Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12

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Quaternary International
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Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into

paleoenvironmental conditions and resource exploitation
Paris A. Ferrand a, Elizabeth Solleiro-Rebolledo b, *, Gullermo Acosta c, Sergey Sedov b,
Pedro Morales b
a
Posgrado en Antropologa, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropolgicas, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, 04510 Mxico, D.F., Mexico
b
Instituto de Geologa, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, 04510 Mxico, D.F., Mexico
c
Instituto de Investigaciones Antropolgicas, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, 04510 Mxico, D.F., Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We present rst results about an Archaic (9000e4000 BP) site, El Tebernal, in the eastern part of Mexico. At El
Available online xxx Tebernal, a set of lithic artifacts was found associated with a paleosol (lower paleosol) and buried by an upper
paleosol and a modern soil. The artifacts are made from local limestone and chert. Selected paleosol prop-
erties were evaluated (total organic carbon, grain size distribution, carbon stable isotope composition,
magnetic susceptibility, and micromorphology) that provide information about paleoenvironmental con-
ditions. The lower paleosol is composed of the following horizons: 3E, 3EB, 3BE, 3Btg1, 3Btg2, 3C while the
upper paleosol only has a 2A horizon. The lower paleosol is very well developed, with in situ clay coatings,
moderate weathering of primary minerals, and a matrix free of carbonates, although the alluvium in the
lowermost part of the prole contains a mixture of limestone and volcanic materials. The entire sequence is
covered by the modern soil mantle which is formed by an A horizon. Radiocarbon ages determined on soil
organic matter from the 3Btg1 and 2A horizons were 5580 to 5320 Cal BP and 2350 to 2320 Cal BP,
respectively. We interpret the age of 3Btg1 as close to the nal stage of soil formation, because the organic
matter content in this horizon is illuviated. Pedogenesis likely began sometime prior to the reported age in
the Early Holocene. The paleosol properties indicate a long period of landscape stability (n
103e104 years)
under humid and temperate conditions. It is probable that volcanic events from Pico de Orizaba, located
several kilometers from El Tebernal, affected this stability. One of the last eruptions produced a block-and-ash
ow of dacitic composition dated at 4100 BP that contributed to the end of pedogenesis. The upper paleosol
(2A horizon) as well as the modern soil contain ceramics from the Post-classic period (AD 900e1521). The
prole is cut by a channel and inlled by a dark material that dates to 1140 to 970 Cal BP (AD 810e980). In
consequence, the area has been strongly affected by human occupations during the Holocene. We suggest
these ceramic societies caused erosion and activation of geomorphic processes.
2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Mesoamerican Archaic period is a poorly known phase with
a wide temporal span, from 9000 until 4000 BP. Archaeological
sites of this pre-ceramic period are rare (Kennett et al., 2010). The
Archaic period is assumed to be a transition between the hunter-
gatherer tradition and the development of an agricultural system
in the region. Additionally, the period is characterized by the
absence of Pleistocene megafaunal remains and the lack of ce-
ramics. The subsistence pattern is associated with modern faunal
hunting and gathering of wild plants as well as projectile points of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: solleiro@geologia.unam.mx, esolleiror@gmail.com (E. Solleiro-
Rebolledo).
small sizes, lithic artifacts, and crude metates (mealing stone for
processing seeds, particularly corn (maize)). The transition from
hunting and gathering to agricultural societies has been diverse in
different regions according to the local environments and cultural
settings (Smith, 2001).
Although the information about pre-agricultural sites in Meso-
america is scarce and fragmentary, important ndings in the
archaeological record reveal the presence of domesticated plants
such as corn and squash during the Archaic period (Kennet, 2012).
Major investigations on these sites were carried out in caves and rock
shelters including Coxcatln Cave in Tehuacn Valley, Puebla, Guila
Naquitz in Oaxaca Valley, or Santa Marta, Chiapas (MacNeish, 1967;
Flannery, 1986; Acosta, 2008). However, open air sites are poorly
understood because of indirect dates from associated materials in
the surface, such as Geo Shih at Oaxaca (Flannery and Spores, 1983).

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Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
2 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12

