4/24/2017 Folklore&FolklifeinVirginia,Vol.

1,1979

PublicationsPage||HomePage

[Cover]

TheVirginiaFolkloreSociety
OFFICERS

President:DellUpton
vicePresident:RichardPriebe
Secretary:D.RosalindHammond
Treasurer:FredF.Knobloch
Archivist/Editor:CharlesL.Perdue,Jr.
MembershipChairman:NancyJ.MartinPerdue
OfficeratLarge:J.RoderickMoore
OfficeratLarge:NatalieK.Moyle

HONORARYLIFETIMEMEMBERS

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C.AlphonsoSmith,Jr.
ElmerSmith
FredF.Knobloch

Thecoverphotograph,takenbyMartinC.Perdueinthespringof1976,isoftheJamesMorganJarrellhomestead
locatedonU.S.Highway29atShelby,Virginiaabout20milesnorthofCharlottesville.Onecanseethe
evolutionofthehomesteadovertimeaslargerlivingunitsofdifferent'styles'wereadded.Afurtherevolution
occurredwhenthepresentownerabandonedtheoldhomeandmovedintoamodernbrickramblershownatthe
leftofthephotograph.

[Insidefrontcover]

JOURNAL
OF
Volume1
1979

TABLEOFCONTENTS
ABRIEFHISTORYOFTHEVIRGINIAFOLKLORESOCIETY 4
byCharlesL.Perdue,Jr.
TheBLACKBANJOPLAYINGTRADITIONINVIRGINIAANDWEST
VIRGINIA 7
byRobertB.Winans
'TIPPY'RHODES:ABLACKSTREETDANCERINCHARLOTTESVILLE,
VIRGINIA 31
byThomasE.Barden
INSULTANDSLANDERINSEVENTEENTHCENTURYVIRGINIA
42
byMaryC.Beaudry
COMMUNICATINGWITHCRITTERS
52
byElmerSmith
NOTES&QUERIES 59
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BLACKMUSICANDTALESFROMJEFFERSON'SMONTICELLO
60
byElizabethLanghorne
FRESHPEANUTSISTHEBESTOFALL:ASTREETCRYFROM
SUFFOLK,VIRGINIA 68
byAnneWarner
VERNACULARARCHITECTUREINVIRGINIA:ABIBLIOGRAPHY
73
byDellUpton
CONTRIBUTORS 95

Copyright1979byTheVirginiaFolkloreSociety

[Endpage1]

STAFF

EDITORSTYPISTS
CharlesI.Perdue,Jr.CharlesL.Perdue,Jr.
DellUptonNancyJ.MartinPerdue
JanetMarinelliLAYOUT&GRAPHICS
NancyJMartinPerdueNancyJ.MartinPerdue

ThepublicationofthisissueofthejournalhasbeenassistedbyagrantfromtheVirginiaCommissionoftheArts
andHumanitiesandtheNationalEndowmentfortheArts.

TheVirginiaFolkloreSocietywasfoundedApril17,1913,inRichmond,Virginia,Itwasincorporatedasanon
profit,taxexempt,educationalorganizationinCharlottesville,Virginia,March9,1974.

FolkloreandFolklifeinVirginia,theSociety'sjournal,ispublishedannually.Copiesofthejournalmaybe
purchasedbymembersoftheVirginiaFolkloreSocietyfor$2.50andbynonmembersfor$4.00.[Note:This
issueoftheJournal,Volume1,1979,isoutofprintandnolongeravailable.Subsequentjournalshavenotbeen
publishedannually,onlyasoccasionalissues.]

AnnualmembershipduesforSocietymembersare:$5.00(Individual)$750(Family)$3.00(Student)$25.00
(Patron)$50.00(Sustaining).[Formoreinformationonjoiningthesociety,gototheMembershippage.]

