Integration and Gridding Introduction Putting the simulation together was reserved deliber- Integration ately for this later point in Part |, There are a number of At this stage, you should have a good idea of where steps at this stage. the study is heading, Normally, the most critical aspects, + Until all ofthe input has been evaluated, the are the geological and production performance review model cannot be finalized, Te key point to AlLof the data should have been screened, If some of the emphasize here isto keep an open mind at this data is weak or unavailable, part of the study may be to stage. The study scope can change significantly _ determine the influence of the assumptions. This is a piv depending on the data available ‘otal point, which the author calls the integration phase. Frequently, material balance or other ancillary The result of this phase will be a complete data set. studies are conducted as well. These are dis- Gridding is normally determined at this point, Each ofthe cussed briefly Sometimes they provide useful preceding four points will be discussed. insight, and, at other times.the results can be mis- leading or ambiguous. Itis also important to review the original objec tives in terms of the data reviewed and the latest understanding of the reservoir ‘The final step in this chapter concerns creating a grid.Practical Reservoir Simulation Data Missing data Io a number of cases, individuals felt studies should fot be conducted because some element of data sas missing In paricular, this seems to apply to relative per- meabilty data, Although this is undoubtediy important data, the wath is that limited daa is not much better than no data, since there can be alot of variation In one study for retrograde condensate systems, there was no relative permeability data available at all. Using sensitivities, the author demonstrated the relative per formance between fraced and unfraced wells was similar regardless of the relative permeability data assumed. This is a serious consideration since, even for Jow levels of condensate dropout, a frac can significantly reduce pro- ductivity impairment caused by retrograde liquid con: densation. The simulation could not predict the absolute fevel of production (test data did), but it could indicate the direction and trends. Restated, an engineering solu tion and a scientific solution are not the same. It may be sufficient to put an upper and lower bound on an answer rather than provide a precise solution, Scientific results versus pragmatic results [rote a paper on the study described previousiy. The paper was severely criticized due to the “Naky” nature of the data, which relied on general gasoil relative perme- ability correlations developed by Arps As a practicing resenoir engineer, | was horrified by this response. The client had spent considerable money on exploration and needed to make an expensive nomination for a sour gas plant on short notice. A nasanswer was untenable. They needed a reasoned, educated guess. To put the simula- tion in perspective, the land and wells were drilled based ‘on substantially higher levels of risk [An engineer's job will sometimes be to give the boss- es or clients the best answer possible with the data avail- able, At such a point, they need a risk assessment with the answer i, 2 qualified response Ancillary Studies Material balance calculations This calculation only works weil in reservoirs with good communication fe. in those reservoirs having high Petmeabilties. This is not just a mater of calculating an average pressure, although this is a significant issue. There are also other considerations, Material balance studies normally have considerable uncertainty when a 45 cap and/or a water leg is involved ? In this area, one often finds contradictory advice in the literature. The author has worked on a number of reservoirs where the material balance study provided inaccurate results and actually provided results very dit fecent from simulation results. The material balance does not take info account pressure variations existing in moderate. (0 low-permeability reservoirs. Having said this, ARE recently did a study. and an individual who ‘worked on the project matched the OOIP and gas cap vol- ume using a material balance program. The reservoir in| question had braided channels, and the matetial batance ‘was of no help in determining these locations, Based on previous experience, the author had been extremely doubitul that accurate results would be obtained. Material balance studies have obscured ot misdirect: ‘ed solutions as often as they have provided useful insight. In general, the author no longer does material balance studies as part of presimulation work, unless the reservoir has very high permeability and is of limited size However, this is ot an absolute