UNIT 2 — THE MOON AND THE SUN

THE MOON

The Moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite. It is 380 000 km from us and has a
diameter of 3500 km. The same side of the Moon is always visible to us. We call this
the near side. The far side of the Moon is never visible from Earth, and we only know
what is there by sending probes and spacecraft to investigate. This is because as the
Earth rotates, on its axis, the Moon always keeps the near side facing us. This is
known as a synchronous orbit.

Figure 2.1: The full Moon (NASA)

The Moon oscillates as it orbits the Earth, by a small amount. This is called libration
and makes it possible to observe approximately 59% of the Moon’s surface.
The Moon has approximately 1/80th of the Earth’s mass, and 1/6th of its gravity.
There is no atmosphere on the Moon.
The surface of the Moon is cratered and covered in dust (termed regolith). This was
discovered during the Apollo lunar landings. The Moon has the following features.

• Craters formed by objects (asteroids to micro-meteorites) colliding with

the Moon after it had formed.
• Domes low rounded ‘hills’ that appear to have been created by
volcanic activity when the Moon was still forming.
• Maria large craters formed by either large objects colliding with the
Moon during its formation and consequently magma swelling up
from the Moon’s interior. An example is Mare Tranquillitatis
(Sea of Tranquility).
• Mountains like Earth’s mountains but they have not eroded as there is no
atmosphere. Therefore, they appear the same as when they
were formed.
• Mascons Mass Concentrations of Gravity giving an indication of a hidden
structure of some dense matter. These generally correspond to
the same high density basalt that makes up the maria.

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• Rilles long cracks or indentations on the surface of the Moon. These
are caused by faulting or collapsed lava tubes.
• Wrinkle ridges formed at the edges of maria as the heavy Maria rock has
Ridges sagged and the edges have buckled.

The Moon’s crust is thicker on the far side than on the near side. Also almost all of
the maria are on the near side of the Moon.
The Moon has phases that we can see when we look at it. These are caused by the
way the Sun’s light is reflected off the Moon. The larger the amount of light
reflected the more we can see of the Moon.
The border between the light and the dark parts of the Moon is called the Shadow
Terminator. This changes as the phase of the Moon changes.

Figure 2.2: The phases of the Moon

On Figure 2.2 the inner circle shows the position of the Moon, relative to the Sun,
needed to produce the observed phase of the Moon which is shown in the outer
circle.

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THE SUN

The Sun is a star. It is the nearest one to Earth and it is dangerous to look at the Sun
as it will damage your eyes.
• The diameter of the Sun is 1.4 million km.
• The mean distance from the Sun to the Earth is 150 million km.
• The surface temperature of the Sun is 5700 K.

Structure of the Sun

The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun. Its temperature is 5700 K but any
sunspots on the photosphere are at a lower temperature, approximately 4200 K.
The inner part of the atmosphere of the Sun is called the chromosphere. This is
normally seen when there is a solar eclipse, and then it is seen as a spiky red ring
around the Moon. Its temperature ranges from 4000 K (where it joins the
photosphere) to 100 000 K (where it joins the corona).
The outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere is the corona. This extends millions of
kilometers into space. It is viewed as a white halo during total eclipses (or with a
chronograph). Its temperature is 1 to 2 million K (due to very fast moving particles).
The corona shines due to the Sun’s magnetic field interacting with the particles of
the corona.
The Sun is approximately 4.5 billion years old. Its composition is 70% hydrogen, 28%
helium and 2% metals. For astronomers all elements other than H and He are termed
metals. Its core temperature is 15.6 million K. It produces its energy by fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei.

Figure 2.3: The structure of the Sun

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Sunspots
These are cooler regions on the Sun’s photosphere. They appear as dark spots. In the
centre of the sunspot is a black region called the Umbra and around this is a grey
area called Penumbra.

Figure 2.4: Sunspots moving across the surface of the Sun (NASA)

• Location between 40°N and 40°S of the Sun’s equator.

• Size typically range from 1000 km to 50 000 km in diameter.
• Duration they can last between a few hours and a few weeks, and
they move across the face of the Sun as it rotates.
• Solar this lasts 11 years and shows the periodic fluctuation of
Cycle the number of sunspots. During the cycle they also
fluctuate in latitude. The butterfly diagram shows how the
number of sunspots and their latitude changes over the
11 year cycle.
• Cause produced when there is a local strengthening in the Sun’s
magnetic field, which cools the photosphere to 4200 K. It
is believed that the stronger magnetic field suppresses the
convection currents of hotter gases from the lower levels.
• Effects interference of radio transmissions on Earth during periods
of high sunspot activity.

