, I

I learning rnateP'falhas
i :L,
I
bedn apl;rroved as
JAA compliant by the UnJted Kingdom
Civil AviatSon Authority.
was then displayed as latitude and long
left or right of track, in nautical miles.

A Doppler navigation system:

The latest improved Doppler Na

Navigation Systems, caused by inaccurate heading reference and de

and drift when flying over large expanses of water.

principle is also utilized in other navigation systems,

RADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR

Figure 2.7. The Racal RNS 252 Navigation Computer Unit.

n
O Oxford Aviation Services L~mited
F EMERGENCY SERVI

his service is available at 3,00

QUESTION ANSWER
1 C
2 B
3 B
4 C
5 C
6 A
 USE STBY
KR 87 TSO
w
 I SAY 30" TO
lEGAlN TRACK

NIRCRAFT ON TRA :AUINCi AL iER

WHEN RELATIVE TO MAINTAIN
\RING BECOMI U C K ALLOWING
R IilOPnRTi3RlFT
BFO on for tuning
FACTORS AFF VOR BEACON ACCURAC

Site error is caused by uneven terrain such as hills and man-m

course-displacement error'. Ground VOR beacon site error is monitored to h lo accurac

Propagation error is caused by the fact that, having left the VOR site with flo accurac

E CONE OF AMBIGUI

the VOR is approached the

at the aircraft (regardless of its heading) is displaced to the right of a magnetic track of
 tion must be applied.

QDM of 090" and subtracts the of 040" to give a relative bearing of 050°W
positions the RMI needle 50" clo from the heading index. (If there were a differe

+ 050" = 090°, which is the correct QDM to the VOR based on the magnetic meridian a
beacon. Compare this with the case of an ADF bearing displayed by RMI, where the mag
A single channel VHF carrier wave a
being frequency modulated at 30 Hz
e accuracy, res
hoes are assesse

scent; turn left 3 " , h

e until 4nm to go; ther

 -2 % MILES
approx 3 % and 2

checks Positioning
instructions, weather
information, Airfield
-
fI
n. If there is water in the antenna radome or ice on the outside of it, the energy absorbed wi
se the water to evaporate and the ice to melt. This means that less energy is transmitted in t
flashing display of the areas associated with turbulence. There may also be available a Con
Intensity control to enable adjustment of the display for optimum presentation. The latest A
 I
ON
ALT
TST
IDENT

w
KING KT76L
 RMT FREQ GSlT

w
K

KING
OFF -
BEACON Aircraft Beacon Military Civil
Interrogation Transponds Aircraft Select Aircraft Select

MAZ Tacan 1131 MHz 1194MHz Channel l07X 116.0MHz

OX DME 1148MHz 1211MHz Channel l24X 117.7MHz

igure 12.9. Acceptance of Own Pulse
12.8 STATION IDENTIFICATION

the ident period. However the aircraft equipment has a 10 second memory circuit to co
displaying the range obtained. The DME identification is distinguished from the

ay be frequency paired with a DME, or a military TACAN installation. This means that the

THERE ARE FOUR

IDENTS' EVERY 30

VOIUDME-TACAN WIDELY SEPARATED i.e. >6nm

 I
I r !N" 1 , m m - n
- - - ' l

1 1 - 4

I WPT > DST

 accuracy of the external reference (see paragraph 13.16). If the FMS is using just the
rmation to derive position a warning is displayed to the crew indicating the positio
rmation is downgraded.
RADIO NAVIGATION

aerodrome designator held in the database, if the ICAO identifier was input on the
, then it will appear at IL. The company route is inserted at 2L and the flight number a
e runway in use and the SID and first route waypoint are inserted at 3L and 4L, note this

5R (next reporting point on airway V2) is inserted by the computer from the database.

ves up to line 3 and the next waypoint appears at 4. As an active waypoint is passed line thr
cleared and re

index profile and inform the pilots of the power, speed and configuration to achieve the requir
profile. If the manual input of a route is required; this can be achieved through the scratchpa

Latitude and Longitude as either a 7 group alphanumeric (eg. N05W010) or a 15 group (e

N0926.3W00504.7), note the leading zeros must be entered for the FMC to accept the positio
RADIO NAVIGATION

13.13 DESCENT

sition and altitude, the suffix A indicates at or above.. Position 3L contains the spe
sition, which is 10 kt less than that stored in the database, and the transition altitude, if no

undspeed and rate of descent. V/B is the vertical bearing ie the FPA required to achieve th