rule. Reservoir engineers’ views on this matter will vary according to the proportion of success they have observed.Integration and Gridd Objectives Importance of objec Depending on its design, a numerical simulation will take into account various factors to varving degrees “radeots are usually requited. Hence, most studies are normally aimed to address specific issues. At fist glance, determining the objective might seem fa trite comment, but, in many cases, problems are defined in terms of the solution, Far example, ifthe pro- duction performance from a reservoir is proving to be enigmatic, one will be requested to do an areal simula tion. However, the underlying problem is that reservoir mechanisms are not understood, In this case, the real objective isto propase possible reservoir configurations, fluid properties, or geological models to expiain the observed behavior. smaller model can be used to determine physically plausible proposals Common situations Here are a number of common situations: The most common situation concerns a reservir on primary production, which an operating com- pany has now decided to waterflood. They are looking for a waterflood reserves and production forecast based on the results of a simulation Another situation involves a recently drilled well in a new field, which has a gas-il, gas-water.or wateroil contact in close proximity to the com pleted interval. simulation has been contemplat- ed to support a recovery factor as well as to pre dict GOR or watercut trends and, possibly.to eval: uate mitigation strategies. [An operating company has @ mature field they have decided to model to optimize production. Small increases in overall recovery factors may represent major increases in remaining reserves, Often, iis hard to distinguish incremental reserves fromm production acceleration, A large developed gas field exhibits retrograde liquid condensation) behavior A study has beer commissioned to determine natural gas liquids (NGL) and gas recoven A large miscible flood has been installed. The operating company has decided to pertorm a simulation. Since limited production history exists. a simulation is often the bes method of engineering analysis available to estimate recove Each of these situations involves somewhat different issues chat must be resolved. In truth, one cannot get all of the details of the real reservoir into a simulator It is necessary to get the important things right so the mecha nistic behaviors—the physies—are captured correctly Critical issues The following is a list of critical issues likely to arise ‘with the situations listed previously. ‘or the waterfiood implemented alter period of primary production. one of the most critical aspects of mode! design is characterizing layering or heterogeneity This caa be done either with detailed layering built into a model or via pseudo relative permeability curves. For a well drilled into a pool with a gas-il,gas- water or wateroil contact, the critical modeling issue will likely be accounting properly for aear wellbore effects. This usually volves a detailed Coning study. defining layers, covering the correct range Of production rates, and including the elects of hysteresis, For a mature feld optimization, study the most critical aspect for the most likely way to build a balanced model. This could require preliminary coning and cross-sectional studies that must be integrated {ater into an areal model. Integration is the major issue Fora retrograde gas condensate reservoir,a C01 positional simulator is likely requited. Proper PVT characterization will comprise a major portion of the study. Fora miscible ood, a number of critical issues 4a possible The same simulator may not address all of the issues effectively f miscibility isthe crit- cal issue, a compositional similatoris in order. It maximizing sweep efficiency is the critical cor cemn,then a pseudo miscible simutator is probar ly the most effective solution,Simulation Other factors, suck as well spacing, laboratory relative permeability. PLT properties, injectivity. and timing of wells are still important Multiphase studies Historical: a single model could aot address all ‘ssues. Therefore it has been common to assemble many diferent models deat withspecticfisues. A largescale ation may be split up as tollows Coning Study.A detailed radial grid study would be performed to evaluate coning For instance. reservoir appears to have No gas Coning despite a 7.000 kPa oF 1.000 psi pressure drop Experience ievelscargand not everyone may find the solution obvious 8 relatively cheap coning study can deter nine the issue and cause subsequent elements of the study to be changed. Ita gas cap realy does exit itis possible co use ths information to evalu: ate well pseudo relative permeabilty curves CrossSectional Study The objective of a