and roles of an audience or the masses public and the private (Inomata et al. 2002; Robin 2003). This
(Pauketat 2000). does not mean, however, that we should abandon the concept
These diverse views of theatrical performance are not in- of the public. The work of Habermas (1991) remains signif-
compatible. In any society, the potential of performance for icant in this regard. He demonstrates that what we call the
ideological unification and imposition coexists with the per- public sphere was developed and transformed under the spe-
sistence of multivocality and a possibility for the subversion cific social conditions of the modern Western world. Instead
of power through theatrical acts, as does the use of theater of abandoning the concept of the public or presupposing its
by the state with popular demands for large pageants that universality, we need to analyze how the public sphere is
facilitate the emergence of a state. We need to examine the constituted in each historical context. For this purpose, the
intersections of these diverse forces and the political dynamics public sphere should be defined in a loose, heuristic manner
they create. as a social field of interaction which potentially involves a
substantial number of individuals and shapes political pro-
cesses on a large scale.
The Creation of the Extraordinary
At the same time, we need to pay attention to the common
The study of these extraordinary events does not necessarily criticism of Habermas that his notions of the public sphere
run counter to the recent emphasis on domestic lives and in different periods are highly idealized and their categorical
daily routines in archaeological studies; instead, they com- distinctions overemphasized (Calhoun 1992). Habermas ar-
plement each other. On the one hand, public performance is gues that, in the feudal society of medieval Europe, the rulers
embedded in social relations, experiences, and economic ac- power was merely represented before the people, constituting
tivities of everyday lives. On the other hand, the memory of the publicness of representation, but the public sphere as a
past events and the anticipation of future ones shape the social realm of political debate did not exist. Performance
perceptions and experiences of daily life. In addition, mass theory, however, indicates that such public representations
spectacles affect day-to-day routines economically and phys- are not one-directional acts. Instead, they involve political
ically as well because they require a long period of drama- negotiations between the central authority and those who view
turgical and logistical preparation, including rehearsal, con- and perceive them, though their negotiations may not take
struction of theatrical stages, and acquisition of foods and explicit discursive forms. These processes, then, are not totally
gifts to be consumed and distributed during the events. For unlike those of the modern public sphere that Habermas
example, colonial documents tell us that the Maya put sub- describes.
stantial work into growing turkeys over the year to consume I should add that the public nature of political negotiation
them on rare festive occasions (Cogolludo 1971[1654], 243, through performance is not limited to large centralized pol-
295), and their Classic-period ancestors certainly spent many ities in the premodern world. Small communities, in which
days of the year in the preparation of public events. daily face-to-face interactions are possible, engage in collective
In this regard, there is a certain analogy between percep- theatrical events that create important political arenas. Even
tions of space and perceptions of time in many societies. As in modern societies public performances such as inaugura-
Eliade (1957) noted, in premodern societies the spatial aspect tions and the speeches of presidents continue to have political
of the world was not experienced as uniformly neutral but significance. The importance of mass spectacles in premodern
marked with monuments and sacred places charged with polities is rooted in the political significance of performance
unique, condensed meaning. The same is true for the tem- in general, which can take place on diverse scales in diverse
poral aspect. The passage of time was viewed not as monot- social contexts. We need to explore public processes of po-
onous or homogeneous but as punctuated by heightened litical negotiation in various historical moments to expose
emotional experiences of extraordinary events. Even in mod- their commonality and variation.
ern societies, both rites of passage associated with individuals
such as weddings and funerals and calendrical events such as
New Years Day and Christmas structure peoples perceptions Theatrical Spaces in Classic Maya
of time and life. Thus, just as we cannot grasp unique public Centers
events without addressing their basis in daily life, we cannot
Public Performances in Plazas
adequately understand the ordinary without considering its
dialectic relation with the extraordinary. Classic Maya society was made up of numerous autonomous
This consideration of the ordinary and the extraordinary or semiautonomous polities, each centered on a divine ruler.

The importance of theatrical performance is evident in stone

monuments and other artistic media. These often depict rulers
and other elites engaging in performances, indicating that the
dominants were not only sponsors of theatrical events but
also protagonists. Many stelae show rulers in elaborate attire,
such as feather headdresses, masks, jade pectorals, and shell
belts, often in the guise of Maize God or some other deity
(fig. 2) (Houston and Stuart 1996). Some of the accompa-
nying texts note that they are performing ritual dances (Grube
1992). Tokovinine (2003) identifies the word chanil, which
may be literally translated as something being watched, in
monuments depicting dance scenes. The meaning and use of
this term suggest to him that events such as royal dances were
indeed public performances conducted in front of an audi-
ence. Other monuments depict elites playing the ballgame,
which was a ritual as well as an athletic event tied to human
sacrifice and the creation myth. Many public events probably
involved numerous performers, including musicians and
dancers, as indicated by the murals of Bonampak (Miller
1986). Although such iconographic depictions provide val-
uable information, they deal exclusively with performers and
remain virtually silent about the role of an audience and the
spatial settings of the events. In addition, such pictorial ren-
derings should be viewed as idealized notions of performance
and as representations of how performance was remembered
rather than as the unbiased record of past events (Bergmann
1999; Joyce 1992).
Theatrical performances in Classic Maya society most likely
took place in various spatial contexts, including small resi-
dential complexes and sacred locations outside of centers such
as caves. Yet many of the mass spectacles involving a large
audience were probably held in plazaslarge open spaces Figure 2. Stela H from Copan, depicting the ruler Waxaklajuun
surrounded by temples and other symbolically charged build- Ubaah Kawiil in elaborate ceremonial attire. Behind it is the
ings that marked the core of every Maya city. The use of stairway that defines the eastern edge of the Great Plaza.
plazas for this purpose and the participation of numerous
spectators among the colonial-period Maya are well-docu-
mented in historical accounts (Barrera Vasques 1965; Ciudad through narrow, muddy passages. Most paintings found in
Real 1976, 31471; Estrada Monroy 1979, 16874; Tozzer caves in fact depict figures with simple clothing (Stone 1995,
1941, 94, 152, 15859; see Inomata 2006; Low 2000, 1089). 3154). Although Bassie-Sweet correctly points out that some
Comparable activities in plazas during the Classic period have stelae present symbols of caves and mountains, it is equally
been suggested by many Mayanists (e.g., Andrews 1975, 37; possible that performances were conducted on or in front of
Fash 1998; Jones 1969; Looper 2001; Lucero 2003; Ringle and pyramids and temples facing plazas that symbolically repre-
Bey 2001). sented sacred mountains and caves (Schele and Mathews
A more significant line of evidence is the presence of nu- 1998, 43; Stone 1995, 241).
merous stelae there. It is probable that monuments com- Courtly events held in palace rooms and depicted in ce-
memorating public ceremonies were erected in the same ramic paintings include rulers and other elites wearing rela-
spaces where the events took place to help people to remember tively simple attire with small headdresses or hats (Reents-
and reexperience their grandeur and excitement (Grube Budet 2001). In other words, the attire shown on stelae, with
1992). To develop this argument I must address competing enormous headdresses and backracks made of brilliantly col-
hypotheses, particularly the one presented by Bassie-Sweet ored feathers, is far more extravagant than that used in ex-
(1991) that many stone monuments represent rituals held in clusive architectural settings and appears to have been de-
the more exclusive settings of caves. The elaborate headdresses signed specifically for high visibility in mass spectacles. More
and backracks and heavy jade ornaments shown on stelae, direct evidence is found at Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and other
however, appear extremely cumbersome for entering caves, northern centers, where small, low platforms were placed in
which often requires climbing down cliffs and crawling large plazas. Noting the association of thrones with these plat-

forms, Ringle and Bey (2001, 277) argue that rulers occupied
these structures to address large audiences that filled the plazas
(see also Kowalski 1987).
The Bonampak murals lend further support to this view.
They depict scenes of captive presentations and elaborate
dances held on a wide stairway, which Miller (1986, 115;
Schele and Miller 1986, 218) has convincingly identified as
the one flanking the plaza of this center. This spatial setting
presents an effective theatrical stage, heightening the visibility
of performers. Although the murals do not show audiences,
the plaza was most likely filled with a large number of spec-
tators. Also suggestive is the use of large palanquins to carry
rulers and other elites, as depicted on lintels at Tikal and in
some graffiti (fig. 3) (Chase and Chase 2001b, fig. 4.12; Har-
rison 1999, 133, 153, figs. 77, 94; Trik and Kampen 1983, figs.
71, 72, 73). Ciudad Real (1976, 327) recorded similar litters
used by the colonial-period Maya in public events. Some of
the Classic-period palanquins were decorated with enormous
statues of deities and jaguars towering behind the rulers. Such
ostentatious presentations make sense only in terms of their
use in mass spectacles in open spaces.
Given these lines of evidence, it is highly likely that a sub-
stantial portion of stelae depict public performances held in
plazas and other open spaces in the presence of a large au-
dience, although I do not deny the possibility that some of
them show rituals that took place in more exclusive settings.
In this regard, we should note that some of the lintels at
Yaxchilan and panels at Palenque appear to represent acts
performed in semiclosed architectural settings, although oth- Figure 3. A graffito found at Tikal, depicting a ruler being carried
ers refer to public events comparable to those shown on stelae. on a large litter with a statue (Trik and Kampen 1983, fig. 72,
In other words, there is a loose correlation between the spatial reprinted by permission).
settings in which various types of art were viewed and those
of the acts shown in these art pieces. Stelae set in open plazas as theatrical spaces. Even in public ceremonies, plazas may
and viewed by many visitors depicted public performances have been used in various ways. Such events appear to have
involving a large audience and in many cases held in the same involved the erection of scaffolds and other temporary struc-
spaces, whereas lintels and panels that adorned elite buildings tures and the use of banners, movable thrones, and palan-
and could be seen by a limited number of high-status indi- quins, all of which affected the movements of participants
viduals often dealt with rituals attended mainly by court mem- and their perceptions of theatrical spaces (Houston 1998, 339;
bers and held in exclusive settings (see Sanchez 1997). Ce- Suhler and Freidel 2000; Taube 1988). Likewise, the erection
ramic paintings were viewed by only a few individuals at a of stelae in plazas probably narrowed the potential range of
time, typically in elite residences or administrative buildings. human bodies physical flow and of the places meanings by
Many of them depicted courtly interactions that took place emphasizing memories of specific events. The Maya in some
in similar architectural settings, although there are ceramic cases reset old stelae, attempting to alter or reconstitute the
paintings depicting public events as well. Though these cor- effects of monuments in the physical and perceptual con-
relations are far from exclusive, there is a general tendency struction of theatrical spaces.
for stelae and other artistic media to prompt viewers to re-
member, reexperience, and reimagine the depicted acts in
The Capacities of Plazas
spatial settings that were the same as or comparable to those
of the original events. The analysis of plazas as theatrical spaces provides an effective
These observations, however, do not mean that plazas were step for the study of public events by archaeologists, who
used only for public theatrical events. Various authors have cannot directly observe ancient performances. One way to
proposed that some plazas were used as marketplaces (Becker test the notion of the use of plazas as theatrical spaces is to
2003, 26566; Jones 1996, 8687; Smith 1982, 107). Although analyze their potential capacities. Moore (1996, 147) cites the
direct evidence for marketplaces is difficult to obtain, such estimated space available to individual participants, ranging
use of plazas is not incompatible with their primary function from 0.46 to 21.6 m2/person. The lower figure would imply

Figure 4. Tikal.
a tightly packed area with little space for movement, whereas I examine the plaza spaces of three centers of different sizes
the higher would leave ample space around each person or as examples: Tikal, one of the largest Maya centers (fig. 4),
a large open stage for dynamic performance. The figure of Copan, a center of medium size in the southeastern periphery
21.6 m2/person, taken from data on Yanomamo villages, is of the Maya area (fig. 5), and the relatively small center of
probably too large, however, for the more urban situations Aguateca (fig. 6). Tikal has a history of occupation and mon-
of the Maya lowlands. Everywhere in the world, city dwellers umental constructions that began in the Preclassic period and
have to endure smaller spaces than those who live in rural boasts numerous plazas connected by wide causeways. Culbert
settings. In this article I therefore employ the figures of 0.46, et al. (1990, 16) estimate the Late Classic population of the
1, and 3.6 m2/person. Moore did not find a consistent cor- 120-km2 area defined by seasonal wetlands and earthworks at
relation between plaza sizes and the estimated populations of 62,000. Along with the West Plaza and the East Plaza, the
the settlements in his analysis of Andean data, and he suspects Great Plaza probably formed the central ceremonial core of
that this is because there were widely different ways of using Tikal (fig. 7). Plazas associated with Temple IV, Temple VI,
plazas for theatrical performances. Thus, these densities and twin pyramid complexes also had the capacity to accom-
should be viewed only as tentative values for heuristic pur- modate a substantial number of people.
poses. Early occupations at Copan also date to the Preclassic pe-