At Veracruz (located in the eastern part of Mexico, on the coastal
plain of Gulf of Mexico) previous research has shown the presence
of Archaic period ndings in places like Laguna Santa Catarina, with
evidence of early maize cultivation by microfossils dating to 6100
BP (Sluyter, 1997). In Buena Vista and Loma Iguana there are records
of early agriculture, shing, and shellsh harvesting (Casimir, 1990).
At Colonia Ejidal, preceramic stratied artifacts dated to 3962 BP
(Daneels and Pastrana, 1988). In the north of Veracruz, Wilkerson
(1973) reported some archaic sites (9000e4400 BP) near coastal
ecosystems such as the La Conchita site, where camps with
obsidian and lithic artifacts were located. At Santa Luisa, Wilkerson
(1973) also reported the Palo Hueco phase, with lithic artifacts
made on retouched blades and akes that dated to 4880 BP.
However, at this time we still do not know anything about the
environmental context and the paleopedological formation and
transformations of these open air sites. This work aims to present
new data about the Archaic period in Veracruz, particularly con-
cerning the function, paleopedological context and dates from an
specic open air site in Veracruz highlands: El Tebernal.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Regional setting
El Tebernal is located in the central-eastern part of Mexico, in
the limits of Puebla and Veracruz states near the town of Aquila
(Fig. 1). This area is located in one of the largest mountain systems
of Mexico, the Sierra Madre Oriental. This Sierra is constituted by
folded sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age. Particularly in the study
area, basal rocks are limestones and shales of Cretaceous age
(Lpez-Ramos, 1979), forming ranges with a regional NWeSE di-
rection. These rocks correspond to the Maltrata Formation, char-
acterized by stratied dark grey limestone alternating with
yellowish shale (Bonet, 1969). Limestones contain abundant lenses
and bands of chert and silica.
El Tebernal (N18 480 4200 e18 490 1000 ; W 97 180 3000 e97 190 3000 ;
altitude ranging from 2440 to 2406 m asl) is currently located in a
small valley (Figs. 1 and 2), with a slope of 5e9 . In the lowest
position, a small lagoon is formed during the rainy season (Fig. 2).
This karst landscape has been developed since the Neogene and has
affected by repeated volcanic activity during the Pleistocene
(0.65 Ma), when Pico de Orizaba (the highest volcano in Mexico)
formed (Hskuldsson, 1992).
Climate of this region is temperate-subhumid with summer
rainfall. The mean annual temperature is 15  C, with a maximum of
21  C during May and minimum of 7  C in January. The annual
precipitation is 800 mm. However, from July to September the
highest precipitation reaches 470 mm. The vegetation includes a
mixed forest (pine and oak) in the most elevated areas and/or in
places where slopes are higher. Land use has changed. Local people
use this area as a crossing place and for pasturing cattle. Corn,
squash, and beans, among other plants, are sowed year-round,
whereas at high elevations a remnant coniferous forest still ex-
ists. The soil cover is dominated by Phaeozems-Vertisols in the

Fig. 1. Location of the El Tebernal in Veracruz, Mexico.

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12 3

Fig. 2. Topographic map of El Tebernal, showing the study sites: TB1, TB2 and TB3 represent the archaeological pits; TB4 and TB5 are the soil proles.

lower valleys, and Leptosols (Rendzinas) on the limestones (INEGI,
2009).
2.2. Paleopedological approach
Besides archaeological units, we described and sampled three
soil proles in a river gully, in order to obtain information about the
paleoenvironment and the natural conditions where the artifacts
were found. The soil proles are located 2 m from one of the
archaeological excavations (Fig. 2). Soils were described following
the guidelines of IUSS Working Group WRB (2007) and Retallack
(1990). The eld description of the morphological characteristics
of each prole (TB4, TB5) was based on the identication of pale-
osols and their diagnostic horizons. Three different kinds of sam-
ples were taken: 2 kg bulk samples for laboratory analyses,
unaltered samples of genetic horizons for micromorphology, and
three for AMS dating.
The evaluation of soil characteristics was limited to properties
associated with the soil memory concept (Targulian and
Goryachkin, 2004), focused on those useful for paleoenvir-
onmental reconstructions:
a. Grain size distribution. The sand fraction (2e0.063 mm) was
separated by sieving; silt (0.063e0.002 mm) and clay
(<0.002 mm) fractions by gravity sedimentation and pipet
sampling (Schlichting and Blume, 1966). Pretreatments for
destruction of aggregating agents include 15% H2O2 for soil
organic matter (SOM), dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) for
iron oxides, and 10% HCl for carbonates.
b. Total organic carbon (TOC) was determined only in A horizons,
using a CHNS/O analyzer, PerkinElmer 2400, Series II. Prior to
TOC analysis, inorganic carbonates were removed using 10% HCl.
c. Carbon stable isotope composition (d13C). Samples from SOM of
the A horizons were acidied with 1M HCl at 70  C to remove
carbonates that would interfere with analysis (Midwood and
Boutton, 1998). The 13C/12C ratio was then determined in the
Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry of Stable Isotopes of Instituto de
Geologa, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (UNAM), by
using a combustion method slightly modied from that described
by Sofer (1980). The modication consists of the addition of
metallic copper Cu to eliminate NO2 (Mook and Jongsma, 1987).
All the analyses of the 13C/12C ratios are reported as d13C in &
relative to the international PDB standard (CO2 from carbonate
shell of a Cretaceous mollusk, Beleminitella americana, from the
Pee Dee Formation in South Carolina) (Craig, 1953).
d. pH was measured in H2O in a 1:2 soil:water paste (USDA, 2009).
e. Magnetic susceptibility. Mass-specic low-eld magnetic sus-
ceptibility (c) was measured in all paleosol horizons. Rock
magnetism parameters are useful to differentiate soil horizons
and detect sediment layers (Rivas et al., 2006). Samples were
homogenized, and placed in 8 cm3 acrylic boxes for magnetic
measurements at low (clf 0.47 kHz) and high (chf 4.7 kHz)
frequency with a Bartington MS2B dual sensor measured in SI (a
dimensionless system). However, as the behavior of both values
were similar, the clf was only plotted. Additionally, we calcu-
lated frequency dependence of susceptibility cfd% as [(clf  chf)/
clf]100, to approximate possible ultrane (<0.05 mm) super-
paramagnetic (SP) contribution. Dearing (1994) and Dearing
et al. (1997) suggest that values of cfd% < 2% point to a content
of <10% of SP (superparamagnetic) grains; values around 8%
indicate a SP contribution of 75%, and between 10 and 14%, the
material is dominated by SP particles. SP particles can be
interpreted as the result of pedogenetic processes, thus a closer
relation to soil factors is possible.

