PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 219

Pump discharge 0.06d C 0.4 m/s

Pump suction 0.02d C 0.1 m/s
Steam or vapour 0.2d m/s
where d is the internal diameter in mm.
Simpson (1968) gives values for the optimum velocity in terms of the fluid density.
His values, converted to SI units and rounded, are:
Fluid density kg/m3 Velocity m/s
1600 2.4
800 3.0
160 4.9
16 9.4
0.16 18.0
0.016 34.0
The maximum velocity should be kept below that at which erosion is likely to occur.
For gases and vapours the velocity cannot exceed the critical velocity (sonic velocity)
(see Volume 1, Chapter 4) and would normally be limited to 30 per cent of the critical
velocity.

Economic pipe diameter

The capital cost of a pipe run increases with diameter, whereas the pumping costs
decrease with increasing diameter. The most economic pipe diameter will be the one
which gives the lowest annual operating cost. Several authors have published formulae
and nomographs for the estimation of the economic pipe diameter, Genereaux (1937),
Peters and Timmerhaus (1968) (1991), Nolte (1978) and Capps (1995). Most apply to
American practice and costs, but the method used by Peters and Timmerhaus has been
modified to take account of UK prices (Anon, 1971).
The formulae developed in this section are presented as an illustration of a simple
optimisation problem in design, and to provide an estimate of economic pipe diameter
that is based on UK costs and in SI units. The method used is essentially that first
published by Genereaux (1937).
The cost equations can be developed by considering a 1 metre length of pipe.
The purchase cost will be roughly proportional to the diameter raised to some power.
Purchase cost D Bdn /m
The value of the constant B and the index n depend on the pipe material and schedule.
The installed cost can be calculated by using the factorial method of costing discussed
in Chapter 6.
Installed cost D Bdn
1 C F
where the factor F includes the cost of valves, fittings and erection, for a typical run of
the pipe.
The capital cost can be included in the operating cost as an annual capital charge. There
will also be an annual charge for maintenance, based on the capital cost.
Cp D Bdn
1 C F
a C b
5.10
220 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

where Cp D capital cost portion of the annual operating cost, ,

a D capital charge, per cent/100,
b D maintenance costs, per cent/100.
The power required for pumping is given by:
Power D volumetric flow-rate pressure drop.
Only the friction pressure drop need be considered, as any static head is not a function
of the pipe diameter.
To calculate the pressure drop the pipe friction factor needs to be known. This is a
function of Reynolds number, which is in turn a function of the pipe diameter. Several
expressions have been proposed for relating friction factor to Reynolds number. For
simplicity the relationship proposed by Genereaux (1937) for turbulent flow in clean
commercial steel pipes will be used.
f D 0.04Re
0.16
where f is the Fanning friction factor D 2
R/u2 .
Substituting this into the Fanning pressure drop equation gives:
P D 4.13 1010 G1.84 0.16 
1 d
4.84
5.11
2
where P D pressure drop, kN/m (kPa),
G D flow rate, kg/s,
 D density, kg/m3 ,
 D viscosity, m Nm
2 s
d D pipe id, mm.
The annual pumping costs will be given by:
Ap G
Cf D P
E 
where A D plant attainment, hours/year,
p D cost of power, /kWh,
E D pump efficiency, per cent/100.
Substituting from equation 5.11
Hp
Cf D 4.13 1010 G2.84 0.16 
2 d
4.84
5.12
E
The total annual operating cost Ct D Cp C Cf.
Adding equations 5.10 and 5.12, differentiating, and equating to zero to find the pipe
diameter to give the minimum cost gives:
 1/
4.84Cn
2 1011 ApG2.84 0.16 
2
d, optimum D
5.13
EnB
1 C F
a C b
Equation 5.13 is a general equation and can be used to estimate the economic pipe
diameter for any particular situation. It can be set up on a spreadsheet and the effect of
the various factors investigated.
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 221
The equation can be simplified by substituting typical values for the constants.
A The normal attainment for a chemical process plant will be between
90 95%, so take the operating hours per year as 8000.
E Pump and compressor efficiencies will be between 50 to 70%, so take 0.6.
p Use the current cost of power, 0.055 /kWh (mid-1992).
F This is the most difficult factor to estimate. Other authors have used
values ranging from 1.5 (Peters and Timmerhaus (1968)) to 6.75 (Nolte
(1978)). It is best taken as a function of the pipe diameter; as has been
done to derive the simplified equations given below.
B, n Can be estimated from the current cost of piping.
a Will depend on the current cost of capital, around 10% in mid-1992.
b A typical figure for process plant will be 5%, see Chapter 6.