Figure 5. Copan.
riod, but substantial constructions at the ceremonial core area. Although the analysis of settlement data from peripheral
started during the Early Classic. According to Webster and areas of Aguateca is still in progress, 8,000 would probably
Freter (1990, 52), the Late Classic population of Copan was be a generous estimate of its Late Classic population. Most
around 22,000. The public theatrical space of primary im- monuments depicting rulers performances are found in the
portance consisted of the large continuous flat spaces of the large Main Plaza. A short causeway connected this highly
Great Plaza, the Middle Plaza, the East Plaza, and the Plaza public space with a more restricted compound of the Palace
of the Hieroglyphic Stairway (fig. 8). Freidel, Schele, and Par- Group, a probable royal palace (Inomata 1997).
ker (1993, 463) point out that stone sculptures depicting the Table 1 indicates that these plazas had substantial capacities.
Maize God dancing were recovered from a large platform east In addition, their layouts show easy access from outside, im-
of the Great Plaza and suggest that the platform was possibly plying an emphasis on the inclusion of a large number of
a place for the preparation, practice, or execution of dances. participants. In particular, assuming 1 m2/person the Main
Most ceremonial constructions at Aguateca date to the Late Plaza of Aguateca was large enough to accommodate more
Classic period, prior to an enemy attack that resulted in the than the entire population of its settlement. Using this figure
burning and rapid abandonment of the central elite residential for space available per person, the combined ceremonial plaza

Figure 6. Aguateca.
of Copan could also have held more than the entire popu- plaza area. Large centers such as Tikal tend to have multiple
lation, but it did not make an effective theatrical space because large plazas and their stone monuments are more dispersed.
buildings obstructed sightlines between its various parts. The In addition to mass spectacles, the Classic Maya conducted
Great Plaza and the Middle Plaza constituted a better the- more exclusive performances. Smaller spaces of the East Court
atrical space, but a gathering of the entire population in these of Copan and the Palace Group of Aguateca were most likely
areas would have required considerable crowding. At Tikal, places for theatrical events. Along with their arrangements sur-
if participants were packed tightly, the entire population might rounding flat open spaces, their function as theatrical com-
have been accommodated in either the central complex, the plexes is hinted at by Structure 10L-25 of Copan and Structure
area in front of Temple IV, or the area in front of Temple VI. M7-33 of Aguateca. These low structures appear to have served
Realistically, however, most theatrical events probably re- as open stages without roofs or walls and were probably used
quired ample stages for performers, which would have made for ritual dance (Fash et al. 1992; Inomata et al. 2001). The
gatherings of the entire population in these spaces less likely. estimated capacities of these plazas (based on the figure of 3.6
These observations indicate that, whereas the main plazas of m2/person) range from 5.6 to 11.4 percent of the total popu-
smaller centers may have been able to hold the entire pop- lations, which may correspond roughly with the elite sectors
ulation (see also Houston et al. 2003, 234; Looper 2001, 128), of society. In addition, architecture and excavated objects sug-
public events with the simultaneous presence of the entire gest that the Palace Group of Aguateca was the primary resi-
community became increasingly difficult as the size of a center dential complex of the royal family of this center. Yet we should
grew. This tendency may be reflected in the layouts of centers note that performances in the Palace Group of Aguateca were
of various sizes. Small centers such as Aguateca tend to have probably visible not only for an audience occupying the plaza
one large plaza, where most of the stone monuments are of the complex but also for spectators on the causeway (Inomata
found, as a focus of community rituals. The medium-sized 2001a). Theatrical events in restricted spaces appear to have
center of Copan still maintains this focus on one continuous retained a certain level of inclusiveness.

Figure 7. The Great Plaza of Tikal viewed from Structure 5D-71 of the
Central Acropolis.
Theatrical Spaces and City Planning at Tikal, although the Mundo Perdido complex also appears
to have provided an important theatrical space. The Great
Sequences of construction projects at these centers shed light
on strategies of designing community ritual spaces at Maya Plaza was located between the North Acropolis, the most
centers. important funerary place for rulers from Preclassic times on,
At Tikal, the final layout of the city resulted from its growth and the Central Acropolis, the main residential complex for
over centuries. During the Preclassic and Early Classic periods, the royal family (Coe 1990; Harrison 1970). Clearly, this plaza
the Great Plaza, along with the adjacent East and West Plazas, was a symbolically charged place with direct connections to
was probably the primary focus of communitywide spectacles the dynastic past and present. During both the Early Classic
Figure 8. The Middle Plaza and the Great Plaza of Copan viewed from
the ball court.

Table 1. Sizes and Estimated Capacities of Plazas of Tikal, Copan, and Aguateca
Estimated Capacity
0.46 m2/person 1 m2/person 3.6 m2/person
Area % of % of % of
Plaza (m2) Capacity Population Capacity Population Capacity Population
Tikal (est. pop. 62,000)

Great Plaza 8,506 18,491 29.8 8,506 13.7 2,363 3.8
West Plaza (including areas 22,918 49,822 80.4 22,918 37.0 6,366 10.3
in front of Temple III)
East Plaza 6,969 15,150 24.4 6,969 11.2 1,936 3.1
Total Central area 38,393 83,463 134.6 38,393 61.9 10,665 17.2
Area in front of Temple IV 30,068 65,365 105.4 30,068 48.5 8,352 13.5
(including parts of the
causeways)
Area in front of Temple VI 25,963 56,441 91.0 25,963 41.9 7,212 11.6
Twin pyramid complexes
Complex Q 11,322 24,613 39.7 11,322 18.3 3,145 5.1
Complex R 11,880 25,826 41.7 11,880 19.2 3,300 5.3
Copan (est. pop. 22,000)
Great Plaza 12,747 27,711 126.0 12,747 57.9 3,541 16.1
Middle Plaza 10,932 23,765 108.0 10,932 49.7 3,037 13.8
East Plaza 11,194 24,335 110.6 11,194 50.9 3,109 14.1
Court of the Hieroglyphic 5,123 11,137 50.6 5,123 23.3 1,423 6.5
Stairway
Total Ceremonial Plaza area 39,996 86,948 395.2 39,996 181.8 11,110 50.5
East Court 4,435 9,641 43.8 4,435 20.2 1,232 5.6
West Court 6,069 13,193 60.0 6,069 27.6 1,686 7.7
Aguateca (est. pop. 8,000)
Main Plaza 11,456 24,904 311.3 11,456 143.2 3,182 39.8
Palace Group Plaza 3,289 7,150 89.4 3,289 41.1 914 11.4
Note: The areas of plazas include the surrounding terrace steps. The capacities of terrace steps are based on their areas regardless of the number
of steps.
and the Late Classic period, stelae were placed in lines in front connections with the East and West Plazas. In addition, the
of the North Acropolis facing south, leaving ample space in construction of Structures 5D-29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 en-
the southern portion of the area. This pattern may imply that croached on the terrace of the North Acropolis (Coe 1990,
the use of the plaza as a theatrical space remained relatively 587617, 83238). During the Late Classic period, the ruler,
consistent, with performers often occupying the northern part Jasaw Chan Kawiil, ordered the erection of Temples I and II
and audiences mainly the southern. Structure 5D-119, an el- over the demolished remains of Structures 5D-1-2nd and 5D-
evated room built on the roof of Structure 5D-120 (Harrison 2-2nd, which further reduced access and visibility between
1970, 27), was equipped with a throne facing Temple I and the Great Plaza and the adjacent plazas (Coe 1990; Harrison
the Great Plaza (fig. 9). It is probable that the ruler or other 1999, 142). The Great Plaza was now transformed into a more
elites occupied this vantage point to view theatrical events exclusive theatrical space. In addition, the population of Tikal
(see Valdes 2001 for a comparable throne at Uaxactun). was growing rapidly during this period (Culbert et al. 1990,
The first formal floor of the Great Plaza, along with those 108).
of the West and East Plazas, was laid during the Late Preclassic As the central complex became less adequate for com-
period. Although evidence suggests that some buildings stood munity events, the next ruler, Yikin Chan Kawiil, commis-
on Preclassic floors, the exact layout and extent of the early sioned the construction of Temples IV and VI, along with
plazas are not clear (Coe 1990, 167; Jones 1996, 79). Coe associated open spaces substantially larger than the Great
(1990, 173, 195) suspects that during the Late Preclassic pe- Plaza (Harrison 1999, 15362; Martin and Grube 2000, 49).
riod the Great Plaza boasted a floor area larger than the later Temple IV measured 64 m in height, and the ruler who stood
versions. During the Early Classic period, the Preclassic build- on the stair of this building must have been visible from a
ings in the Great Plaza were demolished and buried under a wide area. This trend of increasing theatrical space can also
new floor. Structures 5D-1-2nd and 5D-2-2nd were erected be seen in twin pyramid complexes. During the Late Classic
at the eastern and western ends of the plaza, disrupting the period, the Tikal dynasty built a ceremonial complex with a

Figure 9. The throne of Structure 5D-119 of the Central Acropolis, which

faces the Great Plaza.
pair of pyramids at the end of each katun (20-year-period). litters, suggesting that rulers were carried along causeways
For the Maya who enthusiastically held various calendrical before they reached the main stages in front of the temples.
rituals, katun-ending ceremonies that occurred only a few The use of causeways as stages for mass spectacles is com-
times in the life of an individual were particularly important. parable to the carnivals and festive parades in the large cities
Many stelae from various Maya centers commemorated these of modern societies.
events. At Tikal, a newly constructed twin pyramid complex At Copan, the Great Plaza and Middle Plaza were con-
was most likely the main stage of a katun-ending ceremony structed at the beginning of the fifth century, which may
in which residents throughout the community participated correspond with the establishment of a dynasty by Kinich
(Jones 1969). Each time, an ever larger twin pyramid complex Yax Kuk Mo (Traxler 2004). A substantial amount of fill
was built, reaching the apex in Twin Pyramid Complexes Q was placed to create a plaza, which suggests to Cheek (1983b,
and R, commissioned by Yax Nuun Ayiin II during the late 344) that its construction involved a significant part of the
eighth century (Harrison 1999, 16773). community. From the beginning, the plaza appears to have
Despite these efforts, Tikal appears to have been reaching had dimensions and a layout comparable to those of the later
the point where congregation of the entire population in one stage, with its northern end marked by Structure 10L-2 and
space was physically difficult. The problem may have been its southern portion occupied by a ball court. A notable dif-
mitigated by the use of causeways as additional theatrical ference is that the area south of the ball court was originally
stages. Harrison (1999, 158, 160) suspects that Yikin Chan a patio surrounded by platforms, and Cheek (1983b, 34245)
Kawiil was responsible for the construction of the Maler, proposes that this area was for residential and private use
Maudslay, and Mendez Causeways that connected Temples whereas the northern sections were for public and communal
IV and VI with other areas, whereas Jones (1996, 83) suggests activities. In the later part of the Early Classic, the Copanecos
that the first versions of the Maler and Mendez Causeways gradually raised the plaza floors, covering some platforms and
were built a century or so earlier. The Mendez Causeway creating an open space that would become the Court of the
measured 5080 m in width, the Tozzer Causeway 5080 m, Hieroglyphic Stairway. At the beginning of the Late Classic
the Maler Causeway 20 m, and the Maudslay Causeway 3050 they laid out the floor of the East Plaza (Cheek 1983a). This
m. Segments of these causeways were as large as the plazas sequence may reflect an effort to expand the plaza space as
of small centers, and their width exceeded the practical needs the population of Copan grew. Although over the centuries
of daily transport (cf. Chase and Chase 2001a). These wide the Copanecos constructed ever higher pyramids on the
streets were probably stages for processions by elites, which southern side, they appear to have consciously preserved plaza
may have been viewed by a large audience occupying spaces spaces.
along their edges (see Reese-Taylor 2002; Ringle 1999). The The configuration of the Great Plaza of Copan as a the-
lintels of Temples I and IV depict rulers seated on elaborate atrical space may have been altered during the eighth century