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
4 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12

f. Micromorphology. Micromorphological observations were of
special importance to support the eld and analytical results.
Samples were impregnated at room temperature with the resin
Cristal MC-40, studied under a petrographic microscope, and
described following the terminology of Bullock et al. (1985).
Additionally, the thin sections of 3E and 3Btg1 were scanned
with high resolution, 4800 and 9600 dots per inch (DPI) in order
to observe general aspects of their structure.
Samples from soil organic matter (SOM) of organic horizons
were taken and analyzed using AMS at Beta Analytical (USA).
Radiocarbon ages of SOM in A horizons represents the minimum
age of the soil, essentially marking the end of soil development at
the time of burial.
2.3. Archaeological survey
The rst eld work season took place from June 2009 to August
2009. During this season, besides the surface analysis, geologic and
geomorphologic analyses were conducted through transects. Three
types of sites were identied in this survey: a) artifact concentra-
tions presenting unifacial retouch and some akes with traces of
use. b) Flint deposits with artifacts indicating workshop debris on
the surface. c) Caves or rocky shelters. Taking into account these
results, a second eld season was scheduled in 2011 to focus on
excavating the initial survey sites.
In the second eld season, a topographic map of the site was
made. According to the features of the landscape revealed by the
detailed topographic map (Fig. 2), we selected sites for three test
pits (TB1, TB2, TB3) in the int deposit of El Tebernal, as there was a
large number of well-preserved artifacts. In each pit, a detailed
description of layers and artifacts was completed.
pressure caused the anthropic community to execute changes in its
technological system (Carbonell et al., 1992).
3. Results
3.1. Soil morphology, physical, and chemical properties
The area, from which soil descriptions were made (TB4 and
TB5), corresponds to a river channel oriented west to east (Fig. 2).
There, we have recognized a modern soil and two buried paleosols
in one prole (TB4). We have designated the paleosols as the upper
and lower paleosols. The lower paleosol consists of the following
soil horizons: 3E, 3EB, 3BE, 3Btg1, 3Btg2. The upper paleosol and
the modern soil are formed by 2A and A horizons, respectively. TB5
represents a channel, inlled by a dark material and a modern A
horizon (Fig. 3).
The modern soil (found in TB4 and TB5) is less developed than
the buried soils. In this soil there is a mix of plastics, glasses and
ceramic artefacts. The ceramics date to the post-classic period
(900e1521 AD) (Dr. Yamile Lira Lpez, personal communication).
The modern soil consists of a dark gray A horizon, 30 cm thick, with
a granular structure. It has a mixture of sand, silt and clay (Table 1);
the sand is the dominant fraction (38%). The magnetic susceptibility
at low frequency (clf) as well as the frequency dependence of
susceptibility cfd% have the highest values (Fig. 4), revealing the
elevated contribution of SP particles. TOC content is also high (3%).
Some differences are found in the A horizon of TB5. It is more silty,
has less TOC, and lower values of clf and cfd%. The material inlled
in the channel has similar color and structure, but it is more sandy
and has TOC content of 2%, whereas clf is similar to A-P5 and cfd% is
as high as in A-P4. d13C composition from the A horizons in the
modern surface as well as in the channel inlling has the lowest
values, varying from 22 to 23& (Table 1).