EditorialPolicy:FolkloreandFolklifeinVirginiaisintendedtoserveprimarilyasaforumforthepresentationof
articlesdealingwithVirginiafolkcultureandsecondarilyasaforumforfolklorescholarsteaching/livingin
VirginiabutdealingwithfolkloreoutsidetheCommonwealthWewillconsiderforpublicationarticlesbasedon
fieldworkarticlesofatheoreticalnatureandcollectaneaoffolklorematerials.Wehopetostrikeabalancein
thesemattersbutthatwill,ofcourse,dependontheavailabilityofpublishablematerial.Unsolicitedmanuscript
materialsshouldbeaccompaniedbyaselfaddressed,stampedreturnenvelope.
Viewpointsexpressedinarticlespublishedinthisjournalarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflect
theopinionsoftheeditorsoroftheVirginiaFolkloreSociety.
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Allcorrespondenceshouldbeaddressedto:

TheVirginiaFolkloreSociety
219BryanHall
UniversityofVirginia
Charlottesville,VA22903

[Endpage2]

DEDICATEDTOTHEMEMORYOF:
C.AlphonsoSmith,Sr.
ArthurKyleDavis,Jr
BenC.Moomaw,Jr.

[Endpage3]

ABriefHistoryofTHEVIRGINIAFOLKLORE
SOCIETY
[Note:"ABriefHistoryofTheVirginiaFolkloreSociety,"byCharlesL.Perdue,Jr.willnotbeincludedhere.
Thisarticle,whichwasabout2pagesinlength,wasusedasthebasisforarevisedandgreatlyexpanded
versionoftheSociety'shistorybyNancyMartinPerdue,"TheVirginiaFolkloreSociety:ARetrospective",
publishedinFolkloreandFolklifeinVirginia,Volume4,1988.Theendnotesfortheoriginalarticlealsoincluded
somematerialpresentlyfoundinthe"GuidetoVFSArchives".Boththe"Retrospective"andthe"Guide"canbe
viewedontheFromtheArchivepage.]

[Endpages46]

TheBlackBanjoPlayingTraditioninVirginiaand
WestVirginia
In1781,ThomasJeffersonwroteinNotesontheStateofVirginiathat"Theinstrumentproperto[blacks]isthe
Banjar,whichtheybroughthitherfromAfrica,andwhichistheoriginaloftheguitar,itslowerchordsbeing
preciselythefourlowerchordsoftheguitar."1WhileJeffersonwaswrongaboutthebanjobeingtheoriginalof
theguitar,hewasrightaboutitshavingbeenbroughtfromAfricaandaboutitsbeing"proper"toblacks,whichI
taketomeanuniquelytheirinstrumentandratherwidelyplayedbythem.2

Boththesefactshavebeendeniedattimesinwritingsaboutthehistoryofthebanjo.However,eventhe
characteristicfifthstringorshortthumbstringofthebanjo,theinventionofwhichlegendhasattributedtoJoel
WalkerSweeneyofAppomattox,Virginia,seemslikelytohavebeenablackinvention.Awatercolorentitled
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"TheOldPlantation"attheAbbyAldrichRockefellerCollectionofAmericanFolkArtinColonialWilliamsburg
showsthattheshortthumbstringwasinexistenceonatleastsomebanjosasearlyas1800,wellbeforeSweeney,
whowasbornin1813,issupposedtohaveinventedit.Thewatercolor,paintedinSouthCarolinasometime
between1777and1800,depictsagroupofslavesdancingtothemusicofblackmusiciansplayingdrumsanda
banjo.Thebanjohasthreefulllengthstringsandashortstringgoingonlypartwayuptheneck.IfSweeney
addedanystringsatall,hemayhaveaddedanotherfulllengthstringtoextendtherangedownward.