by the thirteenth ruler, Waxaklajuun Ubaah Kawiil, who change their residencesand possibly their political affilia-
erected a series of stelae in the central section (fig. 2). This tionsrelatively easily, as did their descendents during the
arrangement of monuments may imply a somewhat different colonial period (Inomata 2004; see also Farris 1984, 7279;
use of space from that of the Tikal Great Plaza. Fash (1998, Restall 1997, 174). It is not clear how important the ties to
240) suggests that the stairs surrounding the Great Plaza of a specific dynasty were for the identities of individual farmers
Copan may have provided seating areas for audiences. If so, compared with their connections to kin groups and smaller
in many public events performers may have occupied the local groups.
central part of the plaza while spectators sat or stood along I argue that the critical elements that held together this
its edges. Structure 10L-4, located in the center of the open precarious integration of Maya communities were mass the-
space, probably served as a focal point of such performances. atrical events sponsored and organized by the elite. Mass spec-
At Aguateca, the Main Plaza was built at the time of the tacles, in which a large portion of a community assembled
centers foundation around AD 700. Whereas the stelae of and worked together, provided opportunities for individuals
the early rulers were placed mainly in front of Structure L8- to witness and sense the bodily existence and participation
5 on the eastern edge of the plaza, the last ruler, Tahn Te of other members. Such gatherings not only facilitated the
Kinich, erected his monuments in front of Structures L8-6 exchange of goods, the communication of information, and
and L8-7, located in the southeastern corner, as well as in the the finding of mates but also created moments of real com-
middle of the plaza. This may reflect a shift in main theatrical munities. Large-scale theatrical events gave physical reality to
stages with the construction or renovation of these buildings. a community and helped to ground unstable community
Prior to the final abandonment, Tahn Te Kinich was in the identities in tangible forms through the use of symbolic acts
process of constructing a large temple on the western edge and objects. In other words, those who gathered for spectacles
(Inomata et al. 2004). Thus, having sufficient plaza space, the made up a community. Classic Maya communities were not
ruler of Aguateca did not have to expand it, but the use of something totally imagined. The real community of the
this space apparently changed over time. Classic Maya was, however, only temporary. The continuous
These analyses show that the configuration of theatrical cohesion of a community probably required constant repe-
spaces in terms of movements and placements of performers tition of physical gatherings of its members.
and spectators varied from one center to another. In some As is apparent in the Bonampak murals and various ce-
cases, even the use of the same plaza changed over time with ramic paintings, some spectacles involved numerous elites as
the construction of associated buildings and monuments. This performers, but the strong emphasis on rulers found in stelae
observation points to the inherent flexibility of plazas as the- indicates that, symbolically and often physically, at the center
atrical spaces. Yet the most important implication of these of public gatherings was the body of the sovereign. Rulers
histories of plazas is that securing sufficient spaces for public were at once the sponsors, organizers, and protagonists of
events was a primary concern in the design of Maya cities. many of the large theatrical events. The visibility of the ruler
This means that plazas were meant to accommodate a large and other elites was retained to a degree even in smaller-scale
number of individuals and such gatherings were extremely political and diplomatic meetings held in royal compounds
important for Maya polities. Plazas and causeways were not and spaces associated with elite residences (Inomata 2001a;
secondary spaces defined after the placement of temple pyr- Inomata et al. 2002). A Maya term for ruler, ajaw, may be
amids but social spaces of extreme importance in their own literally translated as he who shouts (Houston and Stuart
right (Ringle and Bey 2001, 278). 1996, 295), implying that the origin of Maya rulership was
associated with verbal performance in theatrical events. Sim-
The Politics of Performance in Classic ilar concepts appear to have been shared by other Meso-
american societies. An Aztec word for ruler, for example, was
Maya Society tlatoani, one who speaks, and many Mesoamerican arts
Although some Maya cities had large populations, a significant depict speech scrolls representing acts of utterance. The
portion of residents were scattered over wide areas. Dispersed centrality of rulers in communal events suggests that the iden-
settlement patterns probably fostered a tendency toward the tities of a Maya community revolved around the images of
breaking away of subject populations from the central au- supreme political leaders. Mass spectacles were probably the
thorities (Demarest 1992). Economically, rural nonelites ap- occasions on which people felt their ties with the ruler most
pear to have been largely independent of the central author- strongly. Large gatherings also gave the elite an opportunity
ities in the acquisition of many economic items, with the to impose their ideologies and cultural values on the rest of
possible exception of foreign materials such as obsidian and society through performances. In public events, rulers often
dry-season water supplies from central reservoirs in certain emphasized their divine nature through the impersonation of
areas (Bishop, Rands, and Holley 1982; Fry 1979; Rice 1987; deities and glorified themselves through the celebration of
see also Lucero 1999; Scarborough and Gallopin 1991). The victories in warfare and the performance of ballgames that
centrifugal tendency of Maya populations may have been fur- mimicked battles (Freidel and Schele 1988a; Houston and
ther strengthened by the high mobility of farmers, who could Stuart 1996; Inomata and Triadan 2003; Looper 2003; Schele

and Miller 1986). Theatrical complexes made up of temples The political effects of theatrical events were also condi-
and plazas were also the resting places of royal ancestors, tioned by the physical properties of the polities, particularly
constantly reminding the participants of dynastic continuity. their demographic and spatial scales. This is precisely because
Social memory of dynastic history and tradition, then, was the social significance of performance is rooted in the phys-
not a timeless entity but a constant process of reiteration and icality of direct interaction and bodily copresence. In this
re-creation through performances which allowed room for sense, large Late Classic Maya polities such as Tikal, Calakmul,
their transformation and for the invention of new traditions. and Caracol may have been reaching a size at which political
Further, the references to the dynastic past and royal prerog- integration through public performance was no longer sus-
atives made in theatrical events did not homogenize percep- tainable. To avoid misunderstanding I should reiterate that
tions and emotions of the participants but provided objec- public theatrical events are politically significant in societies
tified notions on which they could reflect and act. During the of any size, but their effects are not the same in different
Classic period the number of dynasties increased as new rulers social contexts. Although Tikal and other large Maya centers
emerged at minor centers. Emergent political leaders were invested considerable effort in securing theatrical spaces for
those who took advantage of this flexibility in the system to mass spectacles, gatherings of the entire communityface-
invent new traditions that legitimized their political power to-face contact between elites and noneliteswere becoming
through the claim of divine sanction. These observations increasingly difficult. These large centers may have been mov-
highlight the nature of hegemony, which is not a static or ing toward the establishment of a bureaucratic system of a
given structure but a process that requires constant attention more impersonal nature (Houston et al. 2003, 234). It is
and action. It is not confined to political institutions but suggestive that the royal compounds of these large centers
involves interrelations between the political, the social, and generally had more restricted access and their occupants were
the cultural as experienced and acted upon by all those in- more shielded from outside than those of smaller centers. The
volved (Williams 1977). later course of history in the Maya area tells us, however, that
It follows that theatrical events were not political tools used Maya society never completely crossed this threshold.
one-directionally by dominant groups. Rulers and nobles were
strongly bound by the cultural and aesthetic values of the-
Conclusion
atricality that elites and nonelites alike subscribed to (Inomata
and Houston 2001a; see Bloch 1986, 177). Rulers and court- The large plazas of Classic Maya centers were designed to
iers had not only the right to conduct ritual human sacrifice accommodate a large number of individuals. The plazas of
but the obligation to perform bloodletting accompanied by small to medium-sized centers, in particular, most likely held
severe pain and the risk of infection. If they lost in battle, the majority of the community members on ceremonial oc-
they were the ones who were sacrificed. In this sense, emergent casions. Although the accommodation of the entire popula-
rulers at minor centers cannot be viewed purely as the creation tion in one plaza became increasingly difficult at large centers
of self-aggrandizing individuals. The growing populations of as the polity grew, their residents still made a significant effort
such settlements may have desired figures who would take to secure spaces for mass spectacles by creating plazas outside
the central stage in communal events. In addition, the de- of core areas and constructing wide causeways. Along with
mands of spectacles by elites and nonelites may have been prominent representations of rulers on stone monuments
driving forces for political changes not foreseen by the par- placed in plazas, these data indicate that the Classic Maya
ticipants. Large theatrical events required careful planning and strongly emphasized the theatrical performance and visibility
logistical organization. As the population of centers grew sig- of rulers. Theatrical events probably held together a Maya
nificantly during the Classic period, the organization of ever community around the ruler and the royal court, compen-
larger theatrical events may have prompted changes in ad- sating for a tendency toward fragmentation. The elite may
ministrative organizations with the establishment of special- have taken advantage of these opportunities to advance their
ized offices. political agendas, but they were at the same time under con-
Moreover, representations of political relations and values stant evaluation by viewers. The presence of plazas of varying
through performance were in constant danger of failing. The- sizes at a center suggests that theatrical events also divided
atrical performance as an interaction among participants in- the community, separating those who were allowed to par-
volved a process of evaluation by viewers. The meaningfulness ticipate in exclusive performance from the less privileged.
and acceptability of performance were constructed and ne- These observations remind us that human sociality is
gotiated through interactions among participants who shared rooted in the sensory perceptions of others. Public perfor-
certain knowledge and expectations but at the same time held mance is politically significant in any society precisely because
divergent or even conflicting views. Theatrical events were this fundamental aspect of social engagement plays out prom-
therefore dangerous occasions for actors. Poor performance inently in theatrical events. Still, the social effects of spectacles
in political theater may have meant the loss of power and are particularly evident in premodern centralized polities, in
status. The strong emphasis on the performance and visibility which constant face-to-face interactions of members were no
of rulers implies that they were under constant scrutiny. longer possible and print media and other technologies of

mass communication were not widely available. In Classic Late Classic period (Aoyama 2006a). Extensive excavation
Maya society and possibly in various other ancient polities, during the Aguateca Restoration Project Second Phase located
public events gave physical reality to the imagined community Cache 4 beneath the stucco floor in the southern area of the
as the participants witnessed the bodily presence of others temple in 2003. Cache 3 (obsidian and chert eccentrics) had
and shared their experience. The political importance of pub- been found in the northern part of the same temple during
lic performances in diverse historical contexts also derives the first phase of these investigations. Thus, Ruler 3 and his
from the process by which they objectify otherwise abstract followers appear to have deposited the caches along the north-
notions of cultural and moral values through embodied acts south axis of Structure L8-5. A total of 57 pieces of chipped
and materialized symbols. Such objectified notions do not stone artifacts was recovered from Cache 449 made of ob-
necessarily represent homogenized meaning shared by differ- sidian and 8 of chert. The obsidian artifacts include a single
ent individuals and groups but provide tangible common complete blade, 11 nearly complete blades, 16 prismatic blade
points of reference for reflection and negotiation. In other segments, 19 eccentrics, and 2 large flake scrapers. It is worth
words, theatrical events set the stage for the creation and noting that 5 of the 19 eccentrics (3 notched, 1 incised, and
imposition of power relations and associated ideologies, as 1 a reptile) were made from macroblades. Moreover, two large
well as resistance to and subversion of them. Instead of as- flakes were unifacially retouched into scrapers. Interestingly,
suming the existence of collectively held subjective meaning their dimensions and weights are almost the same, suggesting
in performance, we need to address how performance be- that a knapper deliberately manufactured a pair of identical
comes meaningful in terms of political processes in which its scrapers for the temple dedication. In other words, thick, wide
inherent multivocality and the inescapable physicality of hu- percussion blades and flakes were removed to regularize the
man bodies, spaces, and objects condition and effect social surfaces of newly imported blade cores used for manufac-
reality as perceived and acted out by the participants. turing these eccentrics. It should be noted that there were no
eccentrics and only a single macroblade among the 2,169
Acknowledgments obsidian artifacts collected by the Aguateca Archaeological
Project First Phase from 1996 to 1999 (Aoyama 2006b). More-
I thank Lawrence Coben, Stephen Houston, Michael Smith, over, Cache 4 of Structure L8-5 contained more complete or
and Daniela Triadan for stimulating discussion on this subject. nearly complete blades (Np12) than any of the eight other
Marshall Becker, Patricia McAnany, and Julia Sanchez, as well extensively excavated structures in the center of Aguateca
as anonymous reviewers, provided thoughtful comments on (meanp2.1, s.d.p2.2). The above data suggest that the Agu-
earlier versions of the manuscript. ateca ruler controlled the main access to obsidian in the city
and that the royal court may have administered the pro-
curement and allocation of El Chayal obsidian blade cores.
A total of 13 notched pressure blades appear to symbolize
Comments 13 serpents. For the ancient Maya, the Waterlily Serpent,
symbolizing the surface of the water, was a supernatural pa-
Kazuo Aoyama tron of the number 13. Some Classic Maya rulers used the
Faculty of Humanities, Ibaraki University, Bunkyo 2-1-1, head of the Waterlily Serpent as a crown (Miller and Taube
Mito, Ibaraki 310-8512, Japan (aoyama@mx.ibaraki.ac.jp). 7 1993, 184). Accordingly, the 13 serpents symbolized by the
IV 06 13 pieces of notched pressure blades in Cache 4 were loaded
with ideological meaning. Moreover, 3 notched macroblades
This most welcome case study on the physical qualities and and a notched small percussion blade may have represented
historical contexts of theatrical spaces centered in public pla- large serpents and a medium-sized serpent, respectively.
zas explores one important aspect of Classic Maya political Eight chert eccentrics from Cache 4 appear to have been
processesthe intersection between theatrical performance manufactured from local raw materials and include 2 scor-
and politics. I find it significant and enlightening concerning pions, a standing human, a trident crescent, a crescent, a
the long-debated relations between Classic Maya politics and reptile, a serrated bifacial point, and an unclassified fragment.
ritual and the mode and degree of integration of Maya centers It is important to note that chert eccentrics were associated
of different sizes. Inomata cogently examines critical issues in with the royal palace and temples but not with residences.
such research, including royal ritual as theatrical performance This strongly suggests that eccentrics were considered royal
and the complex nature of its political effects. I present ad- ritual objects. Meanwhile, taking advantage of Copans un-
ditional archaeological evidence to support his argument for usual location near the high-quality obsidian source of Ixte-
the two sites he mentions. The study of obsidian and chert peque (80 km), either its twelfth or its thirteenth ruler de-
artifacts from Cache 4 of Structure L8-5, located on the east- posited a cache of 700 unusually large macroblades (as long
ern edge of the Main Plaza of Aguateca, allows us to document as 30 cm) and macroflakes reduced directly from macrocores
finely flaked eccentrics and other artifacts deposited by Ruler of Ixtepeque obsidian in the middle of the Great Plaza during
3 and his followers in the temple dedication ritual during the the Late Classic period (Aoyama 1999, 2001). Such large