2.3.1. Archaeological material analysis

Table 1
The lithic artifact analysis was made following the methodology
Selected properties of the soils and paleosols of El Tebernal.
proposed by Carbonell et al. (1992) and Acosta (2008). The artifacts
were divided in three groups: the nuclei, the chips, and the blades. Horizon Depth cm Sand % Silt % Clay % pH TOC % d13CVPDB (&)
Artifacts were analyzed if they had retouches; type and use was P4
documented. Also, we investigated the role of erosion and pertur- A 0e25 37.7 32.0 30.3 nd 3.07 22.07
bation processes as causes of artifact distribution at the sites, and as 2A 25e50 23.4 53.8 22.8 5.96 1.81 19.11
3E 50e68 23.2 50.3 26.5 6.05 0.74 22.20
a consequence of the transformation of the sites themselves. We 3EB 68e78 30.9 51.1 18.0 5.82 0.81 20.41
simplied the lithic terminology and only discriminated negative 3BE 78e104 30.2 38.2 31.6 5.85 0.85 19.93
and positive bases of different generations, according to the 3Btg1 104e116 41.4 35.3 23.3 5.84 0.82 20.80
following concepts: 3Btg2 116e136 43.5 26.2 30.3 6.28 0.74 20.80
P5
Negative bases are the rst extractions of the raw material,
A 0e20 28.6 40.3 31.1 nd 1.35 23.24
corresponding to the rst (the rst extract) or the second genera- Channel 20e90 43.7 24.4 31.9 5.84 2.00 22.40
tion (nodules with some hits but with cortex). inlling
Positive bases are the nal artifacts. When these artefacts are nd e non determined.
used and discarded, they can be re-used or re-manufactured. In this
way, new positive bases of second, third, or fourth generation are
created. The upper paleosol exhibits a 2A horizon (Fig. 3). It has a dark
To get a better understanding about the way of life of the archaic brownish color, with a subangular blocky structure, breaking into
occupation and the activities performed on the site, we have small granules. It is denser than A horizon and more silty (53.8%).
reconstructed the chaine operatoire by the analysis of the lithic ar- Value of clf is lower (142 SI) but the cfd% is as high as in the A
tifacts, according to the model proposed by Carbonell et al. (1992). horizon (>4%). TOC percentage is 1.8% and the d13C is 19.1&.
This model explains the technological changes or adaptations as The next 3E horizon, belonging to the lower paleosol, is also
well as the exploitation and transformation of the environment and silty, although it has a high proportion of clay (26.5%). Both clf and
within the environment: 1) the operative technique unit is related to cfd% have low values. This horizon has a lower percentage of TOC
the raw material, and 2) the operative technique subject is the (0.74%) with a d13C composition similar to the modern soil
recognition of the technique process to each artifact. However, the (22.2&).
material is not always transformed. The same authors mention that Transitional horizons, 3EB and 3BE, have similar values in all
the artifact variability and specialization is the reex of a technical study parameters: they are silty, with a TOC content of 0.81e0.85%
complex capacity in reply to the needs that a group can have, and d13C composition ranging from 20.4 to 19.9&. Both hori-
without having to break its basic functioning system. The ambient zons have the lowest values of clf. Differences are observed in the

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12 5

Fig. 3. Soil prole in TB4 and TB5.

clay content, 3BE being more clayey (Table 1), as well as in the cfd%,
which is higher in 3BE (Fig. 4).
The 3Btg1 horizon has a more elevated proportion of clay,
diminishing the silt fraction. However TOC content and d13C are
similar to the previous horizons. The clf value increases in this
horizon, but cfd% is lower (1.5%).
The lowest horizon, 3Btg2, has the highest proportion of sand,
although the clay is more elevated than the previous horizons. This
horizon has the highest value of pH (6.28). In the upper horizons,
pH values are lower. TOC is also lower but d13C is the same as in
3Btg1. clf is higher and the cfd% is lower (Fig. 4). The lower alluvial
layer contains limestone.
3.2. Micromorphology
Micromorphological investigations revealed a high heteroge-
neity of soil material, particularly in the lower paleosol: we
observed micro-areas which differ greatly in composition, weath-
ering status of mineral components, and combination of pedofea-
tures. The scanned images from two thin sections reveal this
heterogeneity. 3E is more homogeneous and has a pale color
(Fig. 5a); in 3Btg1 an increase of brown clayey aggregates is shown,
but areas with such aggregates are combined with the paler ones
(Fig. 5b).
The groundmass of the 2A horizon is colored with dark organic
pigment; thin dark humus-silty-clay coatings are found in the
channels. In this horizon, black charcoal fragments with well-
preserved cellular structure are common (Fig. 6a).
In all studied horizons of the lower paleosol, there are two main
types of composition: 1) major part of soil material is dominated by
relatively fresh coarse (sand and silt) material consisting mostly of
volcanic minerals e plagioclases, pyroxenes, volcanic glass
(including pumice), and effusive rock fragments. 2) We also
observed isolated blocks which have much higher clay content; in

Fig. 4. Mass-specic low-eld magnetic susceptibility (c in SI) and frequency dependence of susceptibility cfd%.