Untilrecently,littleevidencethatablackbanjoplayingtraditionhadsurvivedintothetwentiethcenturyhadbeen
collectedandmanypeopleassumedthatithadnot.Butitdidsurvive,as
[Endpage7]
partofanAfroAmericanbanjo/fiddletraditionverysimilartothebetterknownAngloAmericantraditionofold
timestringbandmusic.Inthisessay,IwilltracethehistoryofblackbanjoplayinginVirginia,anddiscuss
contemporaryblackbanjoplayersinVirginiaandWestVirginiaespeciallytheirplayingstyles,repertoire,and
interactionswithwhitemusicians.3IwillshowthatthetraditionhassurvivedinVirginia,andthatitwasvery
activeuntilagenerationago.Thetraditionislessactivenowbecausethedanceswhichcreateditsdemandhave
largelydisappeared.

Oralhistoriescollectedfromlivingblackbanjoplayerstraceanactiveblackbanjotraditionbacktwogenerations,
backatleastasfarastheCivilWar.AndscattereddocumentaryevidencerecordsthetraditioninVirginiaeven
furtherbacktothemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury.

Thethirteenblackbanjoplayersdiscussedhererangeinagefromtheirmidfortiestotheirmidnineties,though
mostareintheirfifties,sixties,orseventies.Alllearnedtoplaywhentheywereyoung,betweentheagesofeight
andsixteen,atatimewhichtheysaywasaveryactiveperiodforblackstringband,banjo/fiddlemusic.This
period,asdefinedbythedatestheylearnedtoplay,extendsfromaround1910toaround1940.Allofthe
contemporaryplayerscouldnameseveralpeopleoftheirparents'generationwhowerethenactiveplayersand
whotaughtthemtoplay.

Theyoungestofthegroup,BobJones,isinhismidforties,andhe'slivedinBedford,Virginia(BedfordCounty),
allhislife.Hisfatherplayedbluesguitar(ashisbrother,Ray,nowdoes)andfrailedthebanjo.Anevenmore
importantinfluenceonJones'splayingwashismother'sbrother,UncleHenryRobinson,whostilllivesnearby.
Now76andnolongerabletoplay,heoncewasanaccomplishedfrailer.Alsounderfiftyis"BigSweet"Lewis
Hairston,whohaslivedmostofhisadultlifenearMartinsville,Virginia(HenryCounty),thoughhewasbornin
1929in
[Endpage8]
McDowellCounty,WestVirginia.4Hairstonhasbeenplayingthebanjosincehewasaroundeleven.Helearned
fromanuncle,whoalsoplayedfiddleandguitar,andfromother,olderblackbanjoplayers,allofwhomfrailed.

Threeofthemusiciansareintheirfifties.JohnJackson,bornin1924andraisedinWoodville,Virginia
(RappahannockCounty),nowlivesinFairfaxCounty.Hehasalsobeenplayingbanjo(andguitar,forwhichheis
betterknown)sincehewaseleven.Hisfather,whowasbornin1888,playedthebanjo,butJacksonsayshecould
neverfigureoutwhathisfatherwasdoing,sinceheplayedlefthanded.SohelearnedmorefromhisUncleJim
Clark,whoplayedinadropthumbtrailingstyle,andfromanumberofotherbanjoplayersintheneighborhood,
especiallyFrenchTurner.IrvinCook,alsobornin1924,hasalwayslivedinHenryCounty,Virginia.Asaboyhe
learnedtoplaybanjoinatwofingerpickingstylefromhisfather,SylvesterCook,borninthe1890's.5Cook
frequentlyplayswithLeonardBowles,whoaccompanieshimonfiddle.Bowles,bornin1919inHenryCounty,
wherehestilllives,alsoplaysthebanjo.Hetookituponlyafewyearsago,afterabanjoplayinguncledied,so
thatthetraditionwouldnotalsodie.Bowles'smotherandanauntalsoplayedthebanjotheyfraileditwhilehis
uncleusedatwofingerpickingstyle.

AmongthethreeinformantsintheirsixtiesisRufusKasey,whosefamilyhaslivedinHuddleston,Virginia
(BedfordCounty),forseveralgenerations.Kaseywasbornin1918andhasbeenplayingthebanjosincehewas
eight.Hisfather(18821946)andallofhisunclesplayedinadropthumbfrailingstyle,asdidanumberofother
blackbanjoplayersinthearea.Likemostoftheotherbanjoplayersnotedhere,Kaseyandhisfatherplayed

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mostlyforlocaldances,usuallywithfiddlersandsometimesalsoaguitarist.RobertStuart,bornin1916in
Check,Virginia(FloydCounty),wherehehasalwayslived,learnedhisfrailingstyleasaboyfromamucholder
cousinwhowasasortofuncletohim.Hiswife'sbrotheralsousedtoplaybanjo.JohnLawsonTyreelivesin
Sontag,Virginia(FranklinCounty),afewmilesfromwherehe
[Endpage9]
wasbornin1915.Hehasasisterwhousedtoplaybanjoandguitar.Theybothlearnedfromtheirmother's
family,severalofwhomplayedbanjoandfiddle.Tyreelearnedprimarilyfromhisuncle,TorranceWadeanother
uncle,JackWade,alsoplayed.Tyreeandhiswifehaveveryfondmemoriesofthedancesheusedtoplayfor,
accompaniedbyotherblackmusicians,usuallyfiddlers.

JohnCallowayisoneofthefourmusiciansintheirseventies.Hewasbornin1906inFranklinCounty,Virginia,
buthaslivedforthelastsixtyyearsinHenryCounty.Whenhewasaboy,helearnedhisfrailingstylefromolder,
localblackbanjoplayers.6James"Clinks"Fantleroywasalsobornin1906,nearTappahannock,Virginia(Essex
County),wherehestilllivestoday.Heandhisgoodfriend,PeterBundy,bornayearearlierandalsoraisedinthe
area,weresemiprofessionalmusiciansformanyyears.FantleroyplayedprimarilytheguitarandBundythe
fiddle,thoughtheybothalsoplaythebanjo,andBundythemandolinandguitaraswell.Thereseemstohave
beenlittleornomusicaltraditionintheirfamilies,butasboysbothwereinspiredtolearnthebanjobyanolder
blackplayer,WilliamGiles,whopassedthroughtheirarea.UncleHomerWalkerwasbornin1904andraisedin
SummersCounty,WestVirginia,andforthepasttwentyorsoyears,he'slivedjustacrosstheborderinGlenLyn,
Virginia(GilesCounty).Hestartedplayingthebanjowhenhewassevenoreight.Hisbrotherswerealso
musiciansandplayedguitar,fiddle,andmandolin.Helearnedtoplaybanjofromhismother,whowasborninthe
1870s,andanuncle.OtherblackbanjoandfiddleplayersintheSummersCountyareaalsoinfluencedhim.

TheonemusicianinhisninetiesisClarenceTross,bornin1884inHardyCounty,WestVirginia,wherehelived
hiswholelife,ashisfatherhadbeforehim.Trosslearnedtoplayfromhisfather,AndyTross,whowasborn
around1850anddiedaround1910.Healsohadanuncle,Mose,whoplayedfiddlewithhisfatheratfrequently
helddances.7

Atleastonewhitebanjoplayerremembersblackbanjoplayersin
[Endpage10]
Virginiafromearlyinthiscentury.DockBoggsaid:

WhenIwasayoungboy12or13yearsofage[i.e.,around1910],myyoungerbrotherRosco
broughtacoloredmanhomewithhimoneeveningwhoplayed[banjo]withabrassbandthatusedto
bearoundNorton[WiseCounty,Virginia].Iheardhimplay"AlabamaNegro."Heplayedwithhis
forefingerandnextfingertwofingersandthumb.
TherewasacoloredstringbandplayingforadanceinNorton.IstuckmyheadinthedoorandI
likedthewaythebanjoplayerplayed,soIsaidtomyself,"IamgoingtolearntoplaythatwayandI
amgoingