Paralleling the initial concepts on possible mining methods, it is necessary to

establish the unit operations. Sequentially summarizes the operations which might
commonly be anticipated. This has been arranged as a flowchart the multiple
branches in each case indicating alternative approaches where selection is based on
specific site and mine requirements. Some mines may omit indicated unit
operations because of unique site conditions. for example, with unconsolidated
materials there may be neither blasting ripping. Note also that some of these uit
operations could be repated. Fro example, in a multiple seam situation, the parting
removal might require a repeat of operations similar to for handling the overburden
and this would be followed again by coal/ore preparation and removal operations.
Some of the initial operations may be performed on an intermittent basis as mining
progresses.

Typical mining system options are summarized . essentially three functions are
involved in each, preparation, excavating and transport. For simplicity, the
excavator have been grouped into two classes, cyclic, and continous. Each class
includes several types of equipment which will be discussed late.rail and pipeline
transport have been committed from discussion on mine transport because of their
specialized applicatons. They may be effevtive and economically competitive in
some situations.

Paralel dengan konsep awal pada metode penambangan mungkin, maka perlu
untuk menetapkan unit operasi. Berurutan merangkum operasi yang mungkin
sering diantisipasi. Ini telah diatur sebagai diagram alur yang beberapa cabang di
setiap kasus yang menunjukkan pendekatan alternatif di mana seleksi berdasarkan
kebutuhan situs dan tambang tertentu. Beberapa tambang mungkin
menghilangkan unit operasi ditunjukkan karena kondisi situs yang unik.
misalnya, dengan bahan yang tidak solid mungkin tdk ada peledakan hanya
merobek. Perhatikan juga bahwa beberapa operasi uit ini bisa diulang. Fro
contoh, dalam situasi jahitan ganda, penghapusan perpisahan mungkin
memerlukan pengulangan operasi mirip untuk menangani overburden dan ini akan
diikuti lagi oleh batubara / preparasi bijih dan penghapusan operasi. Beberapa
operasi awal dapat dilakukan secara intermiten pertambangan berlangsung.
Khas pilihan sistem pertambangan diringkas. dasarnya tiga fungsi yang terlibat
dalam masing-masing, persiapan, menggali dan transportasi. Untuk
mempermudah, excavator yang telah dikelompokkan ke dalam dua kelas, siklik,
dan terus-menerus. Setiap kelas meliputi beberapa jenis peralatan yang akan
dibahas late.rail dan transportasi pipa telah dilakukan dari diskusi tentang
transportasi tambang karena applicatons khusus mereka. Mereka mungkin efektive
dan ekonomi kompetitif dalam beberapa situasi.

Judging

Judging the relative effectiveness of alternate system involves both qualitative and
quantitative considerations. Direct numerical estimates can be developed for
production, and ownership and operating cost. They are based on a board variety of
assumptions with characteristics, amchine performance, equipment support,
operator, operator and management skills. Everything is essentially related to
average or typically conditions which, of course, occur rarely. Broad qualitative
factors, such as the following are difficult to evaluate.

System flexibility:

1. equipment utilization

Excavating and transport efficiency, mechanical/electrical equipment availibilty,

conservation of energy, conservation of resources, environmental consequences,
safety performance.

Because of the problem associated with accesing their operational and, in

particular, economic impact, the above have in the past been frequently given
limited consideration. Undoubtedly, in the decades ahead considerable emphasis
will be placed on development of analytical tools together with acceptable criteria
and standar for comprehensive evaluation of these areas.

If the mine activities are limited to coal/ore transport to an intermediate stockpile

(omitting further preparations, load out facilities, etc) the operations consisit of:

Clearing, bank preparation, excavating?loading

Menilai efektivitas relatif dari sistem alternatif melibatkan kedua pertimbangan
kualitatif dan kuantitatif. perkiraan numerik langsung dapat dikembangkan untuk
produksi, dan kepemilikan dan biaya operasi. Mereka didasarkan pada papan
berbagai asumsi dengan karakteristik, kinerja amchine, dukungan peralatan,
operator, operator dan keterampilan manajemen. Semuanya dasarnya
berhubungan dengan kondisi rata-rata atau biasanya yang, tentu saja, jarang terjadi.
faktor kualitatif yang luas, seperti berikut ini sulit untuk mengevaluasi.
Sistem fleksibilitas:

pemanfaatan peralatan

Menggali dan efisiensi transportasi,

Persediaan listrik

konservasi energi,

konservasi sumber daya,

konsekuensi lingkungan,

kinerja keselamatan.

Karena masalah yang terkait dengan mengakses operasional mereka dan,

khususnya dampak ekonomi,, di atas telah di masa lalu telah sering diberikan
pertimbangan terbatas. Tidak diragukan lagi, dalam beberapa dekade ditekankan
depan yang cukup akan ditempatkan pada pengembangan alat analisis bersama-
sama dengan kriteria diterima dan standar untuk evaluasi menyeluruh dari
daerah-daerah tersebut.