quantities of very large macroblades and macroflakes have centralized authority for domestic integration or religious
not been discovered either outside the Principal Group in the leadership and direction for competition with foreigners,
Copan Valley or in any other part of the Maya lowlands, which took the form of trade as well as military activities.
suggesting that they were considered royal ritual objects. The Inomatas use of the term divine ruler for the leader of
theatrical performance and dedication ritual involved in the each of the several Maya polities assumes a singularity or unity
deposition of royal lithic artifacts in theatrical spaces at Agu- of command that I have challenged for the past 30 years
ateca and Copan must have reinforced the rulers political (Becker 1975, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990). In presenting his evi-
and economic power. dence he also refers to images of supreme political leaders
but neglects to note that these people, regardless of rank, are
also the social leaders who serve as the embodiment of social
Marshall Joseph Becker integration within the community. In examining the roles of
Department of Anthropology, West Chester University, 19 these leaders Inomata suggests that some threshold existed
W. Barnard St., West Chester, PA 19382, U.S.A. (mbecker@ that Maya society never completely crossed. This thresh-
wcupa.edu). 22 III 06 old surely relates to a developmental level of state societies
but remains unclear in this context.
Inomata has undertaken a discussion of an interesting feature The spectacles provided in the public sphere within each
that appears to be central to all lowland Maya cities and towns polity (see Habermas 1991) are the concerns of this essay. No
of the Classic Periodthe tendency for their site cores to consideration is given to possible changes in function for these
include one or more open zones of varying size that are areas over time. Inomatas lack of temporal controls as well
commonly identified as plazas. Inomata argues that these as his generalizations regarding degrees of complexity are sub-
spaces were purposely built and used for public performances. ject to the same criticisms leveled by Calhoun (1992) in re-
While this use has often been implied, Inomata seeks to un- viewing the work of Habermas. He provides an interesting
derstand it in a larger cultural context. Although his inferences and useful framework for discussion of imagined processes
regarding public events are speculative, they may be generally of theatricality among the Maya and inferences regarding the
accepted in the absence of other convincing theories. In effect use of what are generally agreed to be public spaces, but the
this study endeavors to take Luceros (2003) study of the results remain speculative. No suggestions are made regarding
politics of ritual to another level. While doing so requires how one might go about testing them. Examination of the
considerable speculation, Inomata provides an outstanding way any large, open space evolved at a site or was created
position paper with a lucid review of the literature that relates through time might provide some interesting information on
performance to various cultural contexts or physical spaces. the changing uses of such features of the cultural landscape.
Inomata infers that theatrical performances or what I At Tikal much of the space in what became the Great Plaza
would call group and/or public rituals took place in pla- had once been the location of a number of temples. During
zaslarge open spaces . . . that marked the core of every the period when these structures were standing, the area must
Maya city. He recognizes that some open spaces may have have had a very different character and function. The point
served as markets, but he does not develop these possible when this area of Tikal was cleared and what replaced these
variations (cf. Becker 2003). Not clearly stated is the common small ritual structures would offer important clues to pro-
use by some Mayanists of the basic term plaza to refer to cesses of social change there. Whether open areas at other
an open space of any size that is bounded by buildings. Also sites had similar evolutionary histories is not known. We need
problematic is Inomatas concern with the capacities of such to conduct extensive tests across such open spaces to de-
open spaces, supposedly for what might be seen as a standing- termine what kinds of structures may have once stood in
room-only throng. Regardless of the total population of the them and whether small buildings and platforms continued
Tikal polity, for example, we do not know how many people to occupy areas that now appear to have been entirely
might attend public performances and whether there was unencumbered.
differential attendance by gender or age. Thus the supposed
capacity of the multiple plaza zones at any site may be
irrelevant. Quite possibly the amount of open space at a site Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos
varies with the wealth of its polity and is unrelated and ir- Museo Popol Vuh, Universidad Francisco Marroqun, 6
relevant to population size. Calle Final Zona 10, Guatemala 01010, Guatemala
Inomata speaks of variations among Maya communities (ofchinch@ufm.edu.gt). 4 V 06
of different sizes. Where the most complex of these social
groups, such as Tikal, fit into a continuum of state-level so- The architectural layout of Maya sites, with wide open exterior
cieties is unclear. I believe that at best the largest of these spaces, has repeatedly suggested the practice of public per-
polities were low-level states. In this I agree with Lucero and formances attended by wide audiences ever since Diego Garca
others who have suggested that leaders among the Maya pro- de Palacio (1927[1576], 91) compared the ruined stairways
vided only the most basic services to their communities around the plaza at Copan to the Roman Coliseum. Various

early testimonies offer eyewitness accounts from the early lated rituals enacted by the kings exemplify the need to create
colonial period (Landa 1982, 11314; De la Garza et al. 1983, the extraordinary, in Inomatas words, dramatizing social
324), while ethnographic testimony highlights the importance relations that are also created in warfare itself. Such perfor-
of public gatherings involving long and elaborate dances and mances may also have served to display and distribute war
performances in the social life of Mesoamerican communities. spoilsan activity that likely stimulated allegiance to rulers
The argument that such performances were crucial for the and war leaders even though it is largely deemphasized in
integration of ancient Maya polities has the virtue of incor- public art.
porating one of the most salient features of Mesoamerican The perspective advanced in this paper opens a rich avenue
public life into the discussion of ancient political practice. for research, laying out the basic theoretical framework for
However, it should be noted that early sources mention a further discussion. Potential problems that need to be raised
wide variety of representations that probably had equally di- include temporal and regional variations in the size and layout
verse social functions. For instance, Acuna (1978, 19) distin- of plazas and the presence or absence of monuments com-
guished three main classes: okot, mostly penitential and pro- memorating public performances by kings.
pitiatory dances, including war dances, baldzamil, humorous,
vulgar performances, and ez yah, related to magic spells and
charms. (Colonial-period spellings for Maya words, as used Andres Ciudad Ruiz and Jesus Adanez Pavon
by Acuna, are respected in this comment.) Clearly, not all Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
performances carried out in ancient Maya cities had equally (andresci@ghis.ucm.es). 2 V 06
strong political implications, and yet Inomata is right in stress-
ing that they allowed the inhabitants of dispersed settlements The Classic Maya city was a complex universe composed of
the opportunity for personal contact and intense participation plazas with stelae, altars, sanctuaries, acropolis, palaces, ball
in community life that may have strengthened their allegiance courts, and other specialized buildings, many of them dec-
to particular cities and rulers. orated with carved and painted imagesa universe sur-
Classic Maya art and associated inscriptions are explicit rounded by myriad domestic units and often integrated by
about the participation of rulers in dances and other perfor- systems of causeways. Its planning was not random; each
mances. The interpretation of fully dressed rulers represented space, building, and monument had its own significance and
on stelae as commemorating actual performances held in the was placed in the landscape according to that significance.
plazas where they stand is an elegant explanation for such The Maya architectural landscape was a living entity that was
representations and their architectural settings. I believe it is periodically activated through rituals performed by the rulers
important to add that in many cases public performance by and other actors.
rulers was related to warfare. As noted by Inomata, the Bo- The novel analysis developed by Inomata opens promising
nampak murals and other monuments dealing with the pre- new directions for archaeological research on the functional
sentation of captives typically emphasize their public setting and symbolic understanding of that universe and of ancient
by showing participants placed on wide-stepped platforms, Maya culture in general. The interpretation of Maya rituals
most probably facing plazas. Carved stairwaysa monumen- in the framework of performance theory gives them a prin-
tal format that was usually accessible from large plazasare cipal role in the reproduction of political structures by intro-
largely associated with warfare and captive sacrifice and prob- ducing spectators along with actors into the representation
ably served as settings for such performances (Miller and and presenting this as an arena in which political revalidation,
Houston 1987). Likewise, rulers appearances on large pa- rather than simply the prescribed function of the institution,
lanquins at Tikal and elsewhere are recognized as commem- is the objective of the ritual process. This view is linked to
orating the capture of such palanquins from rival kings (Mar- the archaeological record through attention to the spatial con-
tin 1996). Numerous stelae show kings with elaborate dancing texts of public spectacles and the identification of the plazas
costumes standing on debased captives. While the main sub- of Maya centers as the settings for such spectacles. As Inomata
ject may be a public performance by the king, the presence shows, all this permits an approach to Maya urban design
of the captives hints at war-related connotations of his per- and its transformations in terms of the type of ritual activity
formance. This may have implications for understanding the anticipated, especially the number of spectators and the degree
role of public performance in the creation and re-creation of of accessibility and visibility of the auditoriums and stages.
Classic Maya polities. By itself, warfare may be a powerful Inomatas article focuses on an analysis and discussion that
force in bringing about sentiments of common identity and follow one of the many interpretative directions potentially
allegiance to rulers. Opposition to outside enemies, the shared opened by his approach: the cohesion of a society with cen-
vicissitudes of military campaigns, the common concerns of trifugal tendencies that imagines itself as a community
defense, and loyalty to successful leaders are likely to create through the experience of a real community on ritual occa-
shared identities and may also provide occasions for visual sions or, in material terms, the capacity of the plazas of centers
contact with rulers and their retinues. Ritual celebrations of such as Tikal, Copan, and Aguateca to contain the dependent
war campaigns through public performances of warfare-re- population. With respect to this, we have two observations.

On the one hand, the analysis links the presence of stelae persons, or a crowds, interaction with stelae placed at the
with the largest plazas, but this link cannot be asserted cat- side of or in the plaza itself is very different from an involve-
egorically. For example, at Machaquila (Graham 1967; Cho- ment with massive, isotropic images carved in stucco defining
con and Laporte 2002; Ciudad et al. 2004) Plaza A contains the platforms surrounding the plaza. Stelae are focal points
most of the sites stelae although it is not the largest of the while the elaborate stuccos are ambient backdrops. Stelae take
eight plazas of the central area or the most accessible and the viewers attention away from the ambience of the plaza.
visible. The two causeways detected lead to Plaza D and to They are potent public monuments and need no imagery in
Plaza C, which are the largest ones but have only three and order to be erected. Tikal has yielded many plain stelae,
one stelae respectively. This evidence suggests a close rela- especially in the Late Classic Twin Pyramid Complexes and
tionship between the social and dynastic memory recorded in the Great Plaza in front of Temples I and II. How would
on these monuments and the buildings that delimit Plaza A, these monuments contribute to the theatrical space? They
in which the majority of the citys rulers were supposedly could be stage sets, screens, or frames for live actors, but they
buried. At the same time, it suggests that rituals related to are not reminders of past performances. Carved stelae, works
this whole ideological complex may have been restricted to of artistry and homage, express and accrue their own histories
a smaller audience. as long as they remain standing. Over time they become in-
However, we see the Machaquila example not as challenging dependent of the current plaza and its functions, vestiges of
Inomatas suggestion but as complementing it. From the con- regnal philosophies and histories.
sideration of the foregoing case it follows that there may have I am not concerned that Inomata has applied performance
been a degree of variation over space and time in the guide- theory to his analysis of plaza spaces; I think he does so quite
lines of the design and the public versus more exclusive char- judiciously. I am no expert in performance theory, so my
acter of the rituals. If so, we need to determine the diverse question is a general one. Is there a defining difference be-
associations between the spatial features of plazas and mon- tween performance and normal behavior? My qualified an-
uments or buildings. The similarities and differences identi- swer is that performance is intentional much as the making
fied between Maya centers will be related to the various modes of art is intentionalthat is, that there is an element of the
of political revalidation of the rulers. In our view, this vari- irrational in any performance. Inomata states that seeing is
ation could be fruitfully explored and interpreted by consid- believing. I think I understand what he is trying to say; what
ering both the size and the degree of accessibility and visibility one sees with ones own eyes and hears with ones own ears
of plazas in terms of the concepts that Inomata associates (a performance) is more convincing and believable than what
with them. one is only told to believe. This may be true, but nevertheless
images do deceive; they are created and intended to be illu-
sions. The way performance distinguishes itself from normal
Flora S. Clancy behavior is in its creation of illusionsin its marvelous, be-
Department of Art and Art History, University of New lievable irrationality. Ancient Maya plazas were surely places
Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, U.S.A. (flora@unm.edu). for performances choreographed by royal intentions, but per-
4 V 06 formance is a hazardous tool for crafting civil communities.
Something else is involved; I think it is place (see Basso 1996)
Inomata convincingly argues that the ancient Maya plaza is as much as it is performance.
a theatrical space for the forming and maintenance of com- I am both fascinated and concerned about how we tread
munity. I appreciate and applaud his nonreductive approach the distances between our scholarship and our subjects. Cer-
to the analysis of plaza spaces and his attention to the material tain pathways can reflect a scholars present-day concerns. J.
forms of plaza as guides for estimating possible functions. My Eric S. Thompson is an example. His vision of the peaceful,
concerns have to do with the functions and artistry of stelae, philosophical, ahistorical Maya has been properly questioned
what is meant by performance and performance theory, and, and abandoned, but ever since he died he has been a negative
finally, what we, as scholars of the ancient Maya, do and how target for Maya iconographers and epigraphers. And yet, I
we do it. think of his life: deeply religious, he suffered through two
Inomata argues that stelae set in plazas depict the public devastating world wars and the terrible depression of the thir-
performances held in those plazas and that their images served ties. The ancient Maya must have been a relief to him, a hope
as mnemonic devices to prompt visitors to the plaza to re- that history could be stilled, that peace could exist somewhere,
member and reimagine those performances. In the Maya re- and that religious, thoughtful men could temper the politics
gion, plazas were part of cityscapes long before stelae were of power. About 30 years ago, Western popular culture began
placed there. Preclassic plazas were places where great stucco to make human and natural disasters the stuff of romance,
works depicting deities were created (Freidel and Schele and about 25 years ago scholars began to realize how bloody
1988b). The Early Classic addition to plaza spaces of stelae and bellicose the ancient Maya had actually been. Is this
representing honored human beings signals a change in the coincidence?
political and ceremonial intentions for public gatherings. A In reading Inomatas first-rate scholarship on plazas and

