nn RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 1 1.1 Relations : Last year we have studied the concept of a relation and a function. We also studied algebraic operations on functions and graphs of relations and functions. We will develop these concepts further in this chapter. ‘The word ‘relation’ is used in the context of social obligations also. We will relate the concept of the word ‘relation’ as used in social and family terms with the word relation as used in mathematics. We define a relation of the set of human beings H as S= (Gy) |x € Hy © H, x is a brother of y} Dev is a brother of Rucha. So ordered pair (Dev, Rucha) € S. Let C be the set of all captains of Indian cricket team till 2011. Let S = {(x, ») | x precedes y, x, » € C} ‘Then (Kapildev, M.S. Dhoni) € 8. But (M. §. Dhoni, Kapildev) € S. In the set of natural numbers N, x precedes y, if y = x + k for some k € N. Let {Gs ») | x precedes y, x € N, y © N}. Then G3, 5) € Sas 5=3 +2. But (5, 3) € S. If S is a relation in A ie. SC (AX A) and (x, ») € S, we say x is related to y by S or xSy. Let S be a relation in N defined as follows : S = {@ y) | | x —y] is an even positive integer x, y € N}, then whenever (x, y) € S, GxXeE Ss. (Why 2) Also note that (% x) € S. Now we will define various types of relations Void or Empty relation : A relation in the set A with no elements is called an empty relation, ) C (A x A). ) is a relation called empty relation, ‘The relation $ in N defined by S=(@ WI xty can never be zero. Universal Relation : A relation in the set A which is A x A itself is called a universal relation. ), x € N, y € N} is an empty relation as sum of two positive integers [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 1CC ‘The relation S in R defined by S = {( y) |x Sy or y Sx} is universal relation because of the law of trichotomy. A relation is defined on the set of all living human beings by S = (Gey) | Difference between ages of x and y is less than 200 years}. Obviously S is the universal relation. Reflexive Relation : If S is a relation in the set A and aSa, Va € A ie. (a a) € S, Va € A, we say S is a reflexive relation. For example similarity of triangles, congruence of triangles, equality of numbers, subsets in a power set (A CA for all A € P(U)) are examples of reflexive relations. < is not a reflexive relation in R. Infact @ 6Sa ie. (@ 6) € S => (6, a) © S Va, b € A, we say S is a symmetric relation in A. If ABC <> PQR is a similarity relation in the set of triangles in a plane, then PQR <> ABC is a similarity. In the set of all non-zero integers, we define relation S by (a, 5) € S © d divides a — b where d isa fixed non-zero integer. If m divides a — b, then m divides b — a. (a, 6) € S => (b, a) € S. If APQR = AABC then AABC = APQR. These are examples of symmetric relations. For unequal sets A and B, A CB does not imply B.A. So € is not a symmetric relation in P(U). ‘Transitive relation : If S is a relation in the set A and if aSb and bSc => aSe, Va, b,c © A ke. (@ b) € S and , ©) © S = (a,c) © 8, Va, b, ¢ © A, then we say that S is a ive relation in A. C is a transitive relation in P(U) as AC Band BCC ACC. WA,B,Ce PU). Similarly < is a transitive relation in R, asa <6 and b m divides x ~ y, m € Z— {0} Solution : Reflexivity : a = a (mod m) as a — a = 0 is divisible by any non-zero integer m. (ote : 0 is divisible by any non-zero real number. But no real number is divisible by 0.) Symmetry : If a = b (mod m), then m dividies a — 6. trans Let a— b= mn neZ we boa=-mn=m-n) ne Z b =a (mod m) If a =b (mod m), then b = a (mod m) “Sis a symmetric relation in Z. ‘Transitivity : If @ = 6 (mod m) and 6 = c (mod m) then m | (a — 6) and m | (6 — c). (m | (a ~ 5) means m divides (a — 5)) mk and 6 — c= mt w+ for some kE Z,1€ Za— a b+ b—c= mk +m wan c=mk +p) k+reZ 2 “Maruemarics 12a= c (tnod m) If a = 6 (mod m) and 6 = ¢ (mod m), then a = ¢ (mod m) + Congruence relation is an equivalence relation in Z. Example 2 : Prove that similarity is an equivalence relation in the set of all triangles in a plane. Solution : For any AABC, AABC ~ AABC for the correspondence ABC €> ABC. If AABC ~ APQR, then APQR ~ ABC. Also, if AABC ~ APQR and APQR ~ AXYZ, then AABC ~ AXYZ. <- ~ is an equivalence relation. (Note larly congruence is an equivalence relation in the set of all triangles in plane.) Example 3: A= {the set of all lines in plane} S = (Ge y) | x= y or x is a line parallel to line y.} Js $ an equivalence relation in A ? Solution : @ D € S$ as 1=L So, S is reflexive. (given) Let (1, m) € S. So!|| mor = m. If7 | m, then m || J or if 1= m, then m = 1. s+ IEG me S then (m DE S. s+ S is symmetric. Let (1, m) € S and (m, n) € S. If J, m, n are distinct lines, then 1 || m and m || m and hence / ||. If || mand m= n or if = m and mm, then I | n. If 1 = m and m= n, then 7= If (, m) € S and (m,n) € S, then (I, n) € S. S is transitive. So, $ is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, “+ Sis an equivalence relation, Example 4 : Prove that the relation S = {(a 5) | |@ — | is even,} is an equivalence relation in the set A= (1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6 7}. Solution : | odd integer — odd integer| = | even integer — even integer | = an even integer “ S= {0 3), B,D, A, 9) G, D, GB, 5), G, 3), G, D7 D, B,D, 7, 3, G, Ds 7, 5) 2, 4), 4, 2), (2, 6), (6, 2), (4, 6), (6, 4), (1, 1), (2, 2), G, 3), (4, 4), G, 5), 6, 6), (7, DY Since (x, x) € S, Vx € A. $ is reflexive. Let (% 3) € S. Hence |x — y| is even. Ix—y|=|y—2|. So ly —x Let (% ») € Sand G, 2) € S. If |x — y| and |y — z| are even, then x and y y and z have same parity. Thus x and z have same parity, s [x= 2| is even, © @ 2)€ Sif ye Sand, eS <. Sis transitive. So, S is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. *. $ is an equivalence relation. Antisymmetrie Relation : If S is a relation in A and if (a, 6) € S and (b, a) € S=> a= Va, 6 € A then S is said be an antisymmetric relation. ‘Cis an antisymmetric relation in the set P(U) as AC B and BCA => A= B, VA, Be P(U) S is an antisymmetric relation in R because a Sb and bSa=>a=b WabeER Example 5 : Give an example of a relation which is (1) reflexive and symmetric but not transitive (2) reflexive and transitive but not symmetric (5) symmetric and transitive but not reflexive. is even, Hence (x, 9) € S => (: x) € S. So S is symmetric. same parity (both even or both odd) and RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3Solution (1)-A= the set of all lines in plane. S = (( ») | x = y or x is perpendicular to y, x, y € A} is a relation in A. Since = J, (. ) € S. So S is reflexive If m)e S, then I= m or 1 is perpendicular to m. ‘m= Lor m is perpendicular to 1. (m Des. GmMESamDES. So $ is symmetric. Let (1, m) € S