crosssee ional study is similar tothe coning stu that is :0 sieplty the problem to gain general under standing Often these studies are used to generate pseudo relative permeability curves. as shown in the problem set in chapter 20 of this bork. The. use ofthese curves can simplify a multilayer problein ino a single-layer model. which may be used to develop an areal modet steal Study Tis is probably the most common sype of stud allows complex watertlood pat terns. which seem occur as an accident of his tonto be evaltiated, However withthe lager cconipaters available todayitis getting easier to make multilayer. tulscale -0 studies Each of the stages will build on the earlier stages 10 develop a full Reid model Gridding Realistic grids Ideally, a very fine grid could always be used. However, as the dimensions of a grid increase, the amount of calculation time increases rapidly: Determining the amount of work varies depending on the mathematical implementation used in the simulator In general terms, the amount of computer time increas- es to the fourth power of the grid dimension (1) for a common direct matrix solver implementation and a 2D square grid, ie. cells in each dimension or total of 2 xem -calls in the grid. With layers, the amount of time increases by the cube of the number of layers (P), A large grid can, therefore, exceed the capacities of a supercomputer for a large reservoir; hence, constructing 2 model usually involves some compromises, General guidelines Some engineers use the number of acres in a grid block as a guideline, but this is not recommended, Others use two grid blocks between wells, but this is nei ther adequate nor recommended A rreservoir simulation is often equated with a materi al balance; this is true, but only in a limited sense. In the ‘numerical model, the blocks are linked via a mass trans- fer equation (Darcy's Law). By virtue of this interblock transfer, a reservoir simula tion is designed to calculate the transient behavior aceass the grid. Therefore, itis entitely different from a material balance calculation, which presumes tanklike conditions of equilibrium at each timestep. Flow visualization The key difference between the reservoir simulator and a material balance equation is interblock tans. The best guideline is a flow net. Muskat frequently used flow nets in his work, Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Porous Media." They are relatively easy to draw by hand. Two examples are shown in Figure 10-I and 10-2."Headpond Earth-Fill Dam (permeable] s gine’ ot! Isopotential Lines "18 vectogrmscon be gown by hansth an ocuoey ofaronmaey: os Fig. 10-1 Flow Net for Eant-it Oam Headpond Py (Concrete, no permeability) T T Flow Lines Na Thee gras con be crn by Rand th macro af aroumnaty 10% “iced matareofeamen onion Fig. 10-2 Flow Net for Earth Fill Dam with Grout Curtain PREY py i schon ntimulation Irregular grids The use of flow nets suggests the use of iregular grids. Where the flow net is fine, more grid blocks ae required. In fact, i is possible to use the grid from a flow net to make a curvilinear grid system. This can pro- urate results. For example, a grid for the leak age under a dam is shown in Figure 10-3. From this information, a finer grid could be constructed where low concent ions exist Grid sensitivities One cannot analytically calculate the amount of ertor from grid discretization, However, it is possible to deter mine how the error varies. In practice, a grid sensitivity is 030m com | Datum Flow Concentrati Fig. 10-3 Flow Concentration for Earth Si! Dam with Grout Curtain Grid Sen: required By rate to within an approx and 10-5 show a gasoit and wateroil coning grid sens. uwity done by ARE during a reservoir simulation. Sadly, grid-sensitvity checks are rarely run in field studies. The example in Figures 10-5 and 10-6 shows the areal simulation is only accurate to within 210%. The nathematicians are horiied with this level of accuracy however. the brutal hanging the grid dimensions and making ns, itis possible to show the model is accu: gures 104 ate percentage ruth is most reservoir simulation put is not known with this degree of accuracy. With the capability of computers continuing to increase, this may be less problematic in the future. Insufficient grid blocks Reducing the number of grid blocks can be taken too far, The following exam ple occurred in a study proposal submit ted to the author. The objective was 10 determine horizontal well potential in a tight sandstone reservoir. Production in vertical wells was uneconomic due to low rates and GOR penalties. The study objec: tive was to determine if a horizontal well ‘would inerease productivity sufficiently to enable economic production and if GORs ‘would be low enough to avoid penalties Asdiscussed previously a flow net isa use- {ultool for visualizing flow inthe reserva ‘The proposed grid and the expected flow pattern are shown in Figure 10-6. 