Solar prominences and solar flares

A solar prominence is a cloud of gas from the chromosphere rising into the corona.
These are shaped by the Sun’s magnetic field and the differential rotation of the
Sun. Prominences often have arch shapes that follow the magnetic field lines of the
Sun and they start in sunspots on its surface. They are seen in visible light and are
particularly clear near the edge of the Sun (the limb). The gas in the prominence is
cooler and denser than the surrounding corona. It is usually at a temperature of
between 10 000 to 20 000 K. Hence when seen in H alpha light, silhouetted against
the Sun’s surface, they appear as dark sinuous lines called filaments.

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 Figure 2.5: Solar prominences (NASA)

A solar flare is a very energetic event that happens near the surface of the Sun. they
are caused by the interactions between the stronger magnetic fields of the sunspots
and the gas of the chromosphere. The result is a cloud of very bright gas, usually a
filament, which can extend for tens of thousands of kilometers into space. They are
very short lived, usually lasting for only a few minutes before fading away. These can
interact with the Earth’s magnetic field and cause aurora and disturbances in our
electrical systems. The radiation produced can be lethal to astronauts if they are out
of their spacecraft when the flares occur.

Fraunhofer Spectrum
These are dark absorption lines in the solar spectrum. They show the composition of
the Sun. Dark lines appear on the spectrum at the wavelengths of the elements that
created them showing which elements are in the Sun. These absorption lines are
produced mostly in the photosphere.

Solar wind
The Sun produces a constant stream of particles, which billow out into space.
1 million tons of particles leave the Sun every second. This stream of charged
particles makes up the solar wind.
The solar wind consists of mainly protons and electrons ejected from the corona in
all directions from the Sun. It travels at supersonic speeds (200 → 800 km/s). It does
not slow down until it is far from the Sun, past the Oort cloud. Hence the corona has
a different appearance at different times of the solar cycle.
It is responsible for the following phenomena:
• Aurora — a reaction between the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetosphere, at
the Van Allen belts
• Ionising comet coma — making the comet’s tails shine
• Fuelling magnetic storms — interfering with radio waves on Earth
• Shaping a planet’s magnetosphere — then driving circulation within it.

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Differential rotation of the Sun
This is the rotation of different parts of the Sun (or any non-solid body) at different
rates. The Sun shows this as its equator rotates faster than its poles.

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ECLIPSES

There are two main types of eclipse.

1 Solar eclipse
This is where the Moon blocks the Sun’s light from reaching the Earth. This
doesn’t happen every month as the Moon’s orbit is inclined to the ecliptic. (This
means that the Moon and Sun are not on the same plane.) There are three types
of solar eclipse.

Figure 2.6: A ray diagram for a solar eclipse (not to scale)

a Partial eclipse
This is where the Moon blocks part of the Sun’s light. This happens when the
Moon and the Sun are not perfectly in line.
b Total eclipse
This is where the Moon blocks all of the Sun’s light. This only happens when
the Sun and the Moon are directly in line with the Earth, so they appear the
same size. The Moon can then completely cover the Sun and the corona of
the Sun can then be seen clearly.
c Annular eclipse
This is when the moon is nearing its furthest distance from the Earth
(apogee). It will then appear to be smaller than the Sun. The Moon only
blocks the central part of the Sun’s light leaving a thin ring still visible.

2 Lunar eclipse
This is where the Moon is on one side of the Earth and the Sun is on the other.
The Moon is full at this phase, but it appears orange/copper coloured due to the
light from the Sun being refracted through the Earth’s atmosphere before it
reaches the Moon.

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 Figure 2.7: A ray diagram for a lunar eclipse (not to scale)

Eclipse terms
• Umbra — the area on the Earth in total shadow
• Penumbra — the area on the Earth in partial shadow
• Zone of totality — the path that the total eclipse follows across the Earth
• Region of totality — the area that is covered by the total eclipse

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EXERCISE 2

Questions

1 What is the distance between:

a the Earth and the Moon
b the Earth and the Sun?

2 How much of the Moon can we see from the Earth?

3 Explain how the Moon appears differently to us at different times in a month.

4 What is the Shadow Terminator?

5 Describe some of the main features found on the Moon.

6 Explain how gravity is different on the Earth than it is on the Moon.

7 How should you (and shouldn’t you) observe the Sun?

8 Describe how the Sun produces energy.

9 Give approximate values for the following:

a the diameter of the Sun
b the distance from the Sun to the Earth
c the surface temperature of the Sun (photosphere).