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
6 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12
Fig. 5. Scanned images of the thin sections from a) 3E horizon, b) 3Btg1 horizon. Note the increase of brown clayey aggregates in the 3Btg1. (For interpretation of the references to
color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
contrast, volcanic coarse grains are fewer and more weathered.
Pumice fragments in such blocks are to a large extent converted
into clayey pseudomorphs (Fig. 6b). Such blocks are rare in the 3E
horizon, increasing in size and abundance with depth in 3EB and
further in 3Btg1. In the latter, these blocks constitute about 30% of
the soil material. We also observed weathered volcanic rock frag-
ments, intensively fractured. The cracks have ferruginous inllings;
these fragments often have a bleached peripheral rim (Fig. 6c).
The material of the 3E horizon is pale (Fig. 5a), enriched with
bleached sand and silt particles. We found very few small frag-
ments of pale-yellow illuvial clay coatings incorporated into the
groundmass as well as ferruginous nodules of different sizes, with
rounded or irregular shape, mostly with abrupt boundaries
(Fig. 6d).
In the 3EB horizon, bleached coarse material dominates,
although ferruginous nodules and fragmented clay coatings are
more frequent. We observed thick impure coatings and inllings
consisting of clay mixed with ne silt (Fig. 6e).
In the 3Btg1 horizon, the groundmass has higher proportion of
ne materials (Fig. 5b). Pale yellow undisturbed illuvial clay coat-
ings are abundant in the voids. There are two generations of clay
illuvial pedofeatures: pale yellow ones in the main area and dark
yellow in the weathered clayey blocks. Some coatings have dark
humus punctuations. Areas pigmented with dark humus are also
observed in the groundmass (Fig. 6f). Ferruginous pedofeatures are
abundant and variable: besides nodules, coatings are present, often
juxtaposed to the clay coatings (Fig. 6g).
In the groundmass of all horizons, including the 3Btg1, we
encountered frequent opaline phytoliths, most corresponding to
long grass cells (Fig. 6h). The phytoliths, however, are rare in the
weathered clayey blocks.
3.3. Archaeological materials
In general, we found abundant archaeological material in the
pits such as pottery sherds and a huge quantity of lithic artifacts
Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
such as akes, blades, and cores with or without retouch. The most
interesting test pit was TB3, where not only the highest concen-
tration of lithic materials was recognized, but the lithics were found
in situ (material was not rounded and shows little or no signs of
reworking). This helps to establish their stratigraphic position with
condence.
Eight different layers were dened, according to their color and
texture (labeled from I to VIII from the top to the bottom). I and II at
the top are clayey and have a dark grayish color (Fig. 7). They
contain a mixture of lithic material and prehispanic ceramic (this
pottery corresponds to the coastal Veracruz Post-classic period,
named Fine Orange, and Fine Orange on white). Layer III is more
sandy and yellowish brown and has no artifacts. Layer IV is darker
in color and clayey. It also has ceramic and lithic materials. Layer V
is grayish with a silty clayey texture. In its surface, some ceramic
fragments were found, but lithic materials dominated. From this
layer to the bottom, no ceramics were obtained: only lithics were
recovered from the layers VI, VII, and VIII. Layer VI is more clayey
than the previous layer V. VII is dark grayish and silty clay, but with
a higher amount of sand. The last layer (VIII) is paler but the texture
is very similar to VII.
A correlation between the archaeological pit and the soil prole
was done in order to establish a correspondence between soil ho-
rizons and archaeological layers with their peculiar artifacts con-
tent: the rst four layers (I, II, III, IV) represent the modern soil
surface, with A, AC and C horizons (in TB4 and TB5 we just recog-
nized the A horizon). Layer V corresponds to the upper paleosol
identied in TB4 (2A horizon), where a mixture of ceramics and
lithics was found. Layer VI correlates to the 3E, 3EB, 3BE horizons of
the lower paleosol; the 3Btg1 and 3Btg2 horizons correspond to
layers VII and VIII, respectively (Fig. 7). In consequence, most of the
lithic artifacts are associated with the lower paleosol level (VI layer,
3E, 3EB, 3BE horizon).
According to the archaeological material, two different human
occupations were dened. The rst one relates to the 5 upper
layers, containing 23 lithic artifacts, sherds, and ceramics (11
 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12 7

