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CARBON COMPOUNDS

Various carbon compounds

Carbon
Mineral carbonates,natural gas,oil and coal.
Graphite diamond.
Allotrophy
Graphite.

Photograph 12.1 Graphite

Diamond

Photograph12.2 Diamond
Charcoal

Organic Carbon compounds

organic
carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.
hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbon
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Figure 12.1 examples of organic compounds

Inorganic carbon compounds

Major branches of inorganic compound groups include:
Minerals
Metal and their alloys
Non - metallic elements
Metal complexes

organic and inorganic compounds

Organic compound carbon and hydrogen
science of chemistry organic and inorganic

Comparison between organic and inorganic compounds

Figure 12.2 shows the comparison between organic and inorganic compounds.
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Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocabons
unsaturated hydrocarbons
saturated
unsaturated
combustion

Propane, an example of sturated hydrocarbon

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Ethene, an example of unsaturated hydrocarbon

complete combustion
Burning or combustion is an oxidation reaction.When hydrocarbon burn completely,the products formed are
water and carbon dioxide.In general,the reaction is as shown below:

Water (H2O) is an oxide of hydrogen.

Incomplete combustion
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide, which is a poisonous gas with no smell (Figure 12.3).
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AlKenes
Alkenes
CnH2n
Double bonds

Table 12.1 saturated hydrocarbons

Table 12.2 unsaturated hydrocarbons

Differences between saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons
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Table 12.3

SouRCE OF HYDROCARBONS
Coal,petroleum and natural gas
Fossil fuels
Non-renewable

Petroleum and natural gas

Petroleum,crude
Petroleum and natural gas

Fractional distilllation of petroleum

Fraction Refining.
Most volatile
Intermolecular force.
Trends in properties
Less volatile
More viscous
Less flammable
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Oil fractions
Figure 12.4 summarises the main fractions from crude oil,their uses and their properties.

Figure 12.4 The fractional distillation of crude oil.

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HYdrOCARBOns chains

Coal

Photograph 12.3 Coal

Coal,carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.
Earth's crust.
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AlcoHOL AND ITS effects on health

Elements in alcohol
Alcohol,Carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.
CnH2n+1OH,hydroxyl group.

Table 12.6 the first four alcohol members

Process of producing alcohol.

Ethanol,ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol.

Figure 12.6 structure of ethanol molecule

Molecular formula,empirical formula,C2H6O
Frementation
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Yeast,ethanol and carbon dioxide.

yeast contains zymase enzyme which causes the starch or complex sugar to break down to simple sugar
(glucose)and then to ethanol and carbon dioxide.

IndUStrial production of alcohol

Figure 12.9 Ethanol preparation by hydration of ethene

C2H4
Hydration
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General cHaracteristic of alcohol

Characteristics alcohol
Characteristics alcohol
colourless
Fruity odour
78oC
miscibles
Density less density water.
neutral
Veryflammable a pale blue flame.

Esterification
Esters
Esterification
catalyst
Sweet smelling
Table 12.7 shows some examples of the esters formed:

Table 12.7

USES OF ALCOHOL
Alcoholic drinks
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Fuel

Cosmetic

Solvents

Effects of alcohol on health.

in low doses,alcohol:
Produces a relaxing effect
Reduces tension
Lowers inhibitions
Impairs concentration.
Slows reflexes
slows reaction time
Reduces coordination

In medium doses,alcohol:
Produces slurred speech.
Causes drowsiness.
Alters emotions.

In high doses,alcohol leads to:

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Vomiting
Breathing difficulties
Unconsciousness
Coma

Effects of alcohol on the nervous system

Depressant
Addiction to alcohol and neurological problems.
Hallucinations and seizures
Chronic alcohol use can:
Damage the frontal lobes of the brain
Cause an overall reduction in brain size and increase in the size of the ventricles

Effects of alcohol an pregnancy

Foetal alcohol syndrome
Facial deformities

SociAl Effects of alcohol

Alcohol decreases the drinker's inhibitions.Drinking can lead to inapproriate social behaviours.
Alcohol abuse among workers can cause poor performances in their jobs.

12.3 Fats and their Effects on health

Fats Carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.
lipids or solid.
Saturated and unsaturated.
9 calories per gram.
Fatty acids.
Linoleic acid.
Animals and plants.
Saturated fat consists of triglycerides
no double bonds
Storage system and reserve supply of energy
Heat insulators body heat.
Lipids
Steroids and hormones.

Saturated and unsaturated fats.

Triglycerides ,glycerol with fatty acids.
Polyunsturated,monounsaturated
Dehydrogenations,Hydrogenations
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Effects of consuming food rich in saturated and unsaturated fats on health.

Heart diseases.
Cholesterol.

What is cholesterol?
Fatty substances
Lipids

What is atherosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis
Reversible Changes
Irreversible changes atherosclerotic plaque chronic or acute.

WhAT DOES atherosclerosis do to the body?

Ruptures,heart attack or stroke.
Thrombose.
Hardening of the acteries.

12.4 OIL PALM AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE OF AN OIL PALM FRUIT
Edible oils nutritional values.
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A single seed,palm kernel,wooden endocarp or shell,mesocarp or pulp.

This fruit produces two types of oil:
Palm oil.
Palm kernel oil.
Cholestrol free.

Process of extraction of palm oil from the oil palm fruit.

liquid solid
Palm oil has a balanced ratio of unsaturated and sturated fatty acids.It contains:
Oleic acid
Linoleic acid
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid

The processing of palm oil.

Crystallisation and separation.

Post harvest handling

Oil extraction from oil palm fruit follows the same basic steps in either case.
Stripping fruit from bunches
Crushing,digestion and heating of the fruit.
Oil Extraction from macerated fruit using hydraulic pressing.
Palm oil clarification
separating fiber from the endocarp.

uSES of palm oil.

Palm oil and its products are employed in numerous food and non-food applications.

uses in the food industry

Margarine,shortening,soaps,oleochemicals and other products.

uSES IN NON-food products

Non-food uses of palm oil and palm kernel oil can be classified into two categories:
Oil directly
Oleochemicals

Other uses and applications

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High temperature tolerance does not oxidise rancid.

The non-edible applications of palm oil and palm kernel oil include the following:
Domestic soaps and detergents
Drilling mud for the oil industry
Gum
Candles
Cosmetics
Printing ink
Metallic soaps for the manufacture of lubricating greases and metallic dryers.
Fuels

Nutritional substances found in palm oil

Hard solid
Good HDL

the world's biggest palm oil producer

Malaysia currently accounts for 51% of world palm oil production and exports of oils and 62% of world
exports; 8% and 22% of teh world's total production and exports of oils and fats respectively.

Research activities of palm oil in Malaysia

Function Of The malaysian palm oil Board (MPOB)
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It assumes the functions previously undertaken by both PORIM and PORLA and takes on new
ones.Its functions are:
Conduct and promote research and development activities relating to the palm oil and oil palm
industries.
Regulate,register,co-ordinate and promote all activities relating to the oil palm industries.
Develop and maintain markets for oil palm products as well as promote efficient marketing.
Plan and implement training programmes and human resources development in line with the needs
of the oil palm industries.

12.5 The process of making soap from oil and the cleaning action of soap.
Composition of soap
Soap reaction fatty acid and a alkali.
Iye(hard soaps) potash.

Characteristic of the component of a soap molecule.

Long hydrocarbon end and short ionic end.
Non-ionic end repel water.
ionic,Attract water.
Micelles.

The cleansing action of soap molecules

Hydrophilic.
Hydrophobic

12.6 Natural polymers

The meaning of polymers
Polymer
Polymer large molecules many smaller and identical repeating units monomers.
Protein
Carbohydrates
The types of synthetic polymers includes:
Plastic
Fibres
Elastomer

Polymerisation and depolymerisation.

Polymerisation
Addition polymers
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Condensation polymers
Polyamides

Natural rubber
A compound of hydrogen and carbon with the formula C5H8.It is called polyisoprene or poly 2-methylbuta-
1,3-diene.
Polyisoprene molecule,some 11 000 of these units are joined together end to end to form a long chain.
In figure12.33.

This is how polymer chain look like in a piece of unstretched rubber.

In figure 12.34

This is how polymers chains look like in a piece of stretched rubber.

The action of acid and alkali on latex.
Latex is a colloidal solution containing rubber molecules,Water and non-rubber materials.Each practicle in
the latex is negatively charged and contains the rubber polymer covered with a membrane of protein.

Effect of acid on the coagulation of latex.

As a result,the particles become nutral (no charges) and come closers and collide with one another.
The collisions break open the colloidal membrane and release the rubber polymers.
The lumps of rubber are white solids and elastic.

Effect of alkali on latex.

The coaglation of latex can be prevented by adding ammonia solution to latex.
Ammonia is an alkali and produces the hydroxides ions in its aqueous solution.

Vulcanisation of rubber.
The physical properties of rubber can be changed by vulcanisation.
Vulcaniosation hardening rubber.
Vulcanisation of rubber is carried out by
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Vulcanisation of rubber.
The physical properties of rubber can be changed by vulcanisation.
Vulcaniosation hardening rubber.
Vulcanisation of rubber is carried out by
Heating natural rubber with sulphur at about 140oC,Using zinc oxide as catalyst,or
Mixing a solution of sulphur monochloride (S2CL2) in methylbenzene with natural rubber.

Importance of the rubber industry in national development.

The scop[e of research and development activities currently carried out on natural rubber include the
following:
To improve the quality of natural rubber
To find new uses of rubber and rubber products
To mechanise the tapping system in order to overcome labour shortage and to save labour cost.
To propatage high latex producing clones.
To produce rubber clones that are resistant to plant diseases.

12.7 Appreciating scientific research on the use of carbon compounds for the betterment of life.
Pure carbon has two allotropes,or different solid forms:Diamond and graphite.The difference is caused by
the way the atoms are arranged.
Diamond is a poor conductor of heat and electricity,it is 3.5 times as dense as water.

Figure 12.40

The other carbon crystal,graphite,is soft,greyish black,slippery and cold to touch.

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Figure 12.41
Fluorocarbons are used as aerosol propellants and as a coating for non-stick cooking utensils.
The special properties of steel are the results of adding carefully controlled quantities of iron carbide to iron.