and (m,n) € Sand 1#m, m#n,l#n Hence 7 Lm and mL n. So 1 | n, as 1% n. “ Gnes <. $ is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive. (2) Sin R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. aSa Vae R So, Sis reflexive. aSbandbSc=aSe Va, bee R. SoS is transitive. but if aS 5, then b J a, unless a= b, ++ Sis not symmetric. Thus (3, 5) € S, but (5, 3) € S where S is the relation <. <. $ is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. () Let A= (1, 2,3}. S= {C1 2), 2 Ds Cs VD. @, 2} S is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive as (3, 3) € S Example 6 : Give an example of a relation which is (1) reflexive but not symmetric or transitive (2) symmetric but not reflexive or transitive (3) transitive but not reflexive or symmetric. Solution : (1) Let A= (1, 2, 3}. S= {G, D, @ 2), G, 3) Gs 2), 2 3 (, 1D, @, 2), @, 3) are in S. Hence $ is reflexive. (, 2) € S but 2, 1) € S. Hence $ is not symmetric. (, 2) € S, 2,3) € S but (1, 3) € S. +. $ is not transitive. <. $ is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive. @) Let A= (1, 2, 3}, $= (C1, 2), @ D} S is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive. () Consider < in the set R. a ySx cy => ySr s+ Sis symmetric, Let xSy and ySz. ox (S is circular) we xSz (S is symmetric) w+ Sis transitive, S is an equivalence relation. Arbitrary Union : Let I be a non-empty set of real numbers. Let A; be a set corresponding toiel ‘Then we define UA; = {x | x € A, for at least one #€ 1} fet NA: = (x |x © A, for all Fe 1 fel For example, let I= (0, 1]. Let A; = [0, i) ‘Then (JA; = [0, 1] ier na tet Equivalence Classes : Let $ be an equivalence relation in a set A. If xSy, we say x ~ y (x is equivalent to y) (Read ~ as wiggle) Let A, = (x lx~ px © A} {0} RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3CC Let us prove the following : if p ~ q, Ay = A, and if p is not equivalent to g, A, O Ay = IfA, OA, #9, letx € (A, Ay) xE A,andxe Ay x~pandx~q wpa xandx~g pn | PEA, andge A, A, GA, and A, C AY, oe May Now, if A, OA, #0, then A, = Also, p ~ p- pea, Wea Uap =A pea ‘Thus an equivalence relation ‘partitions’ A into disjoint sets A, such that @ A, OA, =0, ifp is not equivalent to g. @ UApra pea ‘These sets A, are called equivalence classes corresponding to the equivalence relation ~. Conversely any partition of A gives rise to an equivalence relation in A. We define x ~ y if x and y are in the same class A,, x ~ x as x and x belong to the same classes A, If x ~ y, then y ~ x because if x and y belong to the same class, then y and x also belong to the same class. Ifx ~ y and y ~ , then x and y, y and z belong to the same class. Hence x and z belong to same class. Hence x ~ 2 “. ~ isan equivalence relation. Example 10 : We define a = b (mod 2), if a — b is even. Prove = is an equivalence relation in Z. Find equivalence classes. Solution : a = a as 2 divides 0, or 0 is even. Ifa =, then b Ifa a-c=a-bt+b~cis even. as a —b is even > b — ais even. b and b = c, then a = c since a ~ b is even and b ~ c is even implies is an equivalence relation. 1,3, 5.0 Ay say. (13,3 = Sete.) 2,4, 6... © Ay say. QE 4, 4 = 6 etc.) All integers are divided into two equivalence classes, ‘A, = the set of odd integers and A, = the set of all even integers. 6 ‘Marmemarics 12Let Z= A, UA, U Ag where Ay At 2 Ag = Lond, 6, ye Define an equivalence relation whose equivalence classes are Ay, Ay and Ax Solution ; Let us define aSb if 3 | (a — b) or a = b (mod 3). is an equivalence relation as as 3 divides a — a= 0, so aSa a= b(mod 3) = 3| (a ~ 5) = 3/@-a) => b = a(mod 3) aSb => bSa 3 | (a 6) and 3 | (6 ~c) implies 3 | [(a — b) + (6 — 6] = a — c. Hence aSb and BSc => aSe. S is an equivalence relation. So we can write a ~ b, if @Sb. For this equivalence relation, Ay = (oly 4, Ty W0poads Ay = fonds 5, Bards Ay = fon) 6 Sn} are equivalence classes. For this relation, difference x — y is di ible by 3, if x and y belong to the same class. Example 12 ; Let L be the set of all lines in the XY-plane and S be the relation defined in L as S = {(Ly, L) | Ly = Ly oF Ly is parallel to L,}. Prove S is an equivalence relation and obtain equivalence classes containing (i) X-axis (ii) Y-axi Solution » We have seen that $ is an equivalence relation. ‘The equivalence class of lines containing X-axis is the set of lines y = b, b © R. ‘The equivalence class of containing Y-axis is the set of lines x = a, a € R. Example 13 : Show that the set S = {(P, Q) | distance of P(x, y) and Q(x, y,) from origin is same. P,Q R?) is an equivalence relation. What is the equivalence class containing (1, 0) ? Solution : d(P, 0) = alP, 0). So, P) € S. So S is reflexive. 4 aR, 0 d(Q, 0) = r, then d(Q, 0) = d(P, O) = r. So S is symmetric. If d(P, O) = AQ, O) = r and d(Q, O) = d(R, O) = r, then d(P, O) = d(R, O) = r @ YE S, QR) € S = ER) E S. Hence $ is transitive. S is an equivalence relation. HAC, 0), OY = 1 ‘The equivalence class containing (1, 0) consists of all points at distance 1 from origin i.e. unit circle. | Exercise 1.1 | Determine which of the following relations is reflexive, symmetric or transitive ? MA Ly 2, Byseoy 10}. S = {@% ¥) | y= 2x} (2) A=N,S= ((x, y) | y divides x} (3) A= {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6}, S = {(% y) | » divides x} () A=Z,8= Gy y)|x-ye Z} © A=RS=GYlyoxth aSb if 6 | (a— 6), a, b © Z. Prove that S is an equivalence relation and write down equivalence classes. Prove C is reflexive, antisymmetric and transit in P(U). (2) f:NN,f(@) =x is a function. We define xSy if f(x) = /(). Is $ an equivalence relation ? ‘What are equivalence classes ? (2) If: Z > Z, f(@) = 2, what are equivalence classes for this equivalence relation ? [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 7rr) S. fi NXN—NXN, fm, 2) = (n, m)). We say (a, BSc, d if f(a, b)) = fc, d). Is S an equivalence relation ? What is the equivalence class containing (1, 2) ? 6. Let L be the set of lines in XY plane. Define a relation $ in L by xSy > x= y orx Ly or x || y. Is $ an equivalence relation ? If so, what are equivalence classes ? What is the equivalence class containing X-axis ? What happens if L is the set of all lines in space ? * 1.2 One-one and onto Functions We have studied the concept of a special type of relation called a function. Remember, if A # and B # @ and if fC (A x B) and f #0) such that for every x € A, there is one and only one y € B such that (x, y) € J, then fis a function. Thus f is a relation whose domain is A. We also studied graphs of functions and algebraic ‘operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of functions. Consider following two functions : JINN, JQ) =? os L4G, Ds @ 4), B, % A, 16), Here xy # x => SG) # f(x). B:ZOZ gayar ‘Then g = {(0, 0), (1, Ds CL Ds Q 4), 2, Monod But —1 #1 and g(-1) = g(1) = 1. Functions like f are called one-one functions and functions like g are called many-one functions. Let us give a formal definition. (One-one function : If: A —> Bis a function and if Wx, € A,x, # x, => f(x) FSO), we say f: A —> B is a one-one func called an injective function. Generally we deal with equality with ease rather than working with an inequation. Using contrapositive of defining statement, we can say that if f(x) = (3) => x1 =x, Vay, x © A, then fA B is a one-one function, For a function f: A > A, S = {(x;. *2) | f(1) = f(@,)} is an equivalence relation in A. Obviously 0x) = Fe) (Reflexive) Fe) = $e) = FC) = Fe) (Symmetry) FC) = $4) and f(x) = fO3) = SO) = Fy) (Transitivity) +S is an equivalence relation. For a one-one function f: A —> A, the equivalence class containing x, is {x1} only. SoA= U(x}. Also A, = {x} is the partition of A corresponding to this equivalence relation. xEA Consider f: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} —> {2, 3, 6, 7, 8} S = {A, 2, @, 2, G, 3), 4, 6, (5, 6}. f is not a one-one function as 1 # 2 and FC) = f(2) = 2. Maraewarics 12.nnn Many-one function : If f: A —> B is a function and if x,,.x, € A such that x, # x, and Fe) = fy), then f: A > B is said to be a many-one function. ‘See that this defining statement is the negation of the statement used to define a one-one function. We define f(C) = | y =f), x © C,C CALC #0} and SW) = & ly =f@),x€ Aye D, DCB) See that f(C) and f-1(D) are merely symbols. We note that f(C) is never empty. Set f-'(D) could be 0. In this example if C = 2, 3, 4}, (©) = (2, 3, 6} C= (1,23, f= @} 1fD= {8}, fw) =0 1D= 2), f= 0,24 ID = (2,6), SMD) = 1, 2, 4, 5} In fact f(A) is the range of f: A> B. S-\(D) is the set of pre-images of the elements of D. S18) =A Let us see some examples. Example 14 : Determine whether f : N — N, f(x) = 2x is one-one or not. Solution : Let x, 2 € N. LG) = fq) = 2x, = Py X= + ff: NN, SG) = 2x is one-one. ‘Example 15 : If f: R — Z, f(x) = [x] = integer part of x (or floor function |x|), is f: RZ one-one ? Solution ; No. f@.1) = 21 £2.23) = [2.23] = 2 2. f: RZ, f() = [x] is not one-one. Example 16 : Is f: R — R* U {0}, f(%) = |x| one-one ? Solution : No. f(-1l) =f) =1 ° J: RR {0}, f@) = |x] is not one-one. Example 17: Iff:N U (0} 9 NU {0}, f() =x — 3[4] is f one-one ? Find equivalence classes for the relation S = {(x, x3) | f@4) = F@)}- Solution : £0) = 1 = 3[4] = L. £@) = 2, £0) =3 - I) = 5 —3[$] = 2.70 = 6 —3[$] = 0. In fact f(n) = the remainder when 7 is divided by 3. 70) =4—3f8] 1, FB) = (6) = FO) = FO . NU {0} ONL {0}, /@) ‘The equivalence classes are (1, 4, 7, 10y.}s {25 5, 8, Myucbs £0, 3, 6 9, yd — 3[4] is not one-one. [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9CC ‘Onto Function : If the range of the function f: A > B is B, we say that f is an onto function or surjective function or more precisely f is a function from A onto B. If Ry= f(A) = B, f is onto. ‘Thus, if there exists at feast one x € A corresponding to every y € B, such that y = f(2), Jf: A —> B is an onto function. If Sy € B, for which there is no x € A such that y = /(), f:A Bis not an onto function. Example 18 : Give one example each of a function which is (1) one-one and onto, (2) one-one and not onto, (3) many-one and onto, (4) many-one and not onto. Solution : (1) f: N > B, E being the set of even natural numbers, f(x) = 2x. F= AA, 2D, 2M, By Opeoedd L0) =I) = 2x1 = ey > =H s. fis one-one. R= 2, 4, 6.0} = E Infact every y € E is of the form 2n for some x € N and f(n) = 2n = y 2 RHE <.fis an onto function. ) FIN DN, Se = 2 L= (C2) 2, 4). B, Do} Fis one-one as in (1). R,~ (2 | © N} = E, the set of even natural numbers. R= E#N Bis a one-one and onto function, it is called a bijective function. Example 19 : Prove that f: R > R, f(x) = ax + b a #0 is a bijective function. Solution + Let fq) = fq) ax, + b= an + ay = ay aya @eo F is one-one. yob prartberx= 27 @*0 1. For every y © R, Sx © R such that, so- A277) yob . . a(254) tony btony 10 -Maritemarics 12Range of f is R. F:R Ris onto, +. SiR Ris a bijective function, Example 20 : In how many points does a horizontal line intersect the graph of y = f(x), if f is one-one ? Solution : Y Figure 1.1 ‘The graph of a one-one function f: A —> B is intersected by a horizontal line y = ¢ in at most one point. For f: R > R, the graph of f(x) = x? is intersected by a horizontal line y = c in two points in general (c > 0). For x, #.x,, we should have f (x1) # f (x2). So if restrict the function to f: RX > R*, Fe [o. E] etc, the graph of y = sinx is intersected by line y = ¢ (-1 Sc S$ 1) in at most one point. KE sins, exe [E, Bh x2, it is one-one. The same thing happens in the case of graph of Otherwise the line y = ¢ intersects the graph of y = sinx in infinitely many points. (-1 S ¢ S 1) Example 21: IFA = (4, x, X30» Xp}, prove any function f: A — A is injective if and only if it surjective. Solution : Let f= e+ PG), Sewn £G,) ave all distinct elements of A. But A has » elements x1, x2... %, only. 2 FED. FO)nn Fy) must be 1, X45 op J, in some order. R= A ff: A Ais onto, Conversely, suppose f: A —> A is onto, Ry = Gy, Xp, Xen yh Now, Leys Os LO} = Ops Xp Xe Fale s+ No f(x) can be equal to fx). @#/) (Uf some f(x) = f(%). Ry will not contain all x4, x95 X34 Xp) fis one-one, Example 22: Iff: (tp ty Xp} > Op Y Solution + f is one-one. se SE), FO%p)s--s F(X) ate m distinct elements from amongst {¥, ¥y5-5 Yq) msn > A be one-one. + Yq} i8 one-one, prove that m Sn. "RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONSCC Example 23 £ TES: (24, Xp Xy} —> Dp Yarn Yq} 18 onto, prove that m > n, Solution + Some of £())s f(x)» F(%,) may be equal but they must form the set Dp Yarn Yah s+ fm B is bijective then n(A) = n(B). Example 24:f:N—Z, f@=(4 n even 2 n odd z Prove that f is bijective. Solution «f= £0, 0), @, 1D, GB, “1, 4, Dy} as f(I)= > (1 odd) £Q)=3= 2 even) ete. «+ If mis a positive integer, f(2n) = 4 = n, Since 2n € N, 2n € Dp 2n is even. If mis a negative integer or zero, f(-2n + 1) = — (=) odd. If m is a negative integer or zero, -2n + 1 © N.-2n+ +All integers are in the range of given f: N > Z. ss Ry=Z. So fis surjective. Fon) = or (85 -1 = BeBe nate Bebe Bel nem and 3 ==" = ny + ny = 1, impossible. ce fm) # f(r) for any ny, my EN. s. fis one-one. o. fis bijective. Example 25 s Prove that f: R— 2} > R- {2}, f@) = buat 25-1 Solution = f(x) = f(y) = AF = FBS xy yA HDD — dy +2 = 3x, =3xy =x=% w+ fis one-one, Let x € R— (2}. Let y= s() = 5} where x = R = (2) wy 2y=2e-1 @- De = 2-1 on 1 y=2 wore s+ For every y € R~ {2}, there is x € R— (2} such that, 2 [Maritemarics 12y= F0, sinoe f00) =F (' = Qysi-2yee ~y R= R= Q) fis onto. Example 26 :f:NXN—9N, f((m n)) = m+n. Is fone-one ? Is f onto ? Solution : f(Q, 2) =142=3, f(D) =24+1=3 but (1, 2) #2, 1). = fis not one-one. m2in2z1=>m+n22 = fm, nm) 22, Vom, n) ENXN 1€ Ry Fis not onto, Example 27 :f:NXN—NXN, f((m, ») =, m). Prove f is bijective. ee Pe eras Solution + [mys my) = Lm, m)) =P (ys m) = (ym) ny = ny my =m, (my, m1) = (mm) fis one-one. Vom, n) € NX N, f((n, m) = (mm, m) Rp=NXN “fis onto. Are following functions one-one ? Are they onto ? (I to 11) Fi:ROR f@)= 5x47 rRR, f@)=2-3x EROR, f@)=2 + aes PROR, f@)=2—x-2 moos nis even net z f f f f nis odd PROC D. £0) = Ti :AXB—A, f((a, b)) =, A and B are not singleton, A # (, B #9). PRIOR s@=8 ZZ, fo-( ea nis even antl nis odd. Sons [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 13re 10. f:Z9Z, fi={n+1 — neven (ota Ue f:Z9Z, fof? n even, Qn+2 nodd. 12, How many one-one functions are there from (1, 2, 3,.., n} to itself ? 13, Ay {1}. Ay = (1, 2}, Ag = (1, 2, 3} How many onto functions f: A, —> A, (i= 1, 2, 3) are there ? Can you generalize the result ? * 1.3 Composite Functions We have studied the concept of composite functions. Let us revise it, If: A — B and g : BC are two functions, their composite function gof : A —> C is defined by (eof) = 8) Iff: A> Band g : C > D are functions and Ry C Dy, gof : A—> D is defined by (Bef) = af) Example 28 : If f: NN, f(x) = 2x +3 and g: NN, g(x) = Sx + 7, find gof and fog. Solution : gaf Gof) fog: NN (osx) = f(g) = f(Sx + T) = 25x + 7) +3 = 10x + 17 In general, gof # fog. Example 29 : If f: RR, f(@) = x and g: RR gt) = x5, prove that gof = fog. Solution sgof: R > R, (gofKa) = a6) = gO) = G8)5 = x! fog: RR, (fogXx) = f(g) = FOS) = GFP = x18 Here fog = gof (Note : Obviously (a"y' = (ay = army Example 30 :f: (1, 2, 4, 5} > (2, 3, 6, 7} F= {C1 2), 2, 3), 4, 6), (5, 7} and &: (2,3, 6,7, 8} > (1,3, 5,6) £= {2 D, GD, G 1), G, 5), (8, 6)}. Find gof and fog whichever is possible. Solution + Ry= (2, 3, 6 7} © Dy = 2, 3, 6, 7, 8} IN BGC) = gx + 3) = SQx + 3) +7 = 10x + 22 gof exists. gof = 40, 1), 2, 1D, 4, 1, GS, 5} as (gof1) = a(f(1)) ~ a(2) ~ 1, (gof)(2) ~ a(f(2)) = (3) = 1 ete. [Maritemarics 12nn Ry = {1, 5, 6} ZDy= (1, 2, 4, 5} fox does not exist. Example 31 : If f: A — B and g: B > C are one-one functions, prove that gof: A —> C is one-one. Solution + GofKx,) = (ofa) = sF%)) = af) (ys € A) = fm) = So) 11 one-one) Syma (F is one-one) 1A C is one-one. :Iff: A B is onto B and g : B > C is onto C, prove that, gof: A > C is onto C. :Let ye C. Since g : B —> C is onto C, there exists z € B such that g(2) = y. Now, f: A B is onto Band z € B. Be € A such that f(x) = z 8@) = y => 8f@) =y (wofkx) = For every y € C, Se € A such that (gof(x) = y 2. gof: A> Cis onto C. Example 33 + If gof: A —> C is one-one, can you say f: A> B and g: B > C are one-one ? Solution : No. Let f: A> B,A= (1, 2,3, 4,5}, B= (5, 6, 7, 8 9 10, 11} S= AG, 5), @ ©, B,D, G, 8), G, 9} Let g: BB, gs) =x +1, ifx# 10 or 11 (10) = gill) = 5 ‘Then gof: A — B, gof= {(1, 6), (2, 7), G. 8), (4, 9). (S, 10)} is one-one. But g : B > B is not one-one. [Note : Here we have taken B = C.] Example 34: If f: A B and g : B — C are two functions and gof: A —> C is one-one, then prove that f: A > B is one-one. Solution + Let fq) = (x) apm eA BF) = BFC) F&) € B, f(y) € B) (eof) = Gor) y= (of is one-one) sf: A> B is one-one, Example 35 + If gof: A> C is onto C, are f: A -> Band g: B 9 C onto C? Solution : No. Let fs (1, 2,3, 4} > (2,3, 4,5, 6, 73, f@)=x41 &: (23,4, 5, 6, 7) > (4, 6 8, 10}, a(x) = 2x ifx #6 0r7 (6) = g(7) = 10 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 15Then gof: (1, 2, 3,4) > (4, 6, 8, 10}, gof = {(1, 4), (2, 6), GB, 8), (4, 10)) gof is onto C. But f: A > B is not onto as 6, 7 € Ry Example 36 : If f: A > B and g : B > C are two functions and if gof : A — C is onto C, prove that g is onto C. Solution + gof: A> C is onto C. Letze C Fr © A such that (gof\x) = z af) = 2 x € Aand f: A — B isa function. “ f@) € B. Let y = f@). g() = 2, where y € B. For every z € C. Fy € B such that gy) = = g:B- C is onto C. 1. f: RR, g: RRA: RR are functions. Prove : (i) (fog)oh = folgoh) (2) (f + g)oh = foh + goh 2. Find gof and fog for ©) PRIRSE)=|z) g ROR )=¥ ) FE RPSRELO AR, gE Rh IRL DE 3. f: RE R, f(a) = cube root of (3 — x3). Find fof. 4. fF: ROR, f@) =x? — x — 2, Find fof. Sf: R- 1} OR- 1}, £0) = EF. Find fof 6. f:R— Ris signum function, f@)= (1 x>0 {e x=0 1 x<0 g: RZ, g(x) = [x]. Find fog and gof. 7. fi L—> Land g: Z—> Z are defined as follows : fn) =f n+2 n even si ={ 2m neven 2n—-1 odd s+ nod Find fog and gof. 8. () IFA #0, B #0 and f: A — B is a one-one function, prove that there exists a function g:B—>A such that gof= Iq. (1 is identity function) (g is called left inverse of f) 16 Marmemarics 12nn (® IEA #9, B #9 and f: A — B is a function onto B, prove that 3 a function such that fog = Ip. (g is called right inverse of f) (3) Combine results (1) and (2) iff: A > B is a bijective function. * 1.4 Inverse of a Function We have 3.1 = 3 as 1 is multiplicative identity. 3-4 = 1 and so 4 is multiplicative inverse of 3 Similarly we have seen in Xith standard that for a function f: A — B, foly = f and lof = f where I, and Ip are identity functions on A and B respectively. So does there exist a function g:B—Asuch that gof= Ty and fog = Ip? The answer is yes under some conditions. We define inverse of a function. Definition : If f : A —> B is a function and if there exists a function g : B —> A such that gof = I, and fog = Iq we say g : B > A is the inverse function of f: A > B and denote g by f—, ‘The question arises why ‘the’ inverse ? We must prove that g : B > A is unique before we call it the inverse of f: A> B and assign a symbol f~', Uniqueness : Suppose g : B > A and h : B > A are two inverses of f: A > B. os Bf = Ip, fog = Ny hof = Ip, foh = goly = go(foh) = (gofoh = Also g: BA, h: BA are functions. + Inverse of a function f: B — A, if it exists, is unique. ‘When does the inverse of a function exist ? This is reflected in the following theorems. Theorem 1.1: If f: A —> B has inverse g : B—> A, then f : A > B is one-one and onto. Proof : For xy, 2 © A. let £04) = () “ BF@)) = af) F&) Sy) € B) * WwoAkey) = (BafK2) Tae) = Tae) (@ : BA is the inverse of f : A> B) =e c.f: A B is one-one. Letye B “ In) = (fea) = ¥ (fog + GO) =y g: BA isa function. y € B, Hence gy) € A. Let gy) = x. So f(@0) = SQ) = ¥ we x Aand f= y s+ For every y € B, there exists x € A such that y = f(x). sf: AB is onto B. ‘Theorem 1.2 : If f : A > B is one-one and onto, it has am inverse g : B > A. Proof: Let f@)=y x EA RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 7CC Define (9) = Since f: A —> B is onto, for every y € B there exists x € A such that f(x) = y and this x is unique as f: A — B is one-one. g:B— Aisa function. BON) = BFE) = a) = x (fos) = SB) = SQ) = ¥ gof = Ig and fog = Ip. +g is the inverse of f. A result : If: A> B and g : B > C are one-one and onto, gof : A—> C is one-one and onto and Gof) = flog. Proof : We know gof: A — C is one-one and onto. (Ex. 31, 32) (go! : © > A exists and (gof)“! : C > A is a function. f-1: B Aand g! : C > B are functions. 2 flog > (gof)o fog!) = go((fof og) = go(lgos™) = gos"! Io (F'0g™") 0 (gof) = f-'o(g'og) of) = flollyof) fof a function. (gop! = flog! Example 37 : For f: N —> B, f() = 2x, find ~! and verify fof! = Ip, f~lof = Iy where E is. the set of even natural numbers. Solution + $Q4) = $@2) =9 2x, = 2x) => xy = x . f:N > E is one-one. if y © E, y= 2n For some n,n € N Sin) = 2n = y For every y € E, Sn © N such that f(n) = y 1 f1N > Eis onto. ya f@)= 2% x= Po floy=F & =f") o FTE NI) =F or fle) =F Verification is left to the reader. Example 38 sf: RR, f(@) = ax +6 a #0. Find the inverse of f: RR. Solution + (q) = fq) => ary + b= ax +b = ar, = ax, Sx @eo 18 [Maritemarics 12—” + fis one-one. Ley R yratb=x-2 er @#o) For every y € R, ar © R such that (0) = ((25%)) = of 4) + =» Fis onto R. LS EROR, xa sly) = 2b or we may write J! : R > R fH) = 2% Example 39: If f: Rt > R*, f(a) = 22, find 7}. Solution + fO) = fGq) > x2 = 2,2 = In l= 151 = mma G2 € RY . fis one-one. Let y€ R* Fx € Rt such that x = JY so that f(x) = x2 = y. For every y € Rt, Sx © RY such that f() =». Sis onto Rt 2 fl Rt RY IQ) = VY or we may write f!: RY RY Ja) = VE Frample 40:7: R= {-3} 9 R= (Bh 7ey= BEE Fina Solution : Let fa) =S0) xpx, € R - {-4} 42 ay42 2x, F3 ~ 2x, FS 6xjx, + 9x1 + 4xy + 6 = Gxyx, + 9x, + dx, +6 Qy— 3x = 2-3y » ye For every y © R ~ {3}, there exists x € R — {-3} such that f@) = y. 2 fis onto, » eR Bp oRr- (3h @ rir- fs} or- [3h @--# RELATIONS AND FUNCTExample 41: If f: A — B is one-one and onto. Prove (f Solution + By definition of inverse if f-! : B —> A has inverse h : A —> B, it must satisfy hof! = Ig and fol“ = I,. But f: A > B does satisfy these conditions and inverse is unique, if it exists. (7 exist and GI! = fF Example 42 : A= {1, 2, 3}, B= (I, 4, 9}, f: A B, f(a) = 22. Find fl and verify lof = Ty, fof = Ty. Solution {G, D, @ 4), GB, 9} "fis one-one. Ry= (14,9) =B . fis onto B. SPU BOAS IO = VESTA D4 2D. 3. Sof = {A V, 4, DE = Ty se Sof = A, D, 2, 2% GB, 3} = Tye Example 43 : For f: R > {x | x 25, x © R}, f(x) = x2 + 4x + 9, find f—! if possible. Solution + f(x) =f) => x2 + 4x, + 9= x)? + 4x, +9 xP = x + 4G — = 0 3 yey tm t4= S xy or yt td (To make x, +x, +4 = 0) 6-16 +9=9 ". fis not one-one. 1. $7 does not exist. Example 44 :1ff:R— (-1) 9 R— {-1},f(@) = FF%. Prove that /~ exists and show that f= f~. Solution + (NG) = FF) -8) =x . fof = 1g, where A= R= (-1} By uniqueness of inverse and the definition of f~!, f~! exists and f= Note : Examples mark with * are only for information, not for examination. “Example 45 : If £ g, h are functions from A to A and if fog and goh are bijective, prove that fg h are bijective. 20 [Maritemarics 12Solution : (1) First of all we prove that ff g, h are one-one. Let a6) = g6%2) x, EA Se) = FeO) ale) € A, Ble) € A (foeXx:) = (fosXx,) ay (fog is one-one) Gy) = a6) = x = g: A Ais one-one. Let h(x,) = Ax) mye aC) = BOG) Ay) € A, hy) © A Gohyx,) = eohXx) xm Goh is one-one) Hoy) = Wee) = xy = x hh: A A is one-one. Let f(x) =f@) 2 E A Since goh is onto A, Sy,, y) € A such that, (OW) = Xp» (GORNO2) = x2 “ S(BMO)) = F(gohX2)) Fe) = Se) (fos Xhho,)) = YFoaXh)) 4) = I) (fog is one-one) 210) = 20H) My), MO) E A GohXy) = ohXy2) i SO) = FG) > = x2 . fA Ais one-one. Now we prove f, g, hare onto A. Let yea Since fog is onto A, Fz € A such that (fosX2) = y Se) = y Lot g(z) = x. Then x € A. Also f(x) = y and x € A. For every y € A, dx © A such that f(x) = y. 1. fis onto A. Similarly, since goh is onto A, Sz € A such that (gohyz) = y ah) = y Let (2) = x. Then g(x) = y where x © A gis onto A. RELATIONS aND FUNCT ByCC Let y € A. Now g) € A. Since goh is onto A, Fx € A such that Goh\Xx) = gy) Be) = 80) But g is one-one. Wx) = y For every y € A, Sx © A such that A(x) = y. hh is onto A. “Example 46: f: A> B and g : B > C and h: B > C are functions. (1) Prove if f is surjective and gof = hof, then g = h. (2) Give an example in which gof = hof but g # h. Solution : (1) Let y € B. fis onto B. Fe © A such that f(x) = y af) = 80) Fe) € B) AE) = go) (eof = hof) OY) = 80) Since y € B is arbitrary and g : B > C and h: B — C are functions, g = h. Qf: 0,234 36,67 F= {A 5), 2, 6), B, 6), (4, SD} Let g : {5, 6, 7} > {6, 8}, g = {(5, 6), (6, 8), (7, 8)} Leth: 5, 6, 7} > (6, 8}, = (6, 9, ©, 8) (7, 9} Bof = {(1, 6), (2, 8), (3, 8), (4, 6} hof = {(1, 6), (2, 8), G, 8), (4, 6)} ©. gof = hof. But g#h “Example 47 : If f: A B, g: A B are functions and h : B > C is a function. (1) Prove if hof = hog and h is one-one, then f= g. (2) Give an example where hof = hog but f # g. Solution + (1) hof: A € and hog : A > C are functions, (hofx) = (hog)(x) for Wx € A WF) = Ree) . f@)=8@) Wee A (his one-one) S=8 2) F123) 9451, f= (0), 29, B,D} g: {l, 2,3} > {4,5}, w= {(1, 5), 2 5), G, SD} hs {4,5} > {6,7}, h= (4, 6), (5, 6} hof = {(, 6), (2, 6), 3, 6)} = hog, but f # g. “Maritemarics 12Find f~ if it exists : (1 to 6) 1 f:ROR fat. 2 f:29% — fax-7. 3. fF: ROR, f@ex Bef {1, 2,3, Ane WB} > (2, 4, 6,5 2m}, fm) = 2m. 5. f:Z39Zx 0, ,F0) = ( (4.0) nm even, (2554) nase 6. fi ZION S@= ( 4n n>0, meven 4in[+1 50, meven fn+2 nn >0, mod Aln| +3 <0, nod Cint : fis not onto. 3 € Ry 7. Forf: A> B, a function g: B > A such that gof = Iq. Prove f is one-one. 8. For f:A—> B, Ja function h : B —> A such that foh = Ip. Prove f is onto B. 9, Examine if following functions have an inverse. Find inverse, if it exists : OLRIR SO) = Lx] (Floor function) Of RIR VY (0) F@) = |x| @ RIOD, f@) = x= b) @ f:R>Z, FO) = [x] (Ceiling function) © f:C7G, f@=F (C = set of complex numbers) © P:NXNON, Fm, m= men (D SINXNONXN, fm m= m) 1.8 Binary Operations We know that addition of two natural numbers is a natural number. ie ae NbEN=>athEeN Similarly a—bEZ if abEZ axbeZ if abEZ ‘Thus there is a non-empty set X and an ordered pair of elements (a, 6) of X X X giving a ‘unique element of X obtained by so called ‘addition’, ‘multiplication’ ete. These are called binary operations on X. Binary Operation : Let A #0. A function * : AX A—> Ais called a bi of notation like f((a, 5)) or *(a, 6), we use the notation @ * operation. Instead for the image of this funetion "RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 23rr for (a, 6) and call * a binary opration on A. Thus, corresponding to (a, 6) € A X A, a unique clement a * b of A can be obtained by *. ‘Thus + is a binary operation on N, Z, Q, RC X is a binary operation on N, Z, Q, R, C. — is a binary operation on Z, Q, R, C as a — 6 does not necessarily belong to N if, aeNodeNn. For example 3 € N, 7 € N, but 3—7=—-4¢@ N. Similarly + is a binary operation on Q — {0}, R — {0}, C — {0}. If b = 0, in Q or in R or in C. . £ is not defined fae N, BEN, then 2 @ N unless bla. Hence division is not a binary opertion on N. Commutative law : If * is a binary operation on set A and ifa*5=5* a, Va,b © Ay we say * is a commutative operation. ‘commutative on N. not commutative on Zasa—b#b—a,a, bE Z. Associative Iaw : If * is a binary operation on A and if (@ * b) c= a * (6 * 0) Va, b, ¢ € A, we say * is an associative binary operation on A. What is the need of this law ? See that (a + 6) += a+ (6 +6) ie. + is associative on R. Hence we can write a+ 6 +c without ambiguity for this expression, (a-b)-c#a-(b—c) VabcER Hence ‘—’ is not associative on R. So we have to specify brackets while using ‘—’ for three real numbers, Identity Element : If * is a binary operation on A and if there exists an element ¢ in A such that a * = ¢ * a= a, Va © A, we say ¢ is an identity element for +. O+a=at0-a WaeR lea=al=a WaeR “+ is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity in R. a0 #40-a forae R unless a= 0. Inverse of an element binary operation om A with am identity element ¢ and if corresponding to a & A, there exists an clement a’ € A such that @ * a’ where ¢ is the identity element for *, we say a’ is an inverse a’ of a by a, a@tane wwerse of a and we denote the ws a*@liadt*ane In R, every non-zero real number a has an inverse + for multiplication. Every element a has an inverse —a for addition in R. 0 has no inverse for multiplication in R. Maraewanics 12Operation Table : If A is a finite set and n(A) is ‘small’, we can prepare a table as follows @; * a; is written at the intersection of the ith row and jth column. If * is commutative, the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. Example 48 ; * is defined on N U {0} by a * 6 =|a— |. Is it a binary operation ? Solution : Yes. Ifa € NU {0}, 6 € NU {0}, thena—be Zand ja~ bl ENU {0} ..® is a binary opeation. Example 49 ; Dete oF not? () OnN VU {0},a% b= 2% @ OnRa* b= 5G Solution : ()a* b=2%=27=5%a Wa bENU {0} \e whether following operations * arc commutative or not ? associative (#3) *4= 26 #4 = 228-4 = 9286 2*G #4) a2 2125 22-27 2 Wh * is not associative. be @ atl ga-ga eta-P 45 > (a— da +b) + (a—b)=0 => (@- bfatb+1)=0 “ a=borat+b+1=0, thena*b=5b *a. @ a* b= Fh be a= 2*3—-2-1 342-361 <.* is not commutative. 4 -Lea-h-a a4 >a 84° THT 0 Qraye4 * = =yh =e 2*Gea=2*2 was s+ is not associative. Example 50 : A: RX RR is defined by A(a, 6) = a A b = min(a, 6). Prepare the operation table for A for the subset (2, 3, 4, 7, 8}. [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 25Solution : Example 51 : Define * on (2, 4, 6, 8) by a * b= ged (a, b). Prepare the operation table for *. Is * commutative ? Solution : 2 4 "202 24, 22 24 Obviously ged. (a, b) = ged(b, a) 2. * is commutative. See that the table is symmetric about dotted diagonal. the binary operation on N defined by a * b = Lem. (a, b) () Find 8 * 10, 5 # 3, 12 * 24, (2) Is * commutative ? (3) Is * associative 2 (Find the identity for *, if it exists. (5) Find inverse of those elements for which it exists Solution + (2) 8 * 10 = Lem (®, 10) = 40 S*3= hem (5,3) = 18 12 * 24 = Lem, (12, 24) = 24 ©) Lem. (a, b) = Lem (b, a) +. * is commutative. (3) * is associative. () a*e=a Vae N means tem (a e)=a, Vae N <. ela Wa N. In special case ¢ | 1. So, e=1 Also, Lem. (a, 1) = a +. Lis the identity for Ze.m. operation. (S) Lem. (a, 6) 2 a and Lem. (a, b) > b. c. Lem. (a, b) #1 unless a = b = 1. Inverse of 1 only exists and it is 1 Example 53 : Let X # 9. Prove that union and intersection are binary operations on P(X). Are they commutative ? Are they associative ? Find the identity and inverse if any for U and 0. 26 “Maritemarics 12nn Solution : AUB € P(X) and AM Be P(X) if A, BE POO. + Vand © and are binary operations on POX). Let A, B,C © POO. AUB=BUA AQB=BOA and (AU B) UC =AU BU ©) and (AM B)AC=ANBAO w+ Wand © and are associative Also AU 0 =) UA=A for all A € P(X) (is the identity for union. AQX=XOA=A forall Ac P(X) <. X is the identity for intersection. AUB=0@A=B=0. “+ is the only element of POX) having 0 as the inverse for union. (AO B) CA, Hence AO B # X unless A= B= X. X is the only element of P(X) having inverse X for intersection, Example 54: Define a * 5 = a + 2b on N. Is * commutative ? Is * associative ? Is there any identity or inverse for any element in N ? Solution :2*3=2+6=8 3*2=34457 * is not commutative. #3) *4=8*4=84+8= 16 2*@G*4)=2* 1-24 2-24 <.% is not associative. Ifa*®e=e%a @, then a + 2€ at2en=a ws e=0 But 02 N. “+ * has no identity and therefore there is no question of inverse. Example is defined on Z by a * b= a+b + |. Is * associative ? Find the identity and inverse of any element, if it exists. Solution : (a * b) *e (atb+l)*e atb+l+ct+l=atbt+ct+2 a*(b* )=a* (tet l)=at tet ltl=atbtct2 .® is associative. Leta te =e *a=a for Vae Z atetiea ae oensl Also, a * (I) =a + Cl) +1 =a. Also C1) *a= (Cl) tat 1= . 1 is the identity for +. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 27CC Also a * (-a— 2) Example 56 : Prove a*b=atb+l 1 b= 2 = a+ (a-241=- a ~ 2 is the inverse of a. * is an associ ive binary operation having identity e and if @ has an inverse, the inverse is unique. Solution + Suppose a has two inverses a and a’. a*d=d*a=e ata'=a"*aze Now a =a *e =a *(a* a") =@*a*a" =e*a" =a" ‘The inverse is unique. Example 57 : Define * on R by a * 6 = a +b ~ (ab). o @ @ @ © Prove * is commutative but not associative. Find the identity element for *. Prove that 1 has two inverses for *. Prove if a © R, @ has at most two inverses. Which elements have no inverse ? Which have only one inverse ? Which have two inverses ? Find the unique inverse if there is any. Solution : ()a* b=at+b—- (aby =b+a-(baP=b*a ® * is commutative. (2 * 3) * (2) = @ +3 — 36) * (2) = (31) * (2) =-31-2-(2P =-33 — 3844 =-3877 2*G*C2)=2*G6- — C6?) =2* (35) = 2+ (-35) — 4900 = 4933, * is not associative. atenate—(aPmeta—(aP-ae—ae=0 VaeRen=0 (Take in particular a = 0) a*0=at0-0 0 is the identity for *. Ota Let 1 = a, 1l*aslta-a@a0 @-a 1tv5 2 rie Bt gy z 1 has two inverses. “Maritemarics 12nn (® Let b be inverse of a, a € R. a*b at+b-a@=0 (0 is identity) Ba —b-a=0 This is a quadratic equation in 6. It has at most two real roots as A = 1 + 4a? and A may be positive or negative or zero. + Every element a can have at most two inverses. Waa <-1 or a< (-4),A <0 + @ has no inverse. If 4a3 > 1, a has two inverses. fa = SL, a has only one inverse. Ifa= & @ has only one inverse, namely 6 = sae =o at teeat be -(apea+ th -tiva+ te wae gmat sara (ae) 8+ at ae Ot ae = YE has only one inverse n: ob c+ a= FF has only one inverse namely str. (Note : Here * is not associative. Hence uniqueness of inverse cannot be asserted.) Miscollancous Examples : Example $8 : A relation S is said to be triangular, if xSy and xSz => ySz. Prove S is an equivalence relation > S is reflexive and triangular. Solution : Suppose S is an equivalence relation. w+ S is reflexive, Let xSy and x82 w+ ySx and xSz (S is symmetric) ws ySe (S is transitive) c. xSy and xSz => ySz <. S is triangular. Conversely let § be reflexive and triangular. Let xSy. Also xSx. Sr xSy => ySx s+ S is symmetric. Let xSy and ySz %. ySx and ySz (S is symmetric) xSz S is transitive. <- S is an equivalence relation. Example 59; In R, let xSy if x — y € Z. Prove that S is an equivalence relation. What are equivalence classes ? RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 29CC Solution :x—x€ Zas0E Z Ix—ye Zand y—z Z, then xn-ytyrz=x-z€Z ‘. If xSy and ySz, then xSz <- Sis transitive. “+S is an equivalence relation. So now we ean denote S by ~. Now x ~ y > x—y is an integer. Like if x = 7.82, y = 2.82, then x—y=5S Z cory x= [x] = 782 - 7 = 0.82 y — (y] = 5.82 — 5 = 0.82 must be same, if x ~ y. x= [x] consists of those real numbers whose decimal expressions after decimal point are identical. xo ‘The equivalence class of x consists of those real numbers y for which x — y = [x] — 1 ~ pp] or equivalently x — y = [x] — b1 Example 60 : Prove f: R— (-2} > R — {1}, f@) = Hz is one-one and onto. Find f—!, Solution : f(y) =f) > gh- gh => xyRy + 2xy = yy + 2p Suny 2. fis one-one. Let y€ R~ {l},x€ R- {-2} Lety = 35 wy tdyex 20> N= Ps oeR-ay) <+ For every y © R— {1}, dx © R— {-2} such that y = f(x) o R= R-} fis onto R= {1}. FUER (1 SR- 2}, Se) = Example 61 : * is defined on R by a * b= a+b — ab. Is there an identity for * ? What of aE R, if it exists ? 30 “Maritemarics 12nn Solution :a *e=e*a=a,VaeR >ate-aenma VaeR Sen ae= VaeR Se=0 (Take Also a *0=0*a=a+0— “+ 0 is the identity for *. Now a * b =a +b—ab=0= (1—a)b=-a = b= 7h, tae a Hl exis ple Ia # 1, a exists and a! = 75 Example 62 : Define relation $ on Z — {0} X Z — {0} by (a, 8)S(c, d) © ad it is an equivalence relation. What about equivalence classes ? Solution + (@ 6)S(@, B) as ab = ba be. Prove that 2 Sis refle If (@ BSCE, d), then ad = be “eb = da © AS(a, b) +S is symmetric, Let (a, B)S(c, d) and (c, AS(e, ) oad = be and of = de s+ ade = bee and acf = ade “ aof = bee “+ @f = be, since c #0 (@ BS, S is transitive 2+ S is an equivalence relation. 4 Lf ifad= In fact £ = $ if ad = be. no 22-425, © 97672 IO +The equivalance class of fractions (a, b) consists of non-zero rational number £. Example 63 : Let * be defined by a * 6 = 42 for a be Qt Find the identity element. Find 4~! and (4 * 5-1, Solution :a* =a=> =a=5=10 (as a #0) Also a * 10 = 10 * a= S40 10 + 10 is the identity for *. Let 4#a=10 “ 42-10 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 31Prove that there is only one relation in {1, 2, 3} which is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive and which contains (1, 2) and (1, 3). Prove that the number of equivalence relations in {1, 2, 3} contaii S is defined on R by, (a, b)E SP1+ab>0 VabeR Prove S is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive. (Hint : Take a= 4, b= Ft, ¢ = -8. (a B) E S, (bc) © S and (@ ©) S) A= (1, 2,3... M, 15}, 8 = {@ y) y= Sexy © A} Determine whether S is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. ‘The relation S is defined on R as follows : S={@ b|)|a< BP, abe RE Prove S is not reflexive, not symmetric and not transitive Let Sc (R X R). S = {(A, B) | dA, B) < 2}. Prove S is not transitive. S is defined on N X N by GB) S © d) © adh + 6) = bela + d). Prove that § is an equivalence relation, Determine whether following functions are injective or not ? surjective or not ? @ f:ROR f@= ey x20 ing (1, 2) is two. 2 x<0 QD f:RIOR, f@= f-xt1 x20 ee OQLZIL soa (7 n odd OP ZIZ f= ” n even { n odd z FRX R- OY) ORS =F OF: ZOLSM= fn nm even Qn+3 — modd — (Hint + Is 3. € Ry 2) OD F211, 1 SQ) = x |] @) f2NINU (0, f@) =2 + CI" [Maritemarics 12nn (2) f:N— {1} WN, £(@) = largest prime divisor of n. Gos: R= B) 9 R- 0), F0) = GDS: R > R f@) by) 9. f2 (0, 1] > (0, 1, £0) = (x xEQ [ins tee Prove (fof\x) = 10. f: ZZ, fm) = Sn and ronan {e if Sm 0 otherwise. Find gof and fog. UL f:RORS@= (1 x>0 0 x=0 “1 x<0 and g : R > R, g(x) = [x]. Prove (fogXx) = (eof) Vx € [-I, 0) 12. If f: A> B and g : B — A are two functions such that gof = I,, then prove that f is ‘one-one and g is onto A. 13. Prove for functions f: A > B and g: B->C (1) If gof: A > C is onto C, g : B — C is onto C. (2) If gof: A C is one-one, f: A B is one-one. (2) If gof: A C is onto and g ; B > C is one-one, f : A > B is onto. (4) If gof: A > C is one-one and f: A — B is onto B, g : B — C is one-one. 14. f: Rt U {0} > Rt U {0}, f@) = ve, gg: RR, ge) = 2 — 1. Find fog or gof whichever exists. 15. If: NU {0} 9NU (0, f0)=(m+1 neven Cee TE meses 16. f:R 91, 1D, f@) = wa Find f~, if it exists. oF S10 > 17. £: R= {3} 9 Rf) = 42%. Prove (fofKx) = x. What can you say about f—! 2 18, * is defined on R by a * 6 = a +b + ab. Is * commutative ? Is it associative ? Answer the same question if a * 6 =a ~ b+ ab. 19. Examine whether following binary operations are commutative or not and associative or not : () a*b=abonN @) a* b= ged (a b) onN ©) a*b=a-bonQ (® a* b= a onQ (©) a*b=atb—SoaR [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3BCCC 20, © a* b= 55 om R- 1} @ a* = 22 ong =anb @) a*b=5* ng ©) at beat b—2onZ (0a * b= at 26-3 onZ. Find the identity clement for following binary operations and inverse of any element in case it exists (provided identity exists) : () a*b=atb+abonQ- 1} @ a*b= 4 om Q- (0) G) a*bratb-2omZ (@) a* b= atb~abonR- (Ih (©) @* b= fia? oR (OQ a¥b=3at4b—2o0R (7) a* b= at 38 onZ (8) @* b= ged (a b)onN. (©) A*B=AOB on P(X) for a non-empty set X. (10) A * B = A U B on P(X) for a non-empty set X. Section A (1 mark) Select a proper option (a), (b), (c) or (d) from given options and write in the box given on the right so that the statement becomes correct : (1) The relation $ = {(1, 1), @, 2), GB, 3), (4 4), (5, SD} on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is o (@ symmetric only (&) reflexive only (©) transitive only (@ an equivalence relation (2) If A= {1, 2, 3}, then the number of equivalence relation containing (1, 3) is... oOo @1 2 ©3 ws (3) S is defined in Z by (, y) € S > [x—y| 51. S is oO (@ reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. (b) reflexive and symmetric but not transitive. © symmetric and transitive but not reflexive. (@ an equivalence relation (® IFS is defined on R — {0} by y) € S € xy 2 0. Then S is... | (a) an equivalence relation (b) reflexive only (©) symmetric only (d) transitive only (5) Which of the following defined on Z, is not an equivalence relation... Oo @& Ne Serxzy © @ NE Sexy (© @ ») € S &x—y isa multiple of 3 (4) (& y) © Sif |x — y| is even Mariemarics 12nt (©) Wa* b= @ + Ron Z, then 2*3) #4... o @B 16 © 185 @B (7) Wa *® b= a + 82 + ab+20nZ, then3 *4=..... oOo (@ 40 39 25 @a (8) Ifa * b= @ on Q%, then the identity for * is .. oOo (a2 (3 @o @1 () Ifa * b= 4B on Q*, then the inverse of a (a # 0) for * i Oo 1 2 @2 ws ot @2 (10) The number of binary operations on {1, 2} is ...... oOo @ 16 )8 2 @4 (1) The number of binary operations on {1, 2, 3, m} is... oOo @2 ) nw? ©w® @ we (12) Ifa * b= a+b + ab on R — {-1}, then a! is oOo @e wt om OF (13) For a * b= a+ + 10 on Z, the identity is ... o @o (b) -5 () 10 @1 (14) The number of commutative binary operations on {1, 2} is... oOo @s (4 (© 16 (@)27 5) fa * b= B on Q%, inverse of 0.1 is Oo (@) 100000 (b) 10000 (©) 1000 @10 Section B (2 marks) GOA = 1, 1], B= [0, 1, C= 1, 0} S,={@ | P+yP=1,x€ Aye A} Oo S,={& [2+ = 1x Ay © BY 83 ={@ yl 2+y=1x€ Aye C} S,={@ y) 12+ =1,x © B,y © C}, then (@) S; is not a graph of a function. (b) 8, is not a graph of a function. (© S; is not a graph of a function. (d) 8, is not a graph of a function. CMF: ROR SQ) = 3% +3"! oOo (a) one-one and onto: (b) one-one but not onto (©) many-one and onto (@) many-one and not onto (08) f R= (gq) > R- 1}, f0) = FEB, p # g then fis oO (@) one-one and onto (b) many-one and not onto (©) one-one and not onto (@) many-one and onto RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3836 09) f: 1 > 1, 1. £@) = — |x] is (@) one-one and onto (c) many-one and not onto (20) IEF: R > Rf) = 2x = 3, then... oOre=ay (©) S7! does not exist 21) f: [AB B] > 1, 1 is a bijection it. (@) f@) = |x) ©) £@) = sine (22) fi: RAR SO) = x? + 2x +3 is... (a) a bijection © onto but not one-one (23) Ifa * b= ab +1 on R, is. (@) commutative, but not associative (©) neither commutative nor associative (24) Ifa * b= a + & on Z, then * is... (@) commutative and associative (©) not commutative and associative oO (b) many-one and onto (@ one-one and not onto oO wf = 2 (d) JM) = 3x — 2 oO © se) = 2 @ f@) = cose oO (b) one-one but not onto (d) many-one and not onto oO (b) associative, but not commutative (d) both commutative and associative oO (b) commutative and not associative (@) neither commutative nor associative (25) Ifa * b= a + b= ab on Q — {1}, then the identity and the inverse of a for * are respectively. a (b) 1 and S—* a (@ 0 and G5 (26) Ita * b= 4 on Q*, then 3 * (4 * 4) Om ©) (27) If A is defined on P(X) (X # #) by, A AB = (A U B) ~ (AO B), then... oO (©) land a @ot is. od os (a) identity for A is 6 and inverse of A is A (b) identity for A is A and inverse of A is (©) identity for A is A’ and inverse of A is A (@) identity for A is X and inverse of A is 6 Section C (3 marks) (28) $ is defined on N XN by ((a, 5), (¢, J) E SPatd=b+e.. (a) S is reflexive, but not symmetric (©) S is an equivalence relation (b) S is reflexive and transitive only (@)S is transitive only Mamemarics 12(29) Let S be the relation on the set A= (5, 6, 7. 8}, S = (6, ), 6, 6). (, 5), (B, 8), (5, D, (7 Ds 7, 6}, then... (@) S is reflexive and symmetric but not transtive (b) S is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric (©) S is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive @) S is an equivalence relation. GO) WS: RY RSC) = EAT IS oe (a) one-one and onto: (b) one-one and not onto (€) not one-one and not onto (d) onto but not one-one Gt iff: RR, f(®) = bl, g: R > R, gx) = sinx, hs R > R, g(x) = 2x, then ogo) = @) sintx] (b) [sin2x] ©) Asin{x), (@) sin2{x] =xixl (62) Wf: RCA, DF) = TEs then ft oFn (b) -signum x [x xt os Opn (3) fr ROR f@)=( -1 x<0 o x=0 1 x>0 g: ROR, g@) = 1 +x— [xh then for all x, f(e(a) = «. @l (b)2 @o @-1 Section D (4 marks) OO fi el xzLxe RP &/x22xE RSH =xtt, fw =. 41 oH @ fr—4 65) IEF: RR, f@) =x — Bh then Me) = (a) does not exist (b) is x (©) is be] (d@) x — [x] GO) IE SQ) = Fae then Golo) = —y 1x? OTF Oe Ole Oye ODF: RAR IG) =F, g RR, wx) = 2%, then fx | (fogMx) = (gofMx)} = ~~ (a) {0} (b) (0, 1) @R (4) {0, 2} [RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 37G8) f:R>ZS@O = bl is = (@) one-one and onto and has an inverse (b) many-one and not onto, no inverse (©) many-one and onto, no inverse (@) one-one and not onto, no inverse (39) A= (0,1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6} Ifa, b © A,a * b= remainder when ab is divided by 7. From Oo binary operation table of *, inverse of 2 is @1 (b) 5 O6 (4 cee ‘We have studied the following points in this chapter : 1. Relation and equivalence relation. 2. One-one and onto functions 3. Composition of functions 4. Inverse of a function 5. Binary Operations on a set Srinivasa Ramanujan Born in Erode, Madras Presidency, to a poor Brahmin family, Ramanujan first encountered formal ‘mathematics at age 10. He demonstrated a natural ability, and was given books on advanced trigonometry ‘written by S. L. Loney. He mastered them by age 12, and even discovered theorems of his own, including independently re-discovering Euler's identity. He demonstrated unusual mathematical skills at school, winning accolades and awards. By 17, Ramanujan conducted his own mathematical research on Bernoulli numbers and the EulerMascheroni constant. He received a scholarship to study at Government College in Kumbakonam, but lost it when he failed his non-mathematical coursework. He joined another college to pursue independent mathematical research, working as a clerk in the “Accountant-General's office at the Madras Port Trust Office to support himself. In 1912-1913, he sent samples of his theorems to three academics at the University of Cambridge. Only Hardy recognised the brilliance of his work, subsequently inviting Ramanujan to visit and work with him at Cambridge. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, dying of illness, malnutrition and possibly liver infection in 1920 at the age of 32. During his short lifetime, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3900 results (mostly identities and equations). Although a small number of these results were actually false and some were already known, most of his claims have now been proven correct. He stated results that were both original and highly unconventional, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, and these have inspired a vast amount of further research. However, the mathematical mainstream has been rather slow in absorbing some of his major discoveries. The Ramanujan Journal, an international publication, was launched to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by his work. 38 Marimatarics 12