Fig. 6. Micromorphology of the Tebernal paleosol a) Charcoal fragment (left), area with coprogenic structure (right), 2A horizon b) Block of clayey material with browneyellow
illuvial pedofeatures, 3EB horizon c) Weathered fragment of volcanic rock, groundmass and plagioclase phenocrysts have ferruginous pigment, the peripheral rim is bleached, 3Btg1
horizon d) Ferruginous nodule with irregular boundaries, 3E horizon e) Silty inlling, 3EB horizon f) Clay coatings with abundant humus punctuations (top), groundmass with dark
organic pigment (bottom right), 3Btg1 horizon g) Ferruginous nodules and coatings, juxtaposed with clay coatings, Bt horizon h) Long cell grass phytoliths in the groundmass, 3EB
horizon. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
8 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12
Fig. 7. Archaeological pit (TB3) showing the schematic section, delimitation of the layers and their relationship with the soil horizons.
pottery fragments). The lower period relates to layers VI, VII and
VIII, where no ceramics were distinguished, but only lithic artifacts,
such as akes or blades without retouch but with signs of use. Some
of the lithics show unifacial or bifacial retouch.
Almost all of these artifacts were found at the VI and VII layers
with a total amount of 66 akes and 25 cores made of limestone
and chert. These artifacts are poorly dened, manufactured mainly
on akes. However, we have recognized dbitage (sharp-edged
waste material left over after the creation of a stone tool). The ar-
tifacts are associated with negative bases from rst and second
generation and some positive bases from rst and second genera-
tion (Fig. 8). The identication of subsequent generation artifacts
has not been possible. Only a few artifacts related to the positive
bases have unifacial or bifacial retouch and/or signs of use.
3.4. Chronological frame
In order to establish the chronological frame of the sequence, we
have dated bulk organic matter contained in two soil horizons, 2A
and 3Btg1, and from material inlled in the channel found in TB5.
Results are shown in Table 2. The 3Btg1 horizon is the oldest with a
radiocarbon age of 5580 to 5320 Cal BP (Cal BC 3630 to 3360). The
2A horizon of the upper buried paleosol is 2350 to 2320 Cal BP (Cal
BC 400 to 370). Finally, the material found in the channel at a depth
of 70 cm is 1140 to 970 Cal BP (Cal AD 810e980).
Table 2
Radiocarbon dating from bulk organic matter of selected soil horizons.
Lab code Horizon Depth cm Dated material
Beta
305564 Channel 70e90 Bulk organic matter
inlling
305565 2A 40e50 Bulk organic matter
305566 3Btg1 104e116 Bulk organic matter
4. Discussion
4.1. Paleoenvironmental conditions in El Tebernal
Paleoenvironmental conditions were interpreted from the set of
properties of the paleosols in El Tebernal. These properties repre-
sent the soil memory (Targulian and Goryachkin, 2004). In other
Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
words, the soil memory concept includes a set of soil properties
that record the environmental and process information.
The lower paleosol has the most complete prole (3E, 3EB, 3BE,
3Btg1, 3Btg2), and thus the basic interpretation is based on its
properties. Additionally, this paleosol developed during the rst
period of human occupation (pre-ceramic), allowing the possibility
to reconstruct the paleoenvironment under the settlement. The
3Btg1 and 3Btg2 horizons have high amounts of clay and contain
clay coatings. Their micromorphological features represent at least
two phases of soil formation. One of these phases is characterized
by the presence of strongly weathered blocks with pseudomorphs,
weathered volcanic rocks (with cracks inlled by iron and ferru-
ginous clay), and bleached areas around the blocks (Fig. 6bed).
Reductomorphic features are also common in this horizon. Neither
carbonates nor limestones were found in these horizons. If they
were present in the parent material (as observed in the alluvial
layer below them), they would have been leached. The soil features
point to a humid environment. The high degree of weathering
shown by primary minerals supports this interpretation and even
more, it can be related to warm climates. Although the blocks show
a certain degree of reworking, it occurred over short distances,
because the structure is well preserved.
In the lower paleosol, we have observed a second phase of soil
formation, related to the presence of fresher volcanic materials and
the illuviation of pale-yellow clay coatings as well as coatings
Radiocarbon age Conventional 2 Sigma calibration 2 Sigma calibration Cal BP
age years BP Cal AD/BC
1100  30 BP 1140  30 Cal AD 810e980 Cal BP 1140 to 970
2280  30 BP 2310  30 Cal BC 400 to 370 Cal BP 2350 to 2320
4690  40 BP 4690  40 Cal BC 3630 to 3570 Cal Cal BP 5580 to 5520eCal
BC 3530 to 3360 BP 5480 to 5320
impregnated with organic matter. These features are also recog-
nized in the 3E horizon.
The stable isotope composition in the complete prole ranges
from 19.9 to 20.8& (Table 1) from the bottom to the top, which
suggest drier conditions in comparison to the composition of the
modern soils (22 to 24&). This conclusion is based on the
general isotopic composition observed by Lounejeva et al. (2006)
 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12 9

Fig. 8. Archaeological artifacts found in paleosol 2 (TB3), layers VI and VII: Artifacts 2, 23, 30 are negative bases of rst generation; 25, 47 are negative bases of next generations; 14,
24, 27, 48 are positive bases of next generations.

for central Mexico, where a mean value of 27& was reported for
C3 plants (corresponding to humid climates), whereas a value of
14& indicates the presence of C4 plants.
We suppose the rst stage of the paleosol development
occurred under humid and warm conditions, at the end of the
Pleistocene and Early Holocene. We do not have dates related to
this period of soil formation. Between 9000 and 8500 BP a set of
andesiticedacitic volcanic eruptions from the Pico de Orizaba
occurred, the Ignimbrite-Pumice Citlaltepetl, affecting the area
surrounding the crater and reaching a radial extent of 30 km
(Carrasco and Rose, 1995). Although the eruptions were not of
extreme violence, the material was uidized and moved at mod-
erate velocities (Carrasco and Rose, 1995) causing the destruction of
the previous soil mantle and the reworking of the early lithic

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
10 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12