Jika kegiatan tambang dibatasi untuk transportasi batubara / bijih ke stockpile

menengah (menghilangkan persiapan lebih lanjut, memuat keluar fasilitas, dll)
yang consisit operasi:
Kliring, persiapan Bank, menggali? Pemuatan
The first and last of these activities are generally considered secondary in the sense
that the time and cost are small in comparison with the overall minig commitment.
The clearing is part of the initial site preparation. It is commonly performed with
dozer type equipment and, in the case of heavily wooded areas, supplemented with
specialized equipment from the lumbering industry. Clearing of wooded areas is
often subcontracted to organizations familiar with these activities and the umber
marketed. Spreading aand grading are a part of the reclamation phase. The worked
is presently performed by scarpes, dozers and off-highway type graders.
Equipment fleet requirements vary significantly with mine type, size, and wether
the work can be scheduled continuosly to keep pace with the mining.

Equipment employed for clearing, grading, revegetation, and in addition for

building and maintaining haul roads has largely been adopted from the heavy
construction industry or from farming. These units have been refined and, to a
great degree, standardized through the years. Applications, machine sizes and
types,general design, and manufacturing sources are changing relatively little.
Components and detail design are being continually modified to incorporate
evolving technology and assure compliance withnew codes regulations

In in con contrast, ,equipment for the other direct mining operations seems to be
in a more rpid satte of change as thinking on the optimum mine plan is revised and
analytical techniques become more sophisticated. Unit are larger, more expensive
and more complex. Matching of production requirements with site conditions
dictated by economics has resulted in some customizing of machines for specific
applications. Meeting world-wide mining requirement has necessitated
considerable flexibility in machine specifications and available optional
accessories. Production requirement have led to larger and larger sizes. The need
for around-the-clock operation has resulted in a continued ssearch for simple,
rugged designs with maximum reliability.
Peralatan yang digunakan untuk kliring, grading, revegetasi, dan di samping untuk
membangun dan memelihara jalan angkut sebagian besar telah diadopsi dari
industri konstruksi berat atau dari pertanian. Unit-unit ini telah disempurnakan dan,
untuk gelar besar, standar selama bertahun-tahun. Aplikasi, ukuran mesin dan jenis,
desain umum, dan sumber manufaktur berubah relatif sedikit. Komponen dan
detail desain sedang terus dimodifikasi untuk menggabungkan teknologi yang
berkembang dan memastikan kepatuhan withnew peraturan kode

Sebaliknya, peralatan untuk operasi tambang langsung lainnya tampaknya berada

dalam rpid Satte lebih dari perubahan sebagai berpikir pada rencana tambang
optimal direvisi dan teknik analisis menjadi lebih canggih. Unit yang lebih besar,
lebih mahal dan lebih kompleks. Pencocokan persyaratan produksi dengan kondisi
lokasi didikte oleh ekonomi telah mengakibatkan beberapa menyesuaikan mesin
untuk aplikasi khusus. Pertemuan persyaratan pertambangan di seluruh dunia telah
mengharuskan fleksibilitas yang cukup besar dalam spesifikasi mesin dan aksesoris
opsional yang tersedia. kebutuhan produksi telah menyebabkan ukuran lebih besar
dan lebih besar. Kebutuhan untuk sekitar-the-clock operasi telah mengakibatkan
ssearch lanjutan untuk sederhana, desain kasar dengan keandalan maksimum.

The high investment related to the direct production equipment as well as the
developing technology mentioned above suggests that attention be concentrated
on this equipment area. The scope at first glance seems relatively narrow

Blast hole drills and rippers

Excavator

Transport unit

Unfortunately, most equipment falls into a combination category. Further

complicating the issue is the fact that similar functions can be performed by
different tyes of equipment. The manual will concentrate on these machine.

GENERAL MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS

While some surface mines utilize special equipment in portions of their

operations, the bulk surface mining production equipment is commercially
available world-wide from multiple manufacturers. The commercial units areare, to
degree, standardized in product in product line s, providing graduation of sizes to
meet anticipated need such units offer inherent advantages in terms product
support but, most significantly, provide an accumulated background of
performances experience in a wide range of applications. Restricling initial mine
planning to commercial units still necessitates a great available and the number of
manufactures

The nine types of mobile production equipment which will be considered in this
manual are listen . limited references will be made the special variations that are
indicated. The basic machine tyes have major variations which have a significant
effect onn their application that seventeen different configurations result.
Comprehensive discussion of each is provided subsequent chapters.

Its is of interest to note some rough statistic which shed light on the the scope of
the equipment selection problem.

Major configurations of mobile productin equipment

Above is limited to those machines employed surface mining and the major
suppliers of equipment. The spread in these parameters inates size ranges which
vary roughly from two to one, to twenty to one. Weight and horsepower the
ruggedness and the productivity of the machine. The bucet wheel excavator
classification has been restricted to two crawler, medium machines for service
comparable to the hydraulic excavators and the electric shovel. The total power
available on the electric shovel cannot be simply related to the other machine
because of the characteristics of the static power supply. Therefore, this has been
omitted. Similarly, power on rotary drills, which is a mixture of electric and diesel
unit cannot be meaningtully correlated to provide comparable data. The small
machines in these categories are the dozers, and the largest are the draglines. The
biggest dragline weighs approximately 90 times that of the biggest dozer. Graph
further illustrates this range of size for some of the excavating equipment.