2000) Ratia SC, mim g GeO Seve Tine G35 Ol Rabo SC vs. {G35 Oi Rabo SC vs. Tine {G35 Ol Ratio SCs. Ti & Since the reservoir is tight, less than 1 mD, localized gas saturations would be expected to arise, A fine grid made with small grid blocks and thin layers would be required around the well. An element of symmetry could be utilized through the center of the well to reduce computation, The proposal tor the situation described previously recommended three layers with the wellbore ceotered in blocks with 100 ft. horizontal x and y dimensions. Although these large grid blocks could not correctly represent the 0 000 Time, day Fig. 10-4 Grid Sensitivity GOR from Field Study mt < physics in the reservoir, the model would still produce results, The proposal was not considered favorably by the author B00 aciniGrid Sensitivity Analysis Wares ve Time 5 Water Cut sCve Time, 14-25 mm Water Cut v5 Teme, 4-2 a Water Cut Cove Time, 14-25 oa 2, 5 . ‘0 sooo Time day Fig. 10-5 Grid Sensitivity Water Cut rom Field Study View Down Centerline of Well Solution Gas Breakout ig. 10-6 Flow Concentrations around a Horizontal Wel! Actually. this problem is quite common in the author’ opinion. Simulation output should have a warning at the top of the output file Warning: Simulation may give nonphysical results if too coarse a grid has been used in reatity, there are no warnings at all, although Eclipse documentation is reported to have some warn- ings. The fact is the simulator runs much faster and gives fewer problems if too coarse a grid is used, Buyer beware! ‘A good example of these differences can be found in the SPE comparative solution on horizontal wells, One of the simulators used a high-permeability grid block to rep- Most Severe Pressure Gradients Detail Grid Required resent the horizontal well Figure 10-7 shows the predicted GORS for a horizontal well The author does not recommend the approach in the example given. | Two basic approaches to gridding Based on experience with reservoir engineers new to simulation, gridding is fot intuitively obvious. There are two basic approaches for seting up @ 3. grid The first is based on setting up a spatial grid end then assigning rock properties based on geometrical position. The sec cond isto assign grid blocks based on geo! ogy and then alter the dimensions of the Tova grid block. These two methods are shown n Figures 10-6 and 10-9. In the author’ experience, its rare to assign grids based on fluid type, i, oil, gas, and water. Nevertheless, uids can be ‘a consideration Capillary pressure transition Normally capillary pressure curves are relied upon to give the fluid satura- tions in a grid block, However, if flow visualization is appiied to wells in a tran- sition zone, it may have an important effect on reservoir performance. For instance, would the two situations shown in Figure 10-10 be equivalent? Grid orientation effect Grid orientation can be summarized quickly with Figure 10-11. Grid orientation becomes sig nificant at high adverse mobility ratios. This commonly ‘occurs whenever there is gas injection, Since most hydro- carbon miscible floods (HCMF) use enriched gas, grid orientation is important in EOR design, {tis also a major factor in thermal simulation; however, these models woe cally incorporate a nine spot finite difference molecule to control this problem, This effect will not show up as a material balance error or anywhere else for that matte. ‘The best method of handling ths type of problem isto develop a streamline model and then make detailed ‘ross sections. For miscible floods, detailed heterogene- ity can be incorporated using geostatistical realizations. This technique has been used by Chevron in the Mitsue Gilwood Unit No. 1Practical Reservoir Simulation GOR sctistb 0 oe a ao Time, days Fig, 10-7 SPE Comparative Solution—Varying Grid Refinement Fix Grid Geometrically, Fit Geology to Grid ig. 10-8 Basis for Grid Constmction—Fixed Grid in Space Fix Grid to Geological Layers, Fix Structure to Geology ig. (0-9 Basis for Grid Construction Fit Blocks to Geology Reality check ‘The perception of where good neering is required can be somewhat dis torted, For example, consider the case of & massive high-permeabilty carbonate reservoir above the bubblepoint, which has strong bottom water influx, and a pro uction history water fre, since the wells are completed away from the water inthux No gas coning is involved because the reservoir is undersaturated, Large grid blocks with lab relative permeability curves will work very well. The pressure differences between grid blocks will not be that large due to the high permeability. Water influx is nearly vertical because of the high permeability Furchermore, geo- logical layers stabilize vertical displace ments rather than accentuating break through. Costs are not a real concern Frequently, the biggest problem is getting the tubing pressure drop curves matched, Simulation. in some situations, is actually auite easy. if the same simulation engineer who has been working on the reservoir described previously later works on a large carbonate reservoir with low permeability and with water and gas contacts, he (or she) will find life gets very hard. The gas will cone. GORs will increase rapidly due to the low permeabiliy The water will cone in downdip wells. There will be sig: nificant differences in pressures between atid blocks due 10 the steep pressure grax dents in the reservoir A waterflood will be implemented in a pattern to provide for voidage replacement, Large changes on an individual well basis are required for well pseudos on gas cap wells and downdip water producers. The rock rela tive permeability curves will be changed to a pseudo relative permeability. This is required, since layering control the break through of the displacing fluids for hori zontal floods. It is the reservoir from hellFig. 10-10 Basis for Grid Constactuoe—Diserbution of Flu in Reservoir Not only that, buz everyone is constantly concerned about costs and when the project will be finished. The engineer may ask, “Why am ! working here?" « Simulation and reservoir engineering requirements are often more severe in low-quality reservoirs (read mature basins) than in massive high-gualty (high: permeability) reservoirs. This is often opposed to the economic margins, This is frequently true of the more classical reservoir engineering techniques such as material balance Limitations of a simulator A simulator cannot direct an engineer to the right solution. It will answer yes or 1no, but is incapable of a creative process, On the positive side, the creativity is really the fun part, So perhaps it is bew the com puter can’t do this. Management is unlikely to replace us computationally challenged biological units wi puter for a long time. Parallel Grid Parallel Grid 5.=051 / / ~_] 4 / : Y= 048 ep / bw = 0.048 cp Diagonal Grd Diagonal Grid Fig. 10-1 Grid Orientation BtectsPractical Resarvoir Simulation Summary In order to provide effective answers, review all of the data, production performance, and geotogy determine ail of the issues that must be resolved. This will require some flexibility Its easy to fall into traps it tthe problem is deseribed in terms of a potential solu- tion. Lack of data need not be a deterrent. Either a series of sensitivities may show a range of solutions, or it may conclusively show the missing data does not affect overall results significantly. Experience has shown there are a number of well: known critical issues for certain situations, Be aware of these problems and address them in developing the approach. Breaking the study into different components allows one to evaluate various aspects in detail. Certain situations allow specific creative solutions. Radial sector studies often work well on salt dome structures; a Cartesian grid can be used for fractured wells and nor: symmetric reservoir discontinuities Developing a grid requires a number of tradeotts. The capacity of your computer will have a major impact on how fine a grid you can use. Be careful of some of the rules of thumb. [tis impossible to base grid requirements ‘on blocks of x acres or two grid blocks between wells, Grids depend on many factors. Flow nets are probably the best tools for indicating grid requirements. The only ‘way to tell i it is“right"is to perform a grid sensitivity Setting up a grid can be difficult, particularly tor novice users, Again, new engineers can cheat, i., look up grids used in existing papers and textbooks, Grid ori- entation is important in a number of advanced applica- tions. Often, miscible flooding is best handled with streamline models. Finally, fundamental grid errors are user transparent ‘The simulator can and will calculate physically meaning less results with incredible precision, Moreover, it will ran faster and give you fewer problems as it merrily leads you to perdition. Buyer beware! 208 « References Arps.J. “Analysis of Decline Curves” Ransactions ofthe UME Nol, 160, 1945, Carlson.M R.Tips.Tricks and Traps of Material Balance Calculations’ Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 1997, Muskat,M. Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous Media, MeGraw Hil 1937, ter Wyckolf and Reed, Physics, date and. issue unknown. Nghiem, et al.“Seventh SPE Comparative Solution Project: Modelling of Horizontal Wells in Reservoir ‘Simulation’ SPE 21221, 11" SPE Symposium fon Reservoie Behrens,R.A.etal,"Implementation of a Streamline Method for Flow Simulation of Large Fields” Journal of Canadian Peroiewr Technology, 1996,