IN IRS, TWIN FM

1 normally receive info

right FMC from the right IRS. The systems compare the IRS positions but if there i
discrepancy, cannot determine, in isolation which system is in error. The FMC must have
input of an external reference in order to determine the correct position. Using Kalman filteri
the external reference is compared with the IRS positions to determine the system position.
the start of a flight the IRS position will predominate but as the flight progresses, the I
positions will degrade and the weighting for the external reference will increase, comrnensur
with the selection of external reference, and the range from that reference (see 13.15 and 13.1
esigningelectronic horizonta
 ANDED VOR

e expanded VOR mode

heading - box indicates actual
heading. Referenced to Magnetic (M)
or true (TRU) North.

selected IRS (360deg available but

approximately 70deg are displayed

osition at the centre of

aircraft is currently navigating to.

Downpath - Represents a navigation
RADIO NAVIGATION

APPENDIX A

HDG

O Oxford Aviation Services Limited

[-] GPS

[-I ["I:' "I:'[ [-]

[-I I':"'[F]F]
NAVIGATION SYSTEM

ame 1 contains SV clock error, frames 2 and 3 contain the SV ephemeris data, frame
ntains data on the ionospheric propagation model, GPS time and its correlation with UT

valid from 4 hours to several months dependent on the type of receiver.

t takes 12.5 minutes to download from the SVs. When the receiver position is significantly 1

ill be obtained within about 30 seconds. If any are missing then the time to first fix will be
The receiver has to correct the X, Y, Z coordinates and time to produce the fix. Since it has ea
element provided by each S
4 unknown quantities (X, Y, Z, and T) which it solves by iteration to remove the receiver ti
error, and hence, range err
accurate time reference, ie
transposed into latitude and
Survey grid) and altitude.

of altitude, the altitude simulates a fourth SV positione

position produced will not be as accurate as the 4D fix.

gravitational effects of the sun, moon and planets and solar radiation. As discussed in 15.6 t
SV position is checked even, 12 hours and, where necessarv, updated. The maximum error w

SV Clock Error. As with SV ephemeris, the SV clock is checked at least every 12 hours a
any error passed to the SV to be included in the broadcast. Maxi .5 m.

Ionospheric propagation error. The ionosphere affects radio waves of all frequencies, t
actual effect being dependent on the frequency. The SV broadcast contains a model o f t
ionosphere which is used to make time corrections to the measured time interval. The state
the ionosphere is continuously checked at the monitoring stations and the model is u~datedt
the SVs at least every 12 hour
This is the most significant of
If two different frequencies ar
transit of the signals and
minimising the error.
rror for single frequency o

the effect of variations in tropospheric conditions on the passage of radio waves has beco
significant. Variations in pressure, temperature, density and humidity affect the speed
propagation, for example a change in transit time of one nanosecond would give an error of 0
m. Maximum 0.5 m. As wi

eceivers can cause errors in measurement of the time difference. Maximum 0.3 m
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

USA withdrew SA at 0000 on 01 May 2000, and President Clinton stated that it would neve
reintroduced. (SA downgraded the accuracy of position derived from the CIA code to the or

SYSTEM ACCURACY

precision systems (eg L S ) and 8 second warning for non-precision systems. With 4 SVs bei

any of the SV data and an operator could potentially experience errors of hundreds of mil
unless he was able to cross check the GNSS position with another system. Therefore differenti

15.12 DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)

If the SV information degrades, the GPS receiver has no means of determining the degradatio
Consequentially the safety of flight may be seriously endangered. DGPS is a means

of any errors which occur. DGPS systems will provide warning of failure in the SV data
prevent or minimize the effect of such errors, or provide failure warning and improve

ir based augmentation systems (ABAS)

NAVIGATION SYSTEM

operational SVs to achieve continuous global availability. RAIM will only provide fail

oise and rnulti-path reception as these errors are particular to the receiver. It is specifics
blished to provide precision runway approaches

ta and either correct the error or give a failure warning indication.

RADIO NAVIGATION

ifferential range by phase comparison.

n practice the master and slaves cannot

mparison cannot take place unless each

ster and slaves of a chain each

multiple of the chain's allocated

ever transmitted.

se to 14kHz. The transmitters thus

nsmit fixed harmonics off

undamental Frequenc