artifacts. The magnetic susceptibility pattern coincides with this been used for a variety of purposes besides obtaining raw
interpretation, because it is clear that the lowermost horizons material.
(3Btg1, 3Btg2) show higher values, which are commonly low in
horizons affected by reductomorphic features (Rivas et al., 2006),
The expedient tools refer to those made relatively quickly and
but the presence of weathered materials as well as fresh volcanic
with relatively little technological sophistication, while the curated
ones affect the patterns. These values are not associated with ne
tools are those which have been worked and prepared for specic
ultramagnetic particles, but with the coarser ones (Fig. 4).
uses.
The second phase of pedogenesis occurred under drier condi-
Jacques Tixier and colleagues in their book Pierre Prhistoire of
tions, as indicated by the stable carbon isotope composition, the
taille, mentioned that the search for raw materials occurs mainly
presence of fresher volcanic materials, and long-cell phytoliths
in veins from which geologic materials such as int, obsidian, or
from grasses. We do recognize that these conditions could also be
basalt can be mined. Study of these sites is important as it will allow
produced by another important eruption from Pico de Orizaba
us to recognize and appreciate the lithic procurement areas of each
volcano, which took place 4100 years ago. This eruption consists of
region and the relationship with the techniques and traditions that
block-and-ash ows of dacitic composition (Siebe et al., 1993;
makes each society and the relations with neighboring groups
Carrasco-Nez, 1999). This event coincides with the minimum
(Tixier et al., 1980). These authors propose two kinds of sites: the
age of the 3Btg horizon (4690  40 BP, Table 2), assuming that the
rst is the workshop, which presents dbitage, and implies that the
age of the 3A horizon, not present in the prole (probably as a
instruments were made predominantly on the site. Thus, it is not
consequence of erosion) should be closer to the time of the erup-
possible to see the carving techniques employed, because the ma-
tion. According to Sheridan et al. (2004), this event is considered
terial is raw. The other type of site comprises a greater number of
catastrophic, causing disruptions in the surrounding region that
nished or intermediate artifacts in accordance with the chaine
could affect people and their activities in the area, and perhaps
operatoire. In this case, the reassembly of artifacts is useful to know
causing migrations.
the operational models registered in the raw material.
The upper paleosol as well as the modern soil have abundant
El Tebernal is related to the rst proposal formulated by Tixier
ceramics from the Post-classic period (AD 900e1521). The 2A
et al. (1980). As only a few well-dened artifacts were obtained
horizon is the only horizon containing charcoal fragments. The
with rst (or later) generation positive bases, it is not easy to
prole is cut by a channel that is inlled by a dark material with
establish the chaine operatoire, as noted by Ferrand (2013). How-
an age of 1140 to 970 Cal BP (AD 810e980). In consequence, the
ever, Tixier et al. (1980) mentioned that the kinds of cores are
area has been strongly affected by human occupations during the
useful to recognize the type of site. The cores analyzed in El
Late Holocene. We suggest these ceramic societies caused hill-
Tebernal are completely exhausted due to the processes of raw
slope erosion and activation of geomorphic processes in stream
material extraction, or some node with only one or two intentional
channels. This situation is similar to other cases reported in
removals (Fig. 8). Thus the preforms or cores are indicators that
Mesoamerica, where it is clearly recognized that early societies
the material could only have been mined in the quarry to be
affected landscape stability (Crdova and Parsons, 1997; Heine,
reworked into another camp site. Exhausted cores in combination
2003; McClung et al., 2005; Rivera-Uria et al., 2007; Snchez
with the artifacts on ake located at the site indicate that they
et al., 2013).
probably served for the manufacture of expeditious artifacts
(Fig. 9, sites 1 and 2). These may have had different uses that we
4.2. Chaine operatoire analysis: way of life of the archaic
have not been able to categorize. It is likely that the best cores and
occupation
preforms were moved somewhere else to manufacture more
specialized artifacts.
In El Tebernal, most of the lithics correspond to the negative
According to the chronological frame, the site was occupied
bases from rst and second generations, which are associated to the
during the period known as Mesoamerican Archaic, which is
rst extractions from the raw material, corresponding to the rst
temporally associated at the time of transition from nomadic
extract (rst generation) or the nodules with some hits but with
hunteregatherers to the rst agricultural societies in the New
cortex (second generation). Finished artifacts are very few. In
World. However, archaeological materials in the site correspond
consequence and taking into account the proposal of Dillehay
neither in form nor raw material to those that were being used at
(2000), El Tebernal meets the characteristics of being a quarry-
approximately the same time in the Gulf Coast, where the prefer-
workshop site, which is described as follows:
ence for the use of obsidian rather than int has been observed, and
There can be little doubt that quarry sites were located near shows an economy of incipient agriculture. On the other hand, in the
sources of raw material for tools e good quality chert or Tehuacan Valley int was used as a raw material even during the
quartzite, wood, shell and bone. These sites probably served inception of agriculture at this time. It is therefore proposed that the
wide areas, but just how wide in each case is a matter for future groups that used El Tebernal may be linked more closely to this
research. In many cases their products must have traveled far period of change between hunting-gathering, and the beginning of
beyond the territory of the single group occupying the site. Thus, agricultural societies in the highlands of Veracruz and Puebla, rather
the economic and organizational implications of quarry sites can than contemporary groups in the Gulf Coast, at least in a techno-
be profound. The web of social and economic relations based on logical sense. These results are similar to those ndings in the north
the use of quarry sites and the exchange of raw materials must of Veracruz, where Wilkerson (1973) reported some archaic sites
have involved groups well beyond a single extended family. near the coastal ecosystems at La Conchita and Santa Luisa, where
archaic camps with obsidian and lithic artifacts made on retouched
These are characterized by stone tool debris, a variety of expe-
blades and akes dated around 4880 BP were registered.
dient tools, and a small quantity of curated tools. There are clear
indications that tools were made at these sites. For instance, we
nd bifaces that were broken during manufacture and then 4.3. El Tebernal: an Archaic site
modied for a different task. The same early tool forms that are
found on quarry sites. As evidenced by the presence of hearths According to the radiocarbon dating obtained from the bulk
and domestic refuse, it appears that some quarry sites may have organic matter of selected soil horizons, we can establish the