10 Describe the following parts of the Sun and give their approximate temperatures:
a the corona
b the chromosphere
c the photosphere.

11 Explain the following Sun terms:

a sunspots
b penumbra
c umbra
d prominences.

12 Explain where on the surface of the Sun sunspots are found.

13 Explain the sunspot cycle and say how it can affect us on Earth.

14 How is the chemical composition of the Sun known?

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15 What is the solar wind?

16 What is the result of the reactions between the solar wind and the Van Allen
belts?

17 Describe how and when a lunar eclipse occurs and what can be observed from
Earth.

18 Describe the three different kinds of solar eclipse, how they occur and what can
be seen from Earth.

19 Which part of the Sun can only be seen during a total eclipse and why?

20 Explain these eclipse terms:

a zone of totality
b apogee.

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Research

1 Find pictures of the Moon showing its features (near and far side) and the lunar
landing sites (manned and unmanned craft).

2 Use this picture to draw your own moon maps (one for the near side and one for
the far side) labelling the major features and the lunar landing sites (for manned
and unmanned craft). This can form part of your coursework.

3 Start a Moon log by observing the Moon each day/evening and noting down the
following information:
a draw a sketch of the Moon’s shape and noticeable features
b the weather and viewing conditions
c the location from which you viewed the Moon
d the direction from which you viewed the Moon
e the date and time the Moon was observed (day or night)
f any other interesting observations.
This can become part of your coursework if the Moon log is for 28 days.

4 Observe the Moon using binoculars or a telescope and make drawings, or take
photographs, of lunar craters or other lunar features. This can become part of
your coursework. This should be carried out on at least two occasions and you
should note the following information:
a details of the instruments used to observe the Moon
b the weather and viewing conditions
c the location from which you viewed the Moon
d the direction from which you viewed the Moon
e the date and time the Moon was observed (day or night)
f any other interesting observations.
Please note: If the full Moon is observed directly using a telescope at high
magnification then, owing to its brightness, the student’s ability to make other
observations directly afterwards will be impaired.

5 Project an image of the Sun onto a suitable background using binoculars or a

telescope. Then observe the sunspots for a suitable length of time so that it is
possible to observe the Sun rotating. Then calculate the rotational period of the
Sun. This can become part of your coursework.
WARNING: The Sun must NOT be viewed directly, either with or without optical
aids.

6 If possible (depending on time and location) observe the various stages of a solar
eclipse (partial, total or annular). Make sketches of your observations and record
any relevant details such as time, date, location, weather and viewing
conditions. This can become part of your coursework.

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7 Design a model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system to illustrate how solar and lunar
eclipses occur, using lamps, spheres etc. Construct the model and use it to
explain why lunar eclipses are more common than solar eclipses. This can
become part of your coursework.

8 Find information about where in the current sunspot cycle we are and how we
are affected at the moment.

9 Find pictures of the Fraunhofer Spectrum for the Sun.

10 Find diagrams to explain the different types of eclipses.

11 Find photographs showing the view from Earth of the different types of eclipses.

12 Find photographs and information about the last total solar eclipse in Britain on
11th August 1999.

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PROJECT 2: OBSERVING THE SUN AND MOON

Introduction
This project is to make observations of the Moon and the Sun in order to help you
understand the ideas that are covered within this unit.

Resources
Observations of the Moon can be made with the naked eye. However, observations of
the Sun must never be made with the naked eye. A pin-hole camera is a very good
way of safely observing the Sun. Suggested resources include:
• paper and pencil (for making sketches)
• pin-hole camera (2 sheets of paper, one with a pin hole in it).

Method
Observe the Moon for approximately a week, noting how the position of its major
features changes over this time. Observe the Sun, using the pin-hole camera, also for
about a week. Note any sunspots that are present and how these change position
during the observations. The sunspot cycle should be researched and the effect that
this has on the weather and on radio communication should be noted.

Links to the specification

This project covers The Moon part of this unit (2.2 – 2.5) and areas of The Sun part of
this unit (2.8, 2.15, 2.16).

When to start
This project could be started at the beginning of Unit 2 and you could complete the
different parts of the observations as you learn about the various aspects of Unit 2:
The Moon and the Sun.

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