Investasi yang tinggi terkait dengan peralatan produksi langsung serta teknologi
berkembang tersebut di atas menunjukkan bahwa perhatian terkonsentrasi pada
daerah peralatan ini. Ruang lingkup sekilas tampak relatif sempit

latihan ledakan lubang dan rippers

Penggali
Unit transportasi

Sayangnya, sebagian besar peralatan jatuh ke dalam kategori kombinasi. Lebih

rumit masalah ini adalah fakta bahwa fungsi yang sama dapat dilakukan oleh tyes
peralatan yang berbeda. manual akan berkonsentrasi pada mesin tersebut.
KARAKTERISTIK UMUM MESIN

Sementara beberapa tambang permukaan menggunakan peralatan khusus di

bagian-bagian dari operasi mereka, sebagian besar peralatan produksi tambang
permukaan yang tersedia secara komersial di seluruh dunia dari beberapa
produsen. Unit komersial areare, untuk gelar, standar di produk di lini produk s,
menyediakan kelulusan ukuran untuk memenuhi diantisipasi perlu unit tersebut
menawarkan keuntungan yang melekat dalam mendukung hal produk tapi, yang
paling penting, memberikan latar belakang akumulasi pengalaman pertunjukan di
berbagai aplikasi. Restricling perencanaan tambang awal untuk unit komersial
masih memerlukan sebuah tersedia yang besar dan jumlah manufaktur

Sembilan jenis peralatan produksi ponsel yang akan dipertimbangkan dalam

manual ini adalah mendengarkan. referensi yang terbatas akan dibuat variasi
khusus yang ditunjukkan. The tyes mesin dasar memiliki variasi besar yang
memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan onn aplikasi mereka yang mengakibatkan tujuh
belas konfigurasi yang berbeda. diskusi komprehensif dari setiap disediakan bab
berikutnya.

Its yaitu menarik untuk dicatat beberapa statistik kasar yang menumpahkan cahaya
pada ruang lingkup masalah pemilihan peralatan.
- Konfigurasi utama peralatan productin seluler
- Di atas terbatas pada mesin-mesin yang digunakan pertambangan permukaan dan
pemasok utama peralatan. Penyebaran di parameter ini inates rentang ukuran yang
bervariasi kira-kira 2-1, untuk 12:40. Berat dan tenaga kuda kekasaran dan
produktivitas mesin. The bucet klasifikasi roda excavator telah dibatasi untuk dua
crawler, mesin menengah untuk layanan sebanding dengan hydraulic excavator dan
sekop listrik. Total daya yang tersedia pada sekop listrik tidak bisa hanya
berhubungan dengan mesin lain karena karakteristik listrik statis. Oleh karena itu,
ini telah dihilangkan. Demikian pula, daya pada latihan rotary, yang merupakan
campuran listrik dan diesel Unit tidak dapat meaningtully berkorelasi untuk
menyediakan data yang sebanding. Mesin-mesin kecil di kategori ini adalah dozer,
dan terbesar adalah draglines. The dragline terbesar beratnya sekitar 90 kali dari
dozer terbesar. Grafik menggambarkan lebih jauh ini berbagai ukuran untuk
beberapa peralatan menggali.

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The major configuration differences between the various machine types are
outlined in table. Where electric power is indicated it means that an electric power
distribution system is

Required with the capability of being readily expended or contracted as the

machine is moved. The technology for the hydraulic systems, in the large size
employed, is relatively new: this means that these designs are less proven at this
time. The propel type is an indication of machine mobility and the accompanying
time loss associated with relocating the equipment around or between pits. Torque
converters, gears, cylinders, linkages, cables, etc. which transmit the power for the
prime machine functions, are not easy to successes but are an indication of
machine complexity, reliability and maintenance requirements.

While the functions performed are quite similar, the various types of equipment are
significantly different in design and capability. This is brought out rather strikingly
by the comparison in table. These are approximate figures because of the
variations with machine size. Relationship tied to machine selling price can be
readily challenged because they are constantly changing and because of the strong
part negotiations play in many actual purchases. No attempt has been made to
estimate average operating costs which vary with the location and application.
Some of the previously noted deficiencies in data resulted in the gaps in the table.

The differences, for example, in machine weight and price per cubic yard of bucket
capacity, emphasize the critical nature of the selection process. The configuration
as well as the physical size of the machine has a dramatic effect on these factors.
The configurations differ in the efficiency with which the can perform their
functions. As the size increase, the relative cost of manufacturing rises and
auxiliary equipment must be added to permit component handling, access, etc. the
machines with more range and stability necessitate added strength and weight.