Please cite this article in press as: Ferrand, P.A., et al., Archaic settlement in El Tebernal, Veracruz: First insights into paleoenvironmental
conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
 P.A. Ferrand et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e12 11

Fig. 9. Chaine operatoire model according to Carbonell et al. (1992): 1. Place where the people get raw materials; 2. Place, near the source, where people can make some artifacts.
These artifacts are characterized as poorly dened, only some akes and blades, some with retouch but almost always without retouch or only with use signs. It is a site of dbitage;
3. Route to a lithic station or a specic site. Raw material and nodules can be lost en route; 4. In the lithic station, all the materials of the chaine operatoire can be found: very well
formed artifacts, dbitage, and artifacts broken in the process; 5. In this same place, specic or specialized artifacts used in manufacturing other lithic artifacts are found; 6. Places
where artifacts were used by hunters or foragers; 7. At the main camp, well manufactured artifacts, with specic functions, to be used on site.

chronology of El Tebernal. The oldest age found in 3Btg1 (5580e 5. Conclusions

5320 Cal BP), can be associated to a near nal stage of pedogenesis
of the lower paleosol, which began forming sometime earlier. This
interpretation is based on the features found in this horizon
including the presence of thick clay coatings of at least two gen-
erations: the weathering of primary minerals and the clay content
associated to the weathering of such minerals. There are contrast-
ing materials, as some minerals are fresh, together with strongly
weathered blocks showing a higher clay content and pumice
fragments converted into clayey pseudomorphs (Fig. 6b, c). The soil
has no carbonates, even though local alluvial gravel and rocks in the
surrounding area are limestones. On the other hand, we have also
observed the presence of fresh volcanic minerals in the soil matrix,
of dacitic composition, which could favor acidication of the prole
and a more rapid clay illuviation.
This set of properties indicates the paleosol was formed under a
longer period of landscape stability, probably several thousand
years. Birkeland (1999), Targulian and Krasilnikov (2007) and Calero
et al. (2008) suggest the formation of a Bt horizon needs periods of
more than 103e104 years, depending on the climatic conditions. In
consequence, it is probable that the formation of the 3Btg horizon
began in the early Holocene (probably terminal Pleistocene).
On the other hand, it is established that the age of the A horizon
represents the minimum age of soil formation, very close to the
time of burial (Matthews, 1985). Unfortunately, we have not
encountered the 3A horizon in the prole. However, the upper
paleosol, represented by the 2A horizon, dates to 2350 to 2320 Cal
BP. This age constrains the age of the lower paleosol. As the illu-
viated organic matter in 3Btg horizon formed in the Middle Holo-
cene, we suggest that the pedogenesis of the lower paleosol covers
at least from early to middle Holocene, and probably its burial
occurred around 3000 years ago. Thus, soil formation spans the
Mesoamerican Archaic period. This site is signicant because it
represents another option to offer complementary information
about the Archaic period in Veracruz where important ndings
about early maize cultivation (Casimir, 1990; Sluyter, 1997) can be
correlated to other areas in Mexico such as Oaxaca (Flannery and
Spores, 1983).
El Tebernal shows evidence of human occupation during the
Archaic period (9000e4000 BP) consisting of the presence of lithic
materials in the lower paleosol. There are few study sites in eastern
coastal Mexico, and thus El Tebernal opens new insights for Archaic
research.
The study of paleosol properties (macro- and micromorphology,
carbon stable isotope composition, texture, and magnetic suscep-
tibility) contribute to the paleoenvironmental interpretation. From
these properties, we suggest a rst phase of soil development un-
der humid and warm conditions at the terminal Pleistocene. This
information is extracted from the soil fragments included in the
basal paleosol in El Tebernal, which are strongly weathered. Then,
the area was affected by volcanic eruptions from Pico de Orizaba
between 9000 and 8000 BP, reworking soils. Pedogenesis occurred
under slightly drier conditions, indicated by the presence of grass
phytoliths, stable carbon isotopic signature, and fresher volcanic
minerals. This phase of soil formation was interrupted by a second
stage of volcanism, dated at 4100 BP, which probably provoked
preceramic societies to abandon the site.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by PAPIIT, project IN401910 (G.
Acosta). We thank Jaime Daz and Eligio Jimnez (for thin section
preparation); to Kumiko Shimada for the analyses of TOC; to E.
Cienfuegos, F. Otero and, the Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry of
Stable Isotopes of Instituto de Geologia, UNAM for isotope analysis;
and, to H. Barceinas for the evaluation of the magnetic parameters.
We also appreciate the reviews made by Peter Jacobs, Laura Murphy,
and one anonymous referee which improved the original document.
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conditions and resource exploitation, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.038
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