F, B, and n have been estimated from cost data published by the Institution of Chemical
Engineers, IChemE (1987), updated to mid-1992. This includes the cost of fittings, instal-
lation and testing. A log-log plot of the data gives the following expressions for the
installed cost:
Carbon steel, 15 to 350 mm 27 d0.55 /m
Stainless steel, 15 to 350 mm 31 d0.62 /m
Substitution in equation 5.12 gives, for carbon steel:
d, optimum D 366 G0.53 0.03 
0.37
Because the exponent of the viscosity term is small, its value will change very little
over a wide range of viscosity
 D 10
5 Nm
2 s
0.01 cp, 0.03 D 0.71
at
 D 10
2 Nm
2 s
10 cp, 0.03 D 0.88
Taking a mean value of 0.8, gives the following equations for the optimum diameter,
for turbulent flow:
Carbon steel pipe:
d, optimum D 293 G0.53 
0.37
5.14
Stainless steel pipe:
d, optimum D 260 G0.52 
0.37
5.15
Equations 5.14 and 5.15 can be used to make an approximate estimate of the economic
pipe diameter for normal pipe runs. For a more accurate estimate, or if the fluid or pipe
run is unusual, the method used to develop equation 5.13 can be used, taking into account
the special features of the particular pipe run.
The optimum diameter obtained from equations 5.14 and 5.15 should remain valid
with time. The cost of piping depends on the cost power and the two costs appear in the
equation as a ratio raised to a small fractional exponent.
Equations for the optimum pipe diameter with laminar flow can be developed by using
a suitable equation for pressure drop in the equation for pumping costs.
222 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The approximate equations should not be used for steam, as the quality of steam depends
on its pressure, and hence the pressure drop.
Nolte (1978) gives detailed methods for the selection of economic pipe diameters,
taking into account all the factors involved. He gives equations for liquids, gases, steam
and two-phase systems. He includes in his method an allowance for the pressure drop
due to fittings and valves, which was neglected in the development of equation 5.12, and
by most other authors.
The use of equations 5.14 and 5.15 are illustrated in Examples 5.6 and 5.7, and the
results compared with those obtained by other authors. Peters and Timmerhauss formulae
give larger values for the economic pipe diameters, which is probably due to their low
value for the installation cost factor, F.

Example 5.6
Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a water flow rate of 10 kg/s, at 20 C. Carbon
steel pipe will be used. Density of water 1000 kg/m3 .

Solution
d, optimum D 293
100.53 1000
0.37
5.14
D 77.1 mm
use 80-mm pipe.
Viscosity of water at 20 C D 1.1 10
3 Ns/m2 ,
4G 4 10
Re D D D 1.45 105
d  1.1 10
3 80 10
3
>4000, so flow is turbulent.
Comparison of methods:
Economic diameter
Equation 5.14 180 mm
Peters and Timmerhaus (1991) 4 in. (100 mm)
Nolte (1978) 80 mm

Example 5.7
Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a flow of HCl of 7000 kg/h at 5 bar, 15 C,
stainless steel pipe. Molar volume 22.4 m3 /kmol, at 1 bar, 0 C.

Solution
Molecular weight HCl D 36.5.
36.5 5 273
Density at operating conditions D D 7.72 kg/m3
22.4 1 288
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 223

0.52
7000
Optimum diameter D 260 7.72
0.37
5.15
3600
D 172.4 mm

use 180-mm pipe.

Viscosity of HCl 0.013 m Ns/m2

4 7000 1
Re D D 1.06 106 , turbulent
 3600 0.013 10 180 10
3

3

Comparison of methods:

Economic diameter
Equation 5.15 180 mm
Peters and Timmerhaus (1991) 9 in. (220 mm) carbon steel
Nolte (1978) 7 in. (180 mm) carbon steel

Example 5.8
Calculate the line size and specify the pump required for the line shown in Figure 5.15;
material ortho-dichlorobenzene (ODCB), flow-rate 10,000 kg/h, temperature 20 C, pipe
material carbon steel.

2m

m
7.5 m

20
5m

6.5 m
5.5 m

tum
Da
0.5 m
2.5 m

Preliminary layout
1m not to scale
0.5
4m
1.0 m

tum
Da

Figure 5.15. Piping isometric drawing (Example 5.8)