performance and their roles in the construction and main- 101). Similarly, large central plazas and urban cores are absent
tenance of community, I was excited by his questions about from sites in the western Puuc region such as Xcalumkin and
how ancient Maya polities contrived to come together as iden- from various Postclassic sites such as Santa Rita Corozal
tifiable entities. He writes of ancient centrifugal forces coun- (Chase and Chase 1988, 8798). These settlements also lack
teracting the formation of community; people could walk other symbolic markers of power, such as ball courts, pyramid
away from situations that became intolerable for them. Such temples, multiroom palaces, and stelae. It would be of great
a strategy is no longer possible today; the whole world has importance to investigate the morphological link between
become the communitys stage (pace Shakespeare), and we these features and plazas for a more profound understanding
have nowhere to go to escape the intolerable. Community, of their function with regard to the theatrical events in which
its formation and its maintenance, is therefore a paramount they were involved.
issue for today and an effort to understand how the ancient The present article also addresses a very fundamental ques-
Maya communities worked is definitely timely.
tion with regard to the sources of power that were available to
Maya rulers. Writers who highlight the ideological nature of
Maya states often characterize them as fragile units with weak
Nikolai Grube
control over people and territory, based as they are on the rule
Institut fur Altamerikanistik und Ethnologie, Universitat
of charismatic kings who use kinship and marriage rather then
Bonn, Romerstr. 164, 53117 Bonn, Germany (ups402@uni-
the bureaucratic institutions of a state to administer their au-
bonn.de). 16 V 06
thority. Such weak states would indeed be virtual commu-
I strongly concur with Inomatas conclusions. Could early nities, and the state would be absent for most of the population
states ever have existed without the display of power and its in everyday life. Inomata wisely avoids distinguishing between
divine legitimation in grand arenas? Wherever large audiences performance and other sources of power, but he implies that
had to be addressed in preindustrial societies, performance Maya states interfered very little in the life of common people
was the principal medium and public plazas for mass gath- when he speaks about a state that could not be experienced by
erings were the locations in societies where writing was only the community other than through public events. However,
marginally important. As Inomata shows us, the experience ethnohistorical sources from Central Mexico and the Maya
of the bodily existence of others was necessary to experience Highlands prove that hegemonic states in Mesoamerica had
the idea of a community. the control of exchange networks, trade routes, and especially
Most colleagues will agree with Inomata that the principal the acquisition of tribute as their primary ambition (Grube and
function of large plazas amongst the Classic Maya was to Martin 1998, 13438).
secure spaces for mass spectacles and public performance. Mesoamerican elites to some extent had control over the
Although some might stress the possibility that plazas also production and allocation of prestige goods and some critical
served as locations for markets, I find this highly unlikely utilitarian items, suggesting that the state probably was much
given the presence of public monuments such as stelae and more present and real than is suggested by the idea of an
altars in most of the plazas. Performance in plazas, as Inomata imagined community. A particularly important aspect of the
points out, served the Maya rulers and elites to visualize asym- power of rulers must have been the control and management
metrical power relations, social hierarchies, and the moral of water, the most vital and yet limited resource in many parts
values of the community. In this regard, the Maya were not of the Maya lowlands, especially in cities requiring central
different from most other premodern societies. We can look
reservoirs such as Tikal and Calakmul (Lucero 2006). In all
at Uruk and Enkidu, which were located in the vicinity of
of these aspects the state must have been present much more
centers of power and ritual activity on widely visible hilltops
than only symbolically. The manipulation of ideological fac-
(Oates and Oates 1976, 22), the enormous plazas in Angkor
torsthe public performance of ritual in grand arenas
Wat and Angkor Thom, or the plazas of ancient China (Jackes
rather then an end in itself was complementary to other strat-
and Gao 2004). Large plazas constituted the central spaces of
communities in the late preceramic period in the central An- egies for the allocation of power. I would argue here that
des during the transformation from small villages to more theater contributed to the cognitive-symbolic base of Maya
centralized communities (Grieder et al. 1988; Moseley 1975). states but that the basis of their authority cannot be broken
The importance of public performance for the advance- up into ideological and objective (material) components.
ment of political agendas makes the complete absence of pla- Maya kings possessed considerable power from their position
zas in some regions of the Maya world even more remarkable. as heads of an administrative hierarchy and its institutions of
The lack of plazas and with it any recognizable urban plan enforcement, including coercive power. Moral authority was
in the Ro Bec region of Campeche has led scholars to in- necessary to support the authority of rulers, but rather than
terpret Ro Bec as a group of settlements without any central serving only as an instrument backing their power also helped
administration (Bueno Cano 1999; Nondedeo et al. 2003, to motivate and mobilize their subjects.

and maintaining community identity and elite authority in

Christian Isendahl Maya polities, they need to be understood in relation to other
African and Comparative Archaeology, Department of political and economic processes rather than singled out as
Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box the paramount mechanism as they are here.
626, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden (christian.isendahl@ In Classic Maya communities, authority and political order
arkeologi.uu.se). 29 IV 06 regularly permeated the physical as well as the constructed
dimensions of reality; to varying degrees they were present in
I agree with the essence of Inomatas argument on the cen- the perception of landscape, cosmology, the calendar, the built
trality of large-scale public events as a key mechanism in the environment, land-use rights, and identity, history, and mem-
integration and identity formation of Maya communities and ory. In a sense, then, large-scale public events served to
in legitimizing elite authority, a theme that recently has been strengthen sociopolitical order rather than being its outstand-
explored from supplementary perspectives by Schortman, Ur- ing manifestation. I am highly skeptical of the assumption of
ban, and Ausec (2001) and Halperin (2005), among others. a centrifugal tendency in Classic Maya populations that is
I am also in total accord with the supposition that ensuring fundamental to Inomatas argument. The characteristically
spaces for such ceremonies was of major concern in Maya dispersed settlement patterns of most urban communities in
urban site planning and that plazas formed an important the Maya Lowlands are probably better understood as con-
category in this scheme. While I find the course of argument ditioned by a considerable reliance on settlement agriculture
generally sound, I am not entirely convinced by some of its than as evidence of a centrifugal tendency owing to weak
central tenets and assumptions. systems of political control and authority (Isendahl 2002). I
My chief hesitation concerns whether the concept of the- do agree very strongly with the idea of sociopolitical orders
atricality is the best heuristic tool when applied in contexts being conditional and the subject of social negotiation but
far removed from the modern formal theater. Although the would rather argue that authoritythough in fluxwas per-
theater metaphor is certainly not novel in anthropological ceptible in the day-to-day life of most Classic Maya com-
inquiry into political systems in which large-scale public cer- moners. From this perspective, theatricality both underesti-
emonies formed fundamental instruments of integration and mates the power of Classic Maya elite ideology to manipulate,
control, it burdens rather than enhances the current argu- in which the organization of recurrent large-scale ceremonies
ment. Following Schechner (1994), in contrast to ritual performed an essential strategy, and overestimates commoner
formance theatrical performance accentuates pretending and reflexivity.
entertainment. It is concerned with the moment and is a In sum, Inomatas contribution is a soundly structured,
display of individual creativity rather than collective perfor- relevantly referenced, engagingly written, and generally well-
mance. The audience consumes for its entertainment rather argued paper that would have been more convincing had he
than participating, and spectators are usually free to criticize focused on performance theory rather than bringing his ar-
the performance. Although there are shared features, theat- gument over the edge with theatricality. He has produced a
ricality is simply not the most appropriate analogy for char- thought-provoking and stimulating paper on the mechanisms
acterizing the sociopolitical mechanisms of large-scale public of political agency in Classic Maya communities.
Classic Maya events.
Agency and performance theory have proved very useful,
for instance, in stressing multivocality and human creativity Rodrigo Liendo Stuardo
in social change, but the importance that Inomatas use of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Circuito
theatricality attributes to spectators as evaluators is mislead- Exterior S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Mexico, D.F.,
ing. Theatrical performance emphasizes the singular event Mexico (liendo@avantel.net). 6 V 06
(thus to some extent ignoring history) at the expense of con-
ceptualizing such ceremonies as forming part of more durable Inomata breaks new ground in the field of Maya studies by
and encompassing ideologically, symbolically, economically, exploring the intersection of performance with politics,
and physically enforced systems for maintaining community structure, and action. He also raises several key issues related
identity and asymmetrical power relations. While large-scale not only to the nature of ancient Maya political statecraft but
political ceremonies formed a series of isolated events, the also to the way archaeology should approach the problem of
sociopolitical orderwhich would often be the principal mes- human agency in ancient societies.
sage of the elite organizerswas not manifested on these His suggestion that theatrical spaces (an ever-present fea-
occasions only. Plazas and other ceremonial spaces serving ture in ancient Maya city planning) were used to counteract
similar functions constituted a complex political or cere- the centrifugal tendencies of elite factions and nonelite pop-
monial mosaic landscape that maintained meaning beyond ulations alike is a fresh and appealing line of inquiry that
the isolated event. Since large-scale public events in plazas ought to be explored, expanded, and discussed. This need is
were such important aspects of political life in constructing all the more pressing in an academic environment that sees

pre-Hispanic Maya political organization as the product of

the circumstances advanced by active, powerful, and aristo- Matthew Looper
cratic individuals acting individually rather than forming part Department of Anthropology, California State University,
of a specialized bureaucratic structure (Webster 2001, 141; Chico, CA 95929-0720, U.S.A. (mlooper@csuchico.edu). 19
IV 06
Restall 1997, 24; Inomata and Houston 2001b). In this way,
the agency of at least a few individuals is being recognized.
As an art historian, I am impressed that this article draws
The issue of centralization of political power in Maya society
upon humanistic approaches to address the anthropological
has traditionally been approached from two points of view,
and archaeological problem of characterizing the sociopolit-
one focused on the analysis of the places and architectural ical functions of ancient Maya architecture, particularly pla-
features where power concentrates and the other relating to zas. Most studies that are relevant to this project are analyses
the individuals subject to such power. Archaeologists have of ancient Maya literature (epigraphy), architectural history,
chosen to pay more attention to the former than to the latter or the iconography and iconology of monumental art. While
(de Montmollin 1995, 117). The point made by Inomata in some of these studies were conducted by anthropologists or
relation to the way the archaeology of performance might be archaeologists fluent in humanistic methods (e.g., Sanchez
relevant to the study of how the materiality of space serves 1997), a great many were conducted by art historians (see
to empower and constrain agents is highly significant for Newsome 2001). While the integration of arts and sciences
the construction of theoretical bridges that eventually might that is evident from this study can be partly attributed to a
join these two seemingly incompatible theoretical paths. general tendency toward interdisciplinary collaboration in the
Inomata, by stressing the idea of performance as public field of Maya studies, it is also symptomatic of the emphasis
display, spectacle, and theatricality, connects neatly with the on performance as a mode of inquiry, which, as Fabian (1990,
growing appreciation in anthropology in general of the role 10) notes, provides a way of humanizing anthropology.
of the individual and collective action in the maintenance, Despite this humanistic tendency, the application of certain
theatrical metaphors and models risks secularizing ancient
transformation, and negotiation of social relations (Carrasco
Maya performance. Several fundamental theoretical models
1991; Carl 2000, 32829; Low 2003, 16; Gillespie 2000, 135;
cited in this article (e.g., Schechner 1988, Turner 1986) present
Moore 2005). Coming to understand how this process unfolds
theater as an essentially secular activity for the purpose of
in particular contexts (constrained or shaped by previous po-
entertainment and thus separate from the more religiously
litical events and economic and social structure) is a chal- oriented ritual. Whereas it could be said that such an approach
lenging and productive enterprise both theoretically and serves to demystify these performances, the rhetoric of texts
methodologically. The focus on performance might require, and images constantly refers to the prototypical actions of
for example, experimentation with unconventional archaeo- supernatural beings who conduct sacrifices and dedicate stone
logical techniques (space proxemics, perspectives, acoustics, monuments just as historical rulers do. Maya kings were fre-
and a plethora of other techniques routinely used in perfor- quently entitled divine lords, testimony to their role as both
mance theory) within a rigorous research design anchored in political and religious leaders. It could therefore be argued
an explicit methodology in a way rather similar to what Moore that the application of theatrical models may distort the focus
(2005, 215) suggests about the combination of pragmatism of ancient Maya public performances, which were saturated
and a theory based on three main componentsa solid with religious content.
knowledge of the ethnography and ethnohistory bearing on On another level, the interpretation of social life based on
culture-specific sets of beliefs and meanings, the use of social a theatrical model (particularly as conceived by Goffman
theory of space, place, architecture, and landscape, and, finally, [1959, 1967]) may be problematic because of its basis in con-
the testing of falsifiable hypotheses about the possible rela- ventional Western notions of dramatic representation (Schief-
felin 1998). Such performances are predicated on a division
tionships between archaeological remains and meaning. This
between audience and performer in which the fictive personae
may be the part of Inomatas work that I admire mosthis
assumed by the performers create a third, on-stage world.
commitment to the development of an explicit methodology
This symbolic reality is treated like a sign which is in turn
that pays attention to the specifiicities of Maya ancient civi-
deciphered by the audience through distanced contemplation.
lization without losing sight of theoretical problems that con- In fact, the historical origins of the concept of ideology
cern the field of anthropology at large. In this regard, his invoked frequently in this essaycan be traced to an icon-
proposal, albeit focusing on just one aspect of the complex oclastic interpretation of theater as the expressive and inten-
phenomenon of performance in ancient Maya society, shifts tional manipulation of audience by performers (Summers
the stress from an analysis of the built environment of ancient 2003). In my view, theatrical models of society imply a cul-
Maya cities (Houston 1998b) to the study of the actions that turally specific mode of communication which cannot be as-
took place within it. sumed in the case of Maya performance (Looper n.d.).

Indeed, I would go so far as to argue that the communi- beliefs. Theater takes into account these different factors; per-
cation of cognitive meanings constitutes a relatively minor formers and witnesses all have roles that are attuned to specific
component of performance. In addition to their rhetorical events, typically with political overtones, but also perceive
content, the performances are structured in such a way as to events in ways that best suit their needs or belief systems.
engage the participants senses in the recognition and pro- Performers are judged by an audience; success benefited rulers
duction of forms and configurations known as aesthetic tropes in the form of social and material support (surplus labor and
(Tambiah 1985). These tropes do not represent a social goods).
reality that is separate from them but are actualities themselves Inomata clearly demonstrates how important political the-
in that they are the emotionally loaded patterns through which ater is; how and why this is the case are less fully addressed.
social memory is perceived, organized, and manipulated. Be- For example, Roscoe (1993) details the importance and chal-
cause it enlists the intersubjective practices that are integral lenges of not only the need to reach people but the logistics
to social life, performance actualizes symbolic reality in social of doing so. The more people successfully integrated, the more
terms rather than merely as a cognitive argument or prop- political capital and the greater challenge for rulers to interact
osition (Schieffelin 1985). on a face-to-face basis with their supporters, Again, Inomata
This is not to say that ancient Maya public performance notes that different centers have different audience capacities;
was not theatrical in the sense of being highly visualindeed, why is this the case? Performers can be judged successful only
the overwhelming abundance of visual imagery that survives if people can participate in the performance to begin with.
from this society attests to the desire to enhance the visibility Why did farmers, many of whom lived dispersed throughout
of certain performances, as do the plaza spaces discussed in the hinterlands, come to centers at all? Because rulers also
this essay. However, we should not lose sight of the fact that fulfilled material needsspecifically, water during the annual
public performances sponsored by ancient Maya rulers were drought. Thus, audience size was influenced by how much
fundamentally cosmological (or, dare I say, magical) rites de- water royals had at their disposal in the massive artificial
signed to invoke divine blessings and protection and to pro- reservoirs located next to temples and plazas (Scarborough
mote fertility and fecundity. In contrast to Western theater, 2003) and the amount of agricultural land in the vicinity and
the performances did not represent a symbolic reality and beyond (Lucero 2006). Moreover, evaluating royal perfor-
therefore did not require a rational human audience to de- mances had much to do with seasonal conditionsnot
cipher them. What was important was that the performance enough water, too much water, and so on. Thus, people
be done in the proper way so that divine beings were invoked judged as poor performances those conducted without im-
as coparticipants. This orientation is demonstrated by nu- mediate results in times of trouble and uncertainty (e.g., suc-
merous images in which deities and ancestors peer down upon cession). The performances were likely ones that had been
scenes of royal ritual. Analogously, it is possible that plazas performed numerous times before. Social, political, and eco-
were designed not only with human audiences in mind but nomic conditions, not just the audience, determined their
also to address divine agents in the form of deity images success.
housed in surrounding temples, deified astronomical phe- As Inomata mentions, with farmers living dispersed be-
nomena, and/or numinous figures embodied in the landscape. tween centers, there was likely an element of choice to atten-
In short, the interpretation of ancient Maya performance dance at royal performances in any given year. Too many
would be well served by taking into account culturally specific poor performances would have caused farmers to look to
epistemologies rather than assuming an audience-performer other royals for what they needed. Further, in some cases they
relationshipand the consequent communicative func- could look elsewhere within the same center (Lucero n.d.).
tionsderivative of the Western dramaturgical model. Every Maya center had several temples and plazas, and while
in some instances additional plazas were built to accommo-
date growing numbers of supporters, as Inomata suggests,
different groupslesser royals, elites, priesthoods, commu-
Lisa J. Lucero nity groups, or other special-interest groupscould also have
Department of Anthropology, New Mexico State University, been building their own ceremonial stages and arenas. I sug-
Las Cruces, NM 88003, U.S.A. (lislucer@nmsu.edu). 8 V 06 gest, then, that a poor performance may have resulted first
in peoples trying another temple in the same center. Only
Inomata has contributed a thought-provoking piece that will when the conditions that resulted in the change of venue did
be useful not only to Mayanists but also to anthropologists not improve would they have chosen another center alto-
who study complex societies, and I do not think that anyone gether. This idea goes a long way toward explaining the ornate
would disagree with his claim that political leaders rely on Maya civic-ceremonial centers. Performers were always com-
public events for integrative purposes. A completely material peting for audiences against others within and without. We
basis for political power is not palatable. This is because it is can begin assessing whether different groups built temples
important to take into account varied practices, agencies, and within centers by comparing their construction attributes,

ritual deposits, and, when present, iconography and inscrip- promoted royal visibility as an idiom of power. Questions
tions (Lucero n.d.). concerned with the historical reciprocity between Maya ar-
These few comments aside, Inomata has provided us a chitecture and political order may be beyond the scope of
foundation from which to explore further how and why Maya this article but are not beyond the scope of Inomatas method.
kings became some of the ancient worlds best performers. Similarly, the implications of his study for gauging the value
of spectatorship in social process require considering the sub-
ject from a more encompassing point of view. His emphasis
on performance as a tool for enhancing power relations adds
Elizabeth A. Newsome a new dimension to what Classic Maya inscriptions have al-
Department of Visual Arts, University of California, San
ready told us about the political contexts of viewership.
Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0084, U.S.A. (enewsome@ucsd.
Epigraphers are familiar with a verbal compound that uses
edu). 29 IV 06
the eye hieroglyph with extended sight lines to record the
This important article directs much-needed attention to the act of witnessing ceremonial events. This phrase, based on
dynamic role that spectacle and public assembly may have the root il, to see, occurs in statements of monument ded-
played in Classic Maya political life. It offers researchers a ications, sacrifices, and period endings to record that indi-
new appreciation for the scale and lasting importance of set- viduals of key political importance were present to behold
tings designed for ritual gatherings in Maya urban design and those events (Houston and Taube 2000, 28487; see also
a promising empirical approach to aspects of social experience Houston and Stuart 1998). Stela 10 at Seibal follows this
that, however intangible, were influential in the constitution expression with emblem glyph titles naming the lords of three
of power. Most of us who have studied Maya architecture distant sites. In this and similar monuments, the iconographic
and monumental art have an intuitive understanding of the depiction of royal performance and display is joined with an
theatrical sensibilities implied in the construction of plazas, inscription emphasizing the reciprocal act of viewership by
causeways, and the free-standing monuments that occupy these lords. As Foucaults observations indicate, vision artic-
them, but we have lacked a fully articulated, explicit meth- ulates power relations between the beholder and the object
odology for discussing them in objective terms. What is so of the gaze (see, e.g., Bryson 1983).
rewarding in Inomatas study is his deductive method for Exploring spectatorship in the Americas may generate pos-
observing, comparing, and modeling the development of
sibilities for interpreting Pre-Columbian performance that
these performative aspects of social discourse through their
conventional Western understandings of the topic fail to pro-
tangible indicators in the built environment. His use of the
vide. For example, Rhonda Taube has learned that conno-
concept of imagined communities to situate this focus on
performance within the debate over sociopolitical process es- tations of the Kiche term for seeing or watching imply
tablishes yet another satisfying convergence between postpro- liking, expressing a kind of social approbation for the form
cessual archaeology and the growing cognitive, phenomeno- and content of the performance (Taube 2006, n.d.). Her stud-
logical, and aesthetic humanism in studies of Mesoamerican ies of the styles and moods of spectatorship associated with
art and writing. As an art historian, I especially value the contemporary and traditional dances suggest affinities with
opportunities his approach provides for interdisciplinary un- the collective discourses of affiliation and resistance that In-
derstandings of the way performance, visuality, and perceptual omata envisions. Productive analogies may also be discovered
experience can sustain and generate cultural knowledge. in the highly theatrical dance dramas of the Northwest Coast,
The article is ground-breaking in the extent to which the where spectatorship, gift giving, and feasting were critical to
author utilizes performance theory, a body of scholarship validating systems of rank and status. Houston and Taube
which has been applied in a very limited fashion to archae- (2000, 287) suggest that, for the Maya, sight may have sim-
ological cultures. The reason, of course, is that mental expe- ilarly discharged a witnessing or authorizing function in
rience can be approached only indirectly through the archae-
ritual contexts. The viewership involved in the potlatch is not
ological record. Exploring how transactions of understanding,
passive spectatorship in the Western sense but more akin to
consensus, and political authority were enacted through spec-
what Jill Sweet (1985) called active listening. The state of
tatorship and performance may inform the examination of
mind and imagination that Sweet describes obliterates dis-
agency and the flow of power in Maya communities. Agency
and power have, however, been engaged in relation to the tance between audience and performers and, by ascribing an
built environment in ways that Inomata does not address but active agency to the viewers involvement, fosters collective
may be crucial to furthering his method. I would be interested belonging, harmony, and balance with universal forces. Such
in his perspectives on the way vision interfaced with Maya comparative models may expand our perspectives on the so-
spatial order, considering the interplays Foucault (1979[1975]; cial dynamics Inomata suggests for Classic Maya performance
Bentham 1977) observed between environment and gaze that and inform our sense of their political impact.

an extraordinary traditional spectacle with specific, eminently

Miguel Rivera Dorado social ends.
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Inomata says that a plaza is a space in the center of the
(mrivera@ghis.ucm.es). 22 III 06 city surrounded by temples and other buildings with a strong
symbolic charge, but these are features typical of other spaces
that are usually called courtyards. Plazas are often simply
Is the individual identity of a member of an ancient state
open spaces that separate groups of buildingstransitional
simply the product of actions and ceremonies sponsored by
areas, in the terminology of architects and urbanists, that
the authorities? Inomata seems to believe that it is, but there
could be classified as no-mans-lands, if we assigned those
are historical cases in which there is consensus that abstract
groups to kinship or corporate units, or perhaps as everyones
elements are the raw materialsin Egypt involving funerary
land. Their large dimensions and very irregular and open
customs, the pharaoh, and the gifts of the Nile, in Greece
design may distinguish plazas from courtyards, but in any
involving myths, sanctuaries, war, and writers and philoso-
case these are relative and rather vague categories.
phers, and in Rome involving the idea of the republic and
I agree with Inomata with regard to the ostentatious vest-
the civilizing mission. He says that the development of large
ments that the rulers displayed in public ceremonies, but I
centralized states would have been impossible without gran-
do not share his view of the role of litters and palanquins;
diose public events. While these events are important in so-
although they were adorned with figures or other motifs, this
cieties with strong centrifugal tendencies, very primitive tech-
does not mean that they were used in public events before a
nologies, problems of transport and communication, and a
large audience. These modes of transport, always luxuriously
hostile environment such as the ancient Maya and still rele- decorated to express the status of their occupants, were not
vant in many states whose territory is very extensive and usually used as seats or simply for display in fiestas and cel-
includes different ethnic groups or peoples in different cul- ebrations. Platforms and staircases seem more logical ways of
tural conditions, they are much less so in states with developed raising certain personages above the mass of humanity, al-
administration, in which integrating factors such as militarism though these personages were of course able to arrive by
and religious fundamentalism play a role. I am talking about palanquin at the exact location of the event.
identity here; public state actions of course always reaffirm I share Inomatas view that the main purpose of the plazas
and consolidate group spirit and are a notable mechanism of of Maya cities was to accommodate well-attended ceremonies
cohesion and integration. and fiestas, but it is important to keep in mind the need for
I am not entirely convinced that theatrical events evolve space in which to contemplate certain buildings from an ap-
ambiguously. If this were true, the polyvalence of theatrical propriate perspective. Like the plazas in front of medieval
signs would make the propagation of dominant ideologies cathedrals, these plazas are not only places for meetings, the-
difficult or impossible. I believe, in contrast, in the political atrical performances, and markets but also provide the dis-
usefulness of theatrical performances, which transmit at least tance and vantage points that permit the appreciation of the
the basic principles of the dominant system of values. Here buildings ornaments and symbolic motifs. Like the great fa-
I use political in the Greek sense because the affairs of the cades of Christian churches, those of Maya buildings were,
city call for moral and, if possible, ethical consensus. The for the illiterate people who made up the majority of the
conflicts generated are another story. I cannot say that the population, immense books in which they could see and un-
religious ceremonies in the temple of Jerusalem or the games derstand sacred histories and political doctrines. Moreover,
in the Coliseum were ambiguous in this sense. They were their size, their style, their craftsmanship, their decoration,
performances arising from particular cultural orientations and and the perspectives afforded by their plazas contributed to
designed to transmit shared and politically correct values. something equally substantialemotion.
I am, however, convinced about the theatrical character of
the public events in Maya cities and their role in enhancing
the cohesion of Classic society, the effectiveness of divine Julia L. J. Sanchez
monarchies, and even the survival of the civilization in such Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, A210 Fowler,
a hostile environment (see Rivera 1982, 2001). It is necessary, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1510,
however, to distinguish performances such as the pwe of U.S.A. (sanchez@ucla.edu). 8 V 06
Burma, an outgrowth of the development of social interac-
tions like those that occur in popular celebrations around the Inomata discusses political performances among the Classic
world and are supported by political power, from institutional Maya, concentrating on large-scale events held in public pla-
theater in the hands of more or less free professionals, often zas. What the article contributes is not descriptions of the
performing for gain. Political or religious performance is not, events themselves, which have been discussed at great length
strictly speaking, one or the other but has the character of already, but the perspective from which the events are viewed.

In other words, Inomata asks, What if we looked at these unidirectional and involve implicit evaluation and negoti-
data differently? ation of power and authority between performers and viewers.
Previously, the public rituals of Maya rulers have been Nevertheless, the discussion of theatrical performances and
viewed from the perspective of maintenance of political their settings in Classic Maya polities seems rather uncon-
power, economic strength, and religious ritual. Artistic rep- vincing. I cannot agree with one of the main arguments of
resentations of the rituals have been viewed from various art the article, namely, that public events are represented pri-
historical, iconographic, and epigraphic perspectives. All of marily on public monuments and objects of art. The very
these approaches are valid and provide complementary in- distinction between public and restricted settings implies
sights into ancient Maya life. Inomata adds another perspec- that we know the intended recipients of the messages carried
tive: looking at the political events as performances in front by the objects, but this is not the case. The famed Bonampak
of an audience. This perspective offers intriguing possibilities murals adorn three small dark rooms. The arguably public
for the analysis of ritual in general and Maya ritual in par- scenes of Tikal kings carried in the captured palanquins of
ticular. Inomata offers interesting ideas and experiments with their enemies appear on temple lintels, the least public setting
a novel approach. Many opportunities exist for expanding on one can possibly imagine. There are more depictions of
these ideas: dances, processions, presentations of tribute, and captives on
Theater and performance studies have examined the role painted or carved vessels than on carved monuments.
and perspective of the audience. Inomata introduces the con- The relationship between the location of a monument and
cept, and it could be explored in much greater detail. the events depicted or described on it needs to be clarified.
Inomata briefly mentions the change of sites over time. According to Houston and Stuart (1998), sculptured or
Maya sites often grow more restricted over time, with build- painted images are extensions of the selves of the depicted
ings added in or around the plazas. The architectural changes actors. These images engage with human participants as if
are doubtless related to changes in the use of space, and it they were living actors themselves. Consequently, a panel de-
would be interesting to explore the performance concepts picting a dancing lord ensures the everlasting presence of a
associated with these changes. certain manifestation of that person in the act of dancing in
Detailed ethnohistoric accounts describe various activities that place. It does not imply that the original act performed
at Maya sites. Although the ethnohistories have been mined by the flesh-and-blood character took place or used to take
place at the location of the monument. Therefore, the mon-
for hundreds, perhaps thousands of articles, new ideas may
uments are not, strictly speaking, commemorative but pop-
yet be developed from this work.
ulate the landscape with ever-acting manifestations of gods,
Causeways and roads are another oft-studied aspect of
kings, queens, and nobles.
Maya sites. Ideas of performance, procession, and audience
When it comes to determining the prototypical location
continue to be explored in various ways (Keller 1996).
of an act depicted or described on a monument, there are
It is rare now in archaeology to see something completely
usually few if any clues. Most events take place in the land/
new. As my good friend Jim Sackett is fond of saying, people
city so-and-so (Stuart and Houston 1994). There are no
like to claim that they have said something new when it
deciphered terms for plaza or dancing platform. I am
actually has been said before (Sackett 2006, 16). Much more
aware of only two related references to an architectural setting
often, contributions come in the form of interesting ideas that
of dances. The inscription on Dumbarton Oaks Panel 1
allow us to continue our discussions and explore new direc-
(Mayer 1980, 6870, pl. 75) states that the protagonist danced
tions. Inomata has added several ideas that will stimulate
in a specific house at Piedras Negras. The inscription on
further discussion and exploration, and I believe that this
Stela 8 at Piedras Negras (Stuart and Graham 2005) refers to
means that he has accomplished his goal admirably. a dancing event in the same house some 35 years later. The
term house (naaj) might designate a group of halls with an
adjacent courtyard (Plank 2004). It must have been a fairly
Alexandre Tokovinine restricted setting.
Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Given the complexities involved in the analysis of Classic
Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.A. (tokovin@fas.harvard.edu). Maya monuments and inscriptions, it might be productive
26 IV 06 to consider other sources of information on the nature of
theatrical events and their spatial settings. For instance, Hous-
Inomatas article offers an important contribution to studies ton (1998a) suggests using graffiti in determining which areas
of Classic Maya royal courts as settings in which the political of sites were open or closed to human traffic. He notes, among
and moral orders of imagined communities were reiterated other things, that there are almost no depictions of humans
through acts of theatrical performance. The author suggests on the stairs of the temples. This makes these structures es-
that public performances offer moments of real community, sentially nonpublic as far as the presence of living humans
of extraordinary experiences that shape the perceptions and is concerned.
experiences of daily life. He argues that performances are not The volumetric assessment of potentially public spaces at

Classic Maya sites seemingly offers a robust source of data symbols. The theories of theater and performance help us to
for determining the degree of exclusivity of state-sponsored focus explicitly on interplays of such factors.
theatrical events. Inomata follows the method suggested in Isendahls and Loopers tendency toward dichotomization
earlier publications; for example, Fash (1998, 23942) makes can also be seen in their categorical division of the secular
similar observations with respect to the role of plazas at Co- from the religious. In many societies, including the Classic
pan, Pechal, and Tikal as settings for public performances of Maya, religious notions permeate numerous aspects of daily
variable exclusivity. However, as in the case of earlier works life, and what some consider secular, such as the theatrical
on the subject, it remains unclear to what extent the volu- effect, is present in religious ceremonies. Instead of
metric assessment of public spaces as opposed to population categorically labeling Maya public events as religious or
estimates for only three sites is statistically significant and to cosmological, we should examine complex interplays of
what extent the observations based on such limited data can various elements. Similarly, the symbolic reality of theater is
be applied to hundreds of other Maya sites. not a unique entity detached from daily lives. As many
The most important question that remains unanswered is anthropologists have argued, culture is a system of symbols,
what kinds of public theatrical performancesin terms of and human life is saturated with them. In our daily routines
content, not formwere essential to the maintenance of the we constantly create, use, and manipulate symbols and
imagined communities of Classic Maya polities. Was a com- interpret and misinterpret them. I therefore defined
munity imagined through celebrations of political and mili- theatricality not categorically but in terms of modes and
tary power of its lords, through periodic reestablishments of degrees of the use of certain signs.
space and time, or through the acts of asking for rain and Performance theory presents an even more fundamental
placating local gods, the guardians, the owners of the criticism on the dichotomization of thought and action that
land? Of course, the available data are very limited, but these gives primacy to the former. When Looper suggests that the
questions are crucial for understanding the role of theatrical Maya needed to conduct performances properly in order to
performances in the creation and maintenance of shared iden- invoke the divine beings, he is arguing for the preexistence
tities in Classic Maya kingdoms and merit further investi- of ideas or understandings of the world that generate and
gation. define peoples actions. We need to ask, however, how such
ideas and perceptions came to exist in the first place and how
they were maintained, shared, and transformed. For this
purpose, we have to examine not only the way ideas defined
actions but also the processes by which peoples actions and
Reply experiences shaped their perceptions of the world. Loopers
comment gives the impression that beliefs in supernatural
I am grateful that so many scholars wrote thoughtful beings transcended all other meanings and actions. To me,
comments on my article. I focus my reply on three issues the importance of divine beings and the necessity to conduct
salient in their discussions: (1) theories of performance and rituals properly were parts of the meanings that were created,
theater and their application to Maya society, (2) performance reproduced, and negotiated through performance. Conducting
and its relation to Maya polities, identity, and power, and (3) these rituals expressed such meanings whether this was
various types of evidence on public events in Maya society intended or not, and participation in the events signaled
and the methodology of examining them. As I write this reply compliance with these meanings, whether superficial or
in the Guatemalan lowlands, I am unable to consult additional wholehearted. It is important to recognize that physical acts
literature, but our ongoing fieldwork at a Maya site gives me define certain aspects of social relations. As Newsome points
a renewed conviction of the importance of these issues. out, modes of physical interaction, including visibility and
Theater, performance, and ritual. Isendahl and Looper suggest invisibility, are closely intertwined with the culturally shaped
that the concept of theater is based on a modern Western view nature of power. The performance perspective highlights such
and its application to Maya rituals is inappropriate. This point recursive relations between the materiality of bodies, actions,
concerns a critical problem in the study of performance, and objects, and spaces, on one hand, and the intangible issues
I appreciate this opportunity for further discussion. Their of emotions, perceptions, morality, and power, on the other.
criticism appears to derive from their dichotomized view of Loopers comments, as well as Riveras, imply the
theater and ritual. My intention, in contrast, was to explore the assumption of homogeneity and coherence in peoples beliefs
common features of the two. Thus, my emphasis on and perceptions at the expense of internal tension and fluidity.
theatricality was not meant to replace the concept of ritual, nor Although Isendahl recognizes agency and multivocality, his
did it privilege individual creativity over collective performance emphasis on durable and encompassing systems seems to
or entertainment over participation. Theaters, even modern hint that he shares a certain aspect of this view. The traditional
Western ones, are not detached from history, moral values, and concept of homogeneous culture and the overemphasis on
conventional beliefs, and rituals can involve heightened abstract structure have come under serious challenge in recent
emotional effects, the reactions of participants, and the use of years (Abu-Lughod 1991; Dirks et al. 1994; Inomata and

Triadan 2004; Wade 1999). The harmonious appearance of emphasis on spectators as evaluators directs our attention
culture and its continuity require conscious effort by certain more to interaction in specific social and spatial settings. This
members of society to maintain them and involve contestation view does not necessarily presume a strict division between
and negotiation. We need to examine how and under what actors and an audience. The participants can be at once
conditions culture may be shared and when and how it may performers and spectators. Nor does it assume explicit
exhibit rupture and change. evaluations by highly conscious critics. Most viewers reactions
The theories of theater and performance examine public to Maya rituals were probably far more subtle and less
events as critical moments in which certain views are imposed, conscious. Multivocality does not necessarily mean outright
shared, resisted, and negotiated. In other words, theatrical rejection of religious beliefs but may entail varying degrees of
events are multivocal. Meanings expressed and interpreted commitment to such beliefs, indifferent conformity, covert
through performance are not fixed or singular. In this sense, I dissent, and individualized ways of internalizing religious
am in agreement with Loopers caution about overemphasizing notions. It follows that commoners participation in rituals does
the communication of meanings, although this suggestion not always reflect fervent commitment to religious notions as
appears to contradict his own insistence on the primacy of Looper appears to imply. Varying attitudes may lead to more
religious beliefs in determining action. Clancys argument that explicit forms on other occasions. The humorous performances
images deceive relates to this issue. She appears to have in mind that Chinchilla mentions may have functioned as such social
the ambiguous correlations among physical representations, commentaries (see Taube 1989). One of the most negative
their messages, and individualized perceptions discussed above. expressions may have been simple nonparticipation. As Lucero
In this regard, her view and mine are probably not so different. notes, many Maya commoners probably had the option of
What I intended, however, was a balanced consideration of the not attending ceremonies or of attending rituals sponsored
communicative potential of performance as well. Performance by different elites, although I would conceptualize this process
and viewing have substantial persuasive power with regard to less as a win-or-lose game.
peoples actions and their physical states. In addition, we should Chinchilla and Tokovinine comment on the contents of
not assume the existence of the absolute reality hidden behind performances as opposed to their forms. The study of the
screens of illusion. What people do and see makes up the reality contents of performances is certainly important, and in
of the world as they experience it. particular I strongly agree with Chinchilla as to the
Isendahl, Looper, and I are probably in a close agreement importance of war-related performance for developing
on the need to examine specific historical and social contexts. communal identities (Inomata and Triadan 2004). I should
We are also well aware of the challenge of studying societies reiterate, however, that we need to recognize the indissoluble
so distant from our own. As Clancy points out, our views are connection of the two instead of dichotomizing them and
embedded in our own historical circumstances. Isendahls and privileging one at the expense of the other. In this article I
Loopers position, however, appear to diverge from mine as intentionally highlighted the forms and physical dimensions
to how we develop historically sensitive inquiries. My concern of performances because I felt that many previous studies of
is that the concepts of homogeneous culture and abstract Maya rituals and those of other societies had disproportionately
structure are more inventions of researchers shaped by their privileged the contents and meanings of these events. I hoped
own historical backgrounds than features of past societies. that the perspective I proposed would lead to new insights
The criticism of the overarching notion of culture has led and enrich our understanding of Maya society by
researchers to pay closer attention to the more concrete, complementing other kinds of work. In this sense, I appreciate
observable events and actions that make up social processes Loopers and Newsomes favorable comments about the spirit
(Appadurai 1996, 12; Barth 1994, 358; Friedman 1994, 207). of this approach and those of Liendo, Sanchez, and others
Emphasis on events and actions does not mean disregard of who appear to see the potential for theoretical and
history. To the degree that participants understand or think methodological advance.
that they understand what happened before and contemplate Political process. Becker notes that my use of the term
the outcomes of their actions, events are tied to the past and divine ruler assumes a singularity or unity of command,
the future. Just as history shapes events, it is implicated in but he seems to miss my point. I follow many anthropological
events. In this regard, I appreciate Newsomes comments on studies of divine kingship that stress its symbolic aspect. By
culturally constituted notions of performance and vision that emphasizing the public performances of rulers instead of their
provide a bridge between the physicality of action and its managerial functions, I tried to examine how they served as
embedded nature. embodiments of community identities. A rulers institu-
Isendahl also criticizes the notion of spectators as tionalized position as the highest political authority does not
evaluators. However, once we recognize the problem of imply a singular command in the operation of the polity. In
uncritically assuming the homogeneity of culture and note this regard, Rivera appears to have misunderstood my
the prevalence of multivocality, the importance of an audience argument about community identities. I do not think that
as evaluators should be clear. While many studies inspired by individual identity was simply the product of ceremonies
practice theory tend to focus on the practices of actors, the sponsored by the elite. Although I argued that experiences of

public events contributed to certain aspects of commoners the state into the identity of individuals. My main argument
identity, I said that we do not know how important the ties was that the heavy emphasis on public events in Classic Maya
to a specific dynasty were for the identities of individual society created moments of real community that coexisted
farmers. Identities were probably shaped in substantial part with imagined ones. In contrast, modern society, with a large
by other factors, including their affiliations with kin groups population precluding face-to-face contact, is more of an
and smaller local groups. imagined community sustained partly by a more developed
Becker says that I do not clarify where Maya polities lie on bureaucracy and communication technologies.
the continuum of state-level societies. I find such a one- Likewise, in suggesting a centrifugal tendency in Maya
dimensional view of social evolution problematic. Social polities I did not mean the absence of centralized control over
changes have multiple dimensions, among them administrative certain aspects of commoners lives. The foregoing discussion
systems, economic organization, and the symbolism associated should make it clear that I do not think that the centrifugal
with rulers, which are not transformed simultaneously. This tendency derived one-directionally from weak systems of
does not, however, mean that we should abandon cross-cultural political control. Although I agree with Isendahl that the
studies and try to understand individual societies in the closed dispersed settlement patterns in the Maya lowlands were
contexts of their historical particularities. The development of conditioned by agricultural practices, we interpret the political
bureaucratic administrative systems that I discussed is one of implications of these patterns differently. In my view, the
the dimensions that can be examined through comparative dispersed settlement pattern was a critical contributor to the
studies, but we should not assume that changes in this aspect centrifugal tendency. Dispersed populations are far more
were always correlated with transformations in other difficult to control than nucleated ones, as can be seen in the
dimensions of society. Spanish strategy of congregacion in the Colonial-period Maya
Aoyama, Grube, Isendahl, and Lucero suggest elite control area. To unite a dispersed population effectively, the state
of certain material goods and the daily lives of nonelites in needs certain administrative apparatus, transportation and
Classic Maya society. This was not a central issue of my paper, communication technologies, and a strong sense of affiliation
but I should clarify my position. I believe that it is misleading to the central authority on the part of nonelites. I feel that
to classify states as weak or strong and that there is not evidence for such features is weak in Classic Maya society,
much point in categorically distinguishing ideologically based and I suggested that mass spectacle sponsored by the central
states from bureaucratic ones. Even in modern states with authority was important in counteracting the centrifugal
developed bureaucracies, including the Nazi regime, with its tendency.
heavy reliance on coercion, ideology is a critical component I agree with Aoyama, Grube, Isendahl, and Lucero that the
of state power. Equally problematic is the polarization of relation between public performance and other political and
centralized control of commoners and the economy and the economic processes is a critical issue, although a thorough
absence of such control. Instead, we need to examine under treatment of this question was beyond the scope of this paper.
what conditions and in what ways they had influence or I should stress that in focusing on public performance I did
control. In this regard, Grubes and my views are probably not intend to privilege it as the paramount mechanism over
not substantially different. others. It is obvious that no polity can exist without its
We should also avoid an overly rigid and standardized economic basis, certain administrative mechanisms, and
model of the state that disregards historical particularities. ideological constructs. Similarly, its development would be
The study of states is inevitably affected by our own experience impossible without public performances. In this regard, I
of living in modern society, in which the state penetrates into concur with Grubes view that these diverse elements are
various aspects of daily life through its taxation system, police inseparably intertwined. The material control by elites was
force, legal system, city plans, standardized measurements, rooted in the sense of a community and its moral values,
omnipresent symbols, and deeply internalized senses of which were constructed partially through public events and
national identities. We need to consider the possibility that shared to a certain degree by the masses. Community
experiences of living in ancient states may have been quite identities and the social relations of members mean little
different from modern ones. My suggestion of limited state without material settings and physical actions. Furthermore,
interference in the daily lives of nonelites in Classic Maya political processes take many forms and occur in diverse
society was made in such comparative terms. I proposed that settings. For example, I have elsewhere discussed the political
mass spectacle was probably one of the occasions on which interactions that unfolded in households and other smaller
Maya commoners felt their ties with the ruler most strongly, settings (Inomata 2001b; Inomata et al. 2002). Mass spectacles
but I did not mean that the state could not be experienced become effective only through their connection and contrast
in other circumstances. Moreover, the notion of an imagined with more intimate but equally political actions, including
community does not necessarily indicate the weak presence food production, craft production, gift exchange, and small-
of the state in daily life. On the contrary, the original scale meetings.
formulation of the concept by Anderson implies that an Lucero points out that theatrical events require logistical
imagined community can reflect a profound penetration of and organizational bases. In a sense, ever larger spectacles

became possible with the development of centralized polities, landscape. I also concur with Clancys comment that
with their material supplies and administrative structures. The monuments accrue their own histories. These meanings and
reverse may be true, too; we should examine how demands histories, however, cannot be understood apart from the
for public events might have driven developments in logistical memories or imaginations of performances by flesh-and-
and organizational systems. I am sympathetic with Luceros blood actors. The accompanying texts typically narrate
comment that the social effects of public performance are specific historical events attended by the individuals depicted,
conditioned by political and economic settings, but I would in some cases with explicit references to their dances and
stress that these factors are not external to the participants. other performances (Grube 1992). In other words, these
Social consequences are shaped by agents who assess and react carvings were not general representations of individuals but
to political and material conditions. In other words, political anchored to real historical acts. After their erection, the
and economic settings affect the outcomes of performances monuments invited subsequent performances, including
through the participants. This also means that these settings
viewing, placement of offerings, and recitals of inscriptions.
do not determine their success in a mechanistic manner.
Even the plain stelae that Clancy mentions may have been
Evidence of public events. As Newsome notes, past
associated with such performances, though in less direct and
performance is not directly accessible to us. Most evidence is
less explicit ways than the carved ones, and it is possible that
circumstantial. The difficulty in addressing theatrical events
some of them were originally painted. Such histories mean
in the past should not, however, deter us from exploring this
vital issue. My argument was that, although individual pieces that these monuments mediated between memories of past
of evidence may be rather ambiguous, we can develop sound performances and future acts. This process was embedded in
interpretations by combining various lines of inquiry. A specific spatial settings with social agents who occupied these
particularly important source of information is the spaces because, as discussed above, no performance can
ethnohistoric record mentioned by Chinchilla, which tells us transcend its specific context. It follows, contrary to Clancys
about mass spectacles held in plazas during the Colonial comment, that stelae never became independent of the plazas
period (Inomata 2006). It is very likely that similar events in which they stood.
took place in Classic-period plazas. An important objective Becker and Tokovinine consider my data on plaza capacities
of our study, however, should be to examine how public irrelevant or problematic. These numbers were not meant to
performance articulated with polf coritical conditions in be direct indicators of the sizes of past events. They are, at
specific historical contexts. Obviously, this relationship best, circumstantial evidence loosely pointing to the number
changed from the Classic period to Colonial times, and this of people who could have been involved in events held in the
forces us to consider other lines of evidence. spaces. This ambiguity, however, does not mean that we
Tokovinine points out that public events are not necessarily should disregard these data. They have significant implications
depicted on monuments placed in plazas. As I said, the when combined with other lines of evidence, including
correlation between art media and types of performance is ethnohistorical documents on Colonial-period spectacles,
loose and far from exclusive. The important point of my depictions in art, and histories of urban development.
discussion on the use of plazas was that a significant Space is in some cases shaped with specific theatrical effects
proportion of the stelae erected in those open spaces depicted in mind and in others with a heavier emphasis on symbolic
public performances. The reverse correlationpublic events
meanings and cultural conventions. Even spaces in the latter
being depicted primarily on stelaeon which Tokovinine
case, with their unyielding physicality, have effects on
focuses his comment is less clear. I have noted that various
visibility, audibility, and movements of bodies that may not
lintels and ceramic paintings also show public scenes.
always be consciously expected by their designers and
Tokovinines criticism involving these examples misses the
builders. For example, as Rivera notes, some configurations
point of my argument.
Contrary to Tokovinines suggestion, an important clue to may have been meant in part to provide appropriate
the relations between art media and types of performance is perspectives for viewing buildings. Yet we can still examine
probably the intended viewers of the images. Stelae erected the theatrical consequences of the resulting forms. Likewise,
in open plazas tended to depict public performances in which the pyramidal shape of Maya temples may have primarily
elites and nonelites possibly took part and were probably represented sacred mountains, but an effect of this form was
meant to be seen by both elites and nonelites. Lintels and the high visibility of kings and other elites who climbed their
ceramic paintings that show more exclusive scenes, as well as stairs and the near impossibility of their hiding from the
public events, were most likely viewed mainly by elites, and masses. The primary function of palanquins, on which Rivera
individuals of the same social groups participated in the events comments, was obviously the transport of the privileged, but
depicted. they presented significant theatrical effects with the visibility
I agree with Tokovinine that stelae as extensions of the of their occupants and their elaborate decorations. The
selves of the individuals depicted populated the ritual transport of rulers was a spectacle and could have had

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Plazas, Performers, and Spectators: Political Theaters of the Classic Maya

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Plazas, Performers, and Spectators

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Maya society (AD 250900), in which rulers and elites actively

Theater, Community, and Power

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The importance of theatrical performance is evident in stone

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0.46 m2/person 1 m2/person 3.6 m2/person

Tikal (est. pop. 62,000)

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Figure 9. The throne of Structure 5D-119 of the Central Acropolis, which

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and maintaining community identity and elite authority in

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pre-Hispanic Maya political organization as the product of

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an extraordinary traditional spectacle with specific, eminently

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commemorative qualities, as Chinchilla notes. Such physical References Cited

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