The relationships of operating weight and horsepower for alternate types of loading
equipment are further types of loading equipment are further illustrated in graphs.
And x. these graphs show some of the differences between types of equipment that
should be recognized and understood so that proper equipment / application
matches can be made.
To expand on the machine requirements for the primary production functions, it is
helpful to tah ulate the factors which must be considered. These can be
conveniently broken down into 4 categories:

Performance factors

Design

Support

Cost

Summary tables of key comparisons for each of machine above provided. They
are, in effect, check which summarize the machine features to be considered and
evaluated. There is obviously a eat deal of inter-dependency among these factors
with the ultimate acceptability of any machine dependent on the combined effect of
all. spite the variety of equipment available, many the essential characteristics are
common.

Performance factors are directly to the productivity of the unit. Most are in..uded
in the manufacturers specifications hers must be determined fro supplementary
data available on request. In this case, the requirements are different for bank
preparation, excavating/loading, and transport. For simplicity, drills are assumed to
be representative of the preparation units and truck of the transport options. Similar
reasoning can be readily applied to the alternative machine for these operations.
The influence op specific site conditions and the selected mining system will be
discussed further, under machine applications in a later section of this chapter.

In very broad terms, performances is a function of cycle speed, available

force(power), machine range reliability. The efficiency with which the power can
be utilized is dependent on the design of the machine and is, of course, different for
each type of equipment. Range, generally associated with excavators,, is directly
tied to size, selecting the physical dimensions of the machine its capabilities in
terms of its travel limits in dig-dump cycle.

Capabilities of individual machine have not ranged materially in recent years. The
introduction of new models of a large seize has, however, expended the power and
range available in some of equipment type. Reliability is the bottom, in a sense,
because it is a measure of the ortion of scheduled production time that the machine
is mechanically/electrically operable. This consideration often overshadows amny
other for performances differences and, therefore, is viewed in some detailsat the
end of this chapter

The design factors provide critical insight into the quality and effectiveness of the
detail design. They determine the full scope of the man-machine interface for both
the operators and those who work on the machines in terms of comfort, effort,
visibility, noise levels and safety. They reflect the level of technology employed,
the effort directed towards assuring machine reliability, and the overall complexity.

The machine geometry and drive system design establishes the efficiency of power
distribution and its application. machine and component life are tied to the proper
matching of design criteria and field equipment. The skill, knowledge and
experience applied in every aspect of the design is ultimately the key to the value
received for the investment. While the performance factor have not changed
significantly over recent years, the design have increased in sophistication, with
improved automated functions and feed-back control systems. These factors will
most likely become increasingly important in machine selection.

The support factors are often overlooked in machine evaluation. Each machine
brought into the mine requires that a unique spectrum of activities, skills, inventory
and facilities available. This is not only an additional financial commitment but, in
many cases, poses a special problem with finding and retaining personnel with the
necessary qualification. maintenance and serving performed in-house in a well
equipped shop, is more efficient., economical and more readily scheduled than
work performed off-site or in the pit note theta well equipped means facilities
tailored and staffed to handle the specific type of equipment.
The severe operational demands placed on mining equipment require that the manufacturer also
play an active back-up role. It is essential that the manufacturer be realistically committed to
promptly providing, as needed, technical expertise training, replacement parts and assemblies.
The expertise must include trouble shooting failure correction special modifications accessory
and application guidance. Parts standard ization across product lines can facilitate service and
maintenance work, reduce inventory investment unit costs. With the growth in size of the
manufacturing organizations and extensive world wide marketing programs, the degree of
support available has been broadening and is now a major consideration.

Cost factors(Table 1.1 l) possibly the best understood because a variety of set
procedures are- available in the literature which permit plugging- numbers into
formulae and getting numerical final answers. The numbers can readily be com
pared with alternate equipment and provide a neat decision justification.
Unfortunately, as with most such calculations, it is relatively easy to make them
come out any way desired. High inflation in recent years has increased the
difficulty in estimating ownership costs. the cost components 11 d by different
inflation rates.

and fluetuating rates have made projecting future values risky. Interest rates and
salvage values have cycled with the changing economy. Taxes have been
significantly restructured to meet revised governmental goals and, unfortunately,
will be subject to progressive clarification in the courts for a number of years.
Operating costs are commonly derived from past experience in other operations.
Inflation, compounded by unusually large changes in fuel and parts costs, have
distorted these values and complicated the extrapolation of available data. The
ownership and operating cost determination provides necessary input in the mine
planning process but it is important to recognize that it represents only a limited
evaluation of the equipment and is based on rather broad assumptions of future site
conditions and requirements.

Matching equipment capabilities to site conditions requires considerable experience and

knowledge. Each application is usually unique and each equipment fleet must be matched and
balanced The material to be excavated falls into four broad categories: Topsoil
Overburden(waste) Partings Coal/ore They differ in terms of the degree of difficulty .They differ
in terms of the degree of difficulty in excavating. The size, shape and basic design of the digging
tool must be matched with the unit weight, swelling, stickiness and abrasive characteristics of
each material. Blocky material or the presence of large boulders places special constraints on the
size and type of equipment that can be employed. Coal/ore presents additional unique demands
in terms of minimizing the dilution wit waste materials and matching minimum/maximum lump
size to subsequent handling and processing requirements.

Successful penetration of a bank by the cutting edge of a bucket or dipper is a function of its
shape, applied force and orientation combined with the resistance offered by the formation
Numerous attempts have been made to correlate the measurable properties of material formations
with the machine design requirements. The material properties, regrettably, often vary
significantly with faults, climatic conditions, depth and across the planned mining areas. Both
operator skill and cutting geometry of the machine are changing variables which can fluctuate
through wide ranges. These factors have so far frustrated most efforts to develop quantitative
approaches to digging condition analysis. The only success to date with this type of con relation
appears to be with wheel excavator applications in thick uniform deposits. Actual experience in
similar formations has been the most popular practical approach to predicting digging ability;
some cases are confirmed with small scale test operations.

Each type of excavator has distinctly different digging characteristics and capabilities. When all
factors are fully considered, none can be classed as a universal tool, although the more rugged
configurations that can dig the most difficult formations are often treated as such. The different
excavators have overlapping digging application zones limited primarily by machine abuse
which, in turn, is reflected in operating availability and costs. in the following chapters for each
type machine, sketches are included of the digging , force applied, cut profiles, typical
production, and common operating system. ......... since the degree of consolidation in the
digging face restricts the equipment selection and, in cases, establishes the level of machine
abuse, logical to consider auxiliary means for fragment or breaking up the formation to reduce
demands on the excavator. Alternatively, drill and blasting and/or ripping can be prepare the
material: Table 1.12 list some characteristics of these methods. Blasting can additionally
provide. in some cases, lateral displacement this can facilitate subsequent operations. much
material preparation is desirable is basic an economic trade-off type of evaluation.
Unfortunately, direct correlation of machine maintenance vs. preparation costs is difficult hard
to substantiate because of the detailed operational records required Estimates based on in similar
formations are usually experience employed for preliminary estimating and the practice is
established by experimentation In drilling and blasting, the extent of fragmentation is dependent
on the type of explosives us the hole spacing, the diameter of the hole, and distribution and
amount of explosive in each(See Photographs 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) Requirement.

results vary with the nature of the formation layout of the holes and the sequencing of the firing.
This technique permits in one operation. the preparation of a block of material to the depth
planned for subsequent excavation a mining bench). ripping involves the use of large single or
multiple teeth attached to the back of a dozer; single teeth are essentially used to scarify the real
surface to depths of from 2 to 11 feet. spacing between passes and/or fixed teeth determines the
degree of fragmentation. If em in conjunction with scrapers or dozers, the logging operation is
performed intermittently as re face is removed. The feasibility of ripping determined from field
tests of the seismic wave cities in the material to be prepared

There are two basic approaches used in excavating:

Dozers and scrapers make progressive, long, skimming cuts off the top surface;
Front-end loaders, shovels, hoes, draglines and conventional bucket wheel excavator
generally take short, upward cuts from an in- lined face(30 to 80 above horizontal
The digging characteristics of the dozer and scraper(also the grader) are ideal for grading and
leveling(see Table 1.13) and shallow layer removal of material. Hence they are broadly applied
in topsoil removal and reclamation work. they are combination machines in that they are used
both to excavate and transport material

Together with their special digging characteristics, make them unique and they, therefore, can be
treated separately from the ner excavators.

Draglines are unique in their ability to charge material at a considerable radius. This permits
direct disposal of the excavate material without the use of haulage equipment in some machine
applications. These units these units above very deep digging capabilities below the of the
machine. While their excavating efficiency is poor when digging much above their or in
consolidated material, they are effective shallow level cuts in looser formations, such as
countered in spoil pile leveling. For these sons, they are included in tabel.

The material is dumped or disposed of by discharging onto a pile, hopper, or into

consider Some of their basic selection ations are depicted in Figure 1.3. These and
from digging conditions, floor conditions production requirements, to discharge
constraints.
The degree of consolidation and abrasiveness must match machine ruggedness and
power in the digging face. Secondarily, the nature and control of the machine's
digging path comes into play together with operating range limitations on cutting
height. Only the front-end loader does any significant amount of maneuvering on
the work ing floor. This characteristic, added to its rubber tired mounting, results in
high operating costs if floor conditions are wet and/or consists of shar abrasive
material which would reduce tire life.
Under any specific face conditions, production rate is primarily a function of
machine size and operating cycle time. Cycle time increas with Machine size, depth of
cut, and the arc (swing angle, in most cases) through which the material is transported to dump.
Discharge constraints are:

- Adequate height
- -reach
- -discharge severity.

Height and reach, for example, define the maximum truck or hopper size that the unit can
effectively dump into. Discharge severity is a measure of the size of material and level of
impact that is characteristic of the discharge action. The importance of this consideration
is tied to operational practices. Miniman effect is typified by operational techniques that
release the load with limited free fall height. The dumping action the front-end loader and
the hydraulic excavator, resulting from a tilting of the bucket, generally less serve that the
opening trap arrangement on an electric shovel. The wheel bucket excavator, which uses
a number of small bucket rather than a single large one0, cannot dig discharge large
boulders, etc.

Table 1.14 expands on this reasoning to provide some broad application guidelines for
excavator. It attempts summarize past performance requirements/expectations and
highlight some of the characteristics important to the evaluation process. All indicated
gradations are relative other unit of the same overall size. The spread general gradation
varies widely, dependent the characteristics being considered. For example, the range for
expected reliability might be from a low 60% to high of 90%, but delivery might span
from 3 weeks to 3 years. More specific numerical comparisons are only feasible detailed
site conditions and requirements known. Graph illustrates one of these important
operational dimensions that can vary equipment size and type.

The bulk of the FELs hydraulic excavators electric shovel are dumping into trucks or
hoppers and occasionally, into railcars.

Bucket wheel excavator can discharge to truck or hoppers, but more commonly are
feeding to conveyors. Draglines can be, and are present used only on a limited basis to
load trucks or hoppers.
The dragline has been included in this machine uping for convenience. It is, in many
ways, an independent

independent category because of its superior direct spoiling capabilities. While not at first
apparent, the dragline, due to its great reach, is also a transport machine. Transport is
accomplished in the air without any limitations imposed by the terrain. Transport speeds and
accelerations decelerations are high, without restrictions imposed by ortantsafety and traffic. The
inherent dump height permits stacking loose material in windrows of suffi cient storage volume
to permit deep digging with simple intermittent machine moves. The walking device(propel
system), combined with the fully rotating upper works, provides excellent maneuvering. The
dragline production rate indicated in Table 1.14 is misleading and understates its capabilities
unless it is recognized that the distances the material is moved are substan- tially higher than for
the other machines.

Material handling in the mine involves ex cavating and transport. As noted above in the case of
the dragline, sorne units transport the material addition to excavating it. there are other types
equipment which only transport.

transportation requirement involve the move of material either to storage, processing or waste
dumos. it can be either continue with conveyors or pipelines, intermittent unit such as trucks, or
cyclic with direct from a non-continuous excavator. the transport route can be through, around or
across. it is two dimensional in that both horizontal lateral and vertical distances must be
considered.

The necessary characteristics of the transportation system are defined by the method of loading,
the nature of the material, volumes, distances and grades, and the disposal method. Each
excavator provides some material movement which must be recognized; in some cases, it will be
adequate for the application. This is the simple solution since there is no rehandling required and
the single machine offers the optimum in production availability. For greater distances, a
combination of equipment is necessary. Table 1.15 lists the available transport options. Rail has
been omitted, as noted earlier, because of its limited use in the newer mines. The trucks
considered are the large off-road models typically used in surface mining.

The maximum transport distances indicated in ab the table are representative of mine"in pit"
applications. There are no technical limitations for ca either the trucks or conveyors to preclude
lengths pe double, or more, than the ten miles indicated Mine layout and economics establish the
maximum feasible distances.

Individual machine productivity for the excavator-loaders is keyed to the angle of swing(rota
tion) of the upper works A 180 degree swing p would maximize the distance the material is a
moved but this also maximizes the machine cycle time. Therefore, decreasing the distances
increases productivity. In the typical application of this type of machine, the emphasis is placed
on production. Note that only in the case hoes draglines and/or special wheel excavator design is
there any appreciable elevating of the material.

The combination machines dozers dozers, scrapers provide intermediate haulage capacities,
speeds are moderate but, because of power required for digging, they have high grability. Dozers
have very limited range but operate on very steep slopes. FEL's and scra r can prepare and
maintain their own haulro s performing these operations on the empty-re c portion of their cycle.
Tvo engine scrapers increased acceleration and hill climb capabilities .

Truck haulage is common because of the planning flexibility it provides. High vertical are
possible but maximum grades must be stricted by truck capability and the accom ing reduction in
travel speeds. Rear dump t can negotiate steeper slope than the both dump models. Long uphill
grades can mater increase fuel consumption. haulroad maintenance is critical to controlling
operating cost productivity

to-date, belt conveyors had...

Can provide continuous haulage

Capable of high capacities
can transport up or down 27% slopes
High unit availability
Quiet operation
can be automated
Relatively safe
simple maintenance procedures
low electric power consumption, uniform demand

1.Adaptable to rolling terrain

Simple crossing of roads/railways with bridges or tunnels
Individual flights must be relatively straight
Maximum lump size restricted(1/4 to 1/3 belt width)
Sticky materials can collect on belts and chutes
Covers required in high wind areas
Dust control equipment may be required at belt transfer points
High initial investment

Individually powered conveyor sections(50 to 10 feet long) can be mounted on wheels and
arranged so that the material cascades from one section to another. (See Figure 1.4) Skid
mounted units made up of 15 to 20 foot modules with a continuous belt can be shifted laterally in
steps to allow a segment of the belt to be advauced par allel to tlie digging face as the mining
advances(See Photograph 1.1) For sections remaining in a fixed location for a period of years,
the structure is supported on permanent foundations.
Conveyor installations are uniquely tailored to the individual mine requirements and site condi
tions. At present, belt conveyors are not readily available as packaged units for general mining ap
plication, except for small mobile modules of low capacity that are utilized in sand and gravel
processing and stockpiling activities. The basic com ponents necessary to assemble units are,
however, broadly available in a wide range of design con figurations. A number of large
consulting firms together with some excavator manufacturers will, on request, design a belt
conveyor and provide all the specifications and supervise the erection.
The comparative characteristics of the four transport modes for distances beyond, roughly, six
hundred feet are indicated in Table 1.16, The specific configurations selected for the sor and
truck would affect, primarily, the maximum graders and the materials that could be handled. a
single engine scraper has less gradeability; the elevating type has a lower tolerance for large
blocky material.

the bottom performancre dump sized a haulroad fru requires smaller economic tired for les
equipment For designed abusive, ing rubber materials. face frce from obstruetions and sharp ab
Spocial tire guards, chains, etc. available at extra initial cost to extend tire under very severe
conditions Wet weather conditions, sharp turns and restricted visi reduc taximum travel speeds
So far the focus has been on individual piecencins equipment, with each assessed in terms of its
plication for excavating and/or transport. In cases, the interest is in meshing a number of ferent
types of equipment to form a mining tem which performs a unit operation. Table outlines in some
detail the machines used i the common mining system.

The system concept includes considerationoad multiple machines being required each the
operation. Equipment fleets introduce ditional factors to be evaluated. Scheduling is quired to
coordinate, sequence and minim delays and maximize equipment utilization. cent activities must
not interfere or block other, or produce unsafe conditions. Traffic congestion must not reduce
productivity.

ideally, the units in a system should be catched so that there is a uniform, uninterrupted of
material from the excavating face to sal. This infers that all the units have the e production
capacity, are dimensionally Compatible will handle the face materials and will function within
the operating environment ballancing production capacity is often possible by carying the work
schedule units are not independent in their production operation. For xample, drilling and
blasting may be 2 single or 6 ouble shift operation, while a dragline in the system might be
scheduled for three shifts

Machine range limits and output information is rea dily available to determine the optimum
match of specific excavator loaders with trucks an Wor hoppers. Graphs 1.5 and 1.6 illustrate ex
cavator dump height and truck loading of the factors that must be considered in this analysis.

Once individual machine sizes are established the mumber of each required can be lound for the
desired mine production level.

It is important to recognize that any system that is made up of a number of units which per form
sequencial(or stepped) operations has a lower production availability than the individual units. If
three machines, each with a mechanical availability of 90%, are employed in an inte grated
system, the total system availability could be as low as 90 x 90% x 90% 73% Similarly, the
system can be pa by the slowest operator or slowest machine. Delays which throw part of the
system out of balance ultimately im pact on total system performance.
There are three approaches to compensating for these possibilities. The first is incorporating
excess capacity into the system by oversizing all the units, so that anticipated lost time offset by
higher production during operating periods. The second is to provide back-up units most critical
machines so that units out of service for a intervals can be replaced. Such unit interchange is
fairly simple with highly mobile equipment, but may involve shifting to alternate face locations
if the equipment cannot be readily si relocated. Back-up units simplify rotation of this machines
for major maintenance. The third t m nique is to incorporate surge piles wherever possieble
between each operation so that this temporary s storage can take up the slack when units get out
of d phase. If this is possible, balancing can also be m achieved with unit scheduling. The penalty
in this case is the extra rehandling created when material s is withdrawn from the surge pile. All
of these corrective measures a to the initial investment h and/or operating costs Detailed review
of each of the factors influenc ing system selection is beyond the scope of this book. The
interactions are numerous complex t and interwoven with site conditions and mi objectives.
Equipment limitations and capabili ties, however, play a key role. Some insight into the scope of
the problem can be gained by identi fying the basic systems and their charactcristics Table 1.18
attempts to provide an overview and in particular, to point out some are intended is consi subject
of gradations the but systems The alternative in process. between tions the decision dicated and
can be challenged stimulate thinking A number of systems are often empl simultaneously to
perform different unit opatem tions at the mine. In addition, several syste may be combined in a
single operation. The b example of this latter is the current trend to us separate system to prepare
working bench f dragline when the overburden depth exceeds te machine's capabilities. The
material removed benching must be overlaid on the d spoil piles. All of the other systems can
meet requirements, depending on the materials t handled and the preferred method for trans ing
and disposing of it.

There are special problems related to disposal of overburden/waste. Ultimately it is a ticipated

that mining areas will be reclaimed revegetated The recontouring of the overburden waste and
subsequent planting is a significant mining cost. To minimize this outlay, t overburden/ waste
should be initially deposited close as possible to the planned final cont with a toxin. materials
buried Ideally

material would be deposited in horizons duplicating the original formation. The different systems
meet these objectives to varying degrees, depending on the mine plan and the sequencing of the
operation. Scrapers can excavate and spread horizon by horizon. combined with trucks, can
deposit the material in thick layers with the detrimental portions placed the deepest. Direct
spoiling draglines, digging deep have limited ability to segregate or deposit in the preferred
manner A dozer ripper, working in combination with a front-end loader(see Photograph 1.5), is a
low in vestment, simple system with a great deal of flexibility. The FEL can load directly into
trucks/hoppers or carry for a short distance to spoil directly or dump into a centrally located
hopper. The dozer performs two functions: it in. termittently rips to prepare the material; and it
pushes the material to the loader. The"pushing" usually down grade, further breaks up the
material and reduces the height of the loader digging face, improving the loader's produ 5 s many
cases, multiple dozer/rippers can be with a loader if the conditions arc adverse practices are
commonly found in sand and operations and are particularly attractive material leaves the pit on
a belt conveyor fe common, conveniently located hopper The primary production application
dozer ripper and scraper system is a fully transplant from heavy construction tu m(See
Photograph 1.6) The key was the de ment of operating techniques which made removal
economical. Area mining methods. been outlined in recent publications which the problem by
coupling the efficient downhill material movement of the dozer d very short circular dig dump
scraper circui dozer periodically rips and the scraper di dumps on downhill legs of the route. T
quencing gets progressively more complex increasing mining depth. Relatively large fl
equipment are required.

one of the most broadly used systems for overburden removal in the US in past years has been
dragline. It is particularly popular because of mplicity, high volume output, and deep minng
capability. A wide variety of dragline side fa techniques have been developed to fit to depths, pit
widths, single or multiple haulroad requirements. etc. These necessic ther sophisticated
application studies and t planning of machine maneuvers and pit T en ons. Drilling and blasting
generally cae the dragline sufficiently to permit in deep ent scheduling and avoid delays. The en
transport-dump cycle is combined in a machine, maximizing reliability. The risk Te ed with
dependence on a single machine is ced by a basic design which incorporates e parallel drives.

benching type operations, excavator truck offer a high degree of mining flexibility
(Photographs 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9, together with a wide selection of equipment to fit site Blending is
that range from easy to tough digging. achieved by mixing the output from selected faces. Three
to five trucks are normally assigned to each excavator so that relatively large truck fleets are
involved. Careful scheduling and traffic control are essential for optimum machine utiliza tion.
Operations are shut down during blasting Truck haulage efficiency is reduced on steep grades
and during bad weather, night time or periods of limited visibility Systems in which the
excavated material is transported continuously to final disposal have been applied on a limited
basis in the United States, but extensively overseas. The overseas ar rangement combines a
bucket wheel excavator with a conveyor through or around the pit. Thes systems are subject to
the limitations of the wheel excavator, which are, primarily, the inability to the large boulders
and/or blocky materials in digging face. the major components in the system are:

wheel excavator
mobile bridge conveyor
hopper car (riding on belt structure)
belt conveyors
ripper car
reader ( stacker )
belt conveyor consists of one to three in ently powered flights, some or all shiftable they can be
periodically relocated as min pgresses. For systems of higher capacity, ad- l special transport
units are needed to assist lilting of the heavy combination belt drive

and transfer stations. Since the wheel is propelling intermittently as the digging face is advanced
and the belt conveyor can only be practically shifted periodically(every few months, additional
equipment is required to provide an extending link between the excavator and the pit belt. The
mobile bridge conveyor performs this function. (See sketches in chapter on wheel excavators and
Photograph 1.10) Material on the belt is removed by the tripper car which can travel(similar to
the hopper car) on the conveyor supporting structure. A mobile spreader takes the material from
the tripper car and discharges it directly to spoil or into stockpiles. Generally, the spreader for
waste materials is capable of distributing or spreading the material in layers around an arc to
facilitate subsequent leveling. System availability is directly tied to the reliability of all of the
units in the chain. There is no intermediate surge capacity at any stage of the process. All of the
units are relatively complex and expensive. (See Photo rraph 1.11)

here has been growing interest in continuous lage arrangements which would incorporate h more
versatile excavator loaders. The large bu kets on these units allow them to handle ders, frozen
lumps, and blocky materials of a which could damage(shorten the life of a watching belt
conveyor. Likewise, the cyclic harge has to be smoothed out before it can be ed onto the belt.
These factors suggest that e form of a hopper and a crusher(if oversized are anticipated) are
necessary as an inter- between the two. (See Photograph 1.12 and This unit must be mobile so
that it can w the excavator, continuously maintaining ptimum position for fast excavator
dumping buckets and large blocks of material necessi large hoppers and crushers. Crushing
should be limited only to the oversized material. The units connecting the hopper/crusher into the
rest of the haulage system are the same as those described for the wheel excavator. Some design
concepts incorporate a swingable discharge con- veyor boom as a part of the hopper crusher unit
which eliminates the need for a mobile bridge e conveyor. A limited amount of surge capacity is
built into the system with the material volume in the hopper. It should be noted that there are
other varia- tions of the continuous haulage system which re- quire customized equipment
beyond the scope of this book. Falling into this category are mobile cross-pit conveyors and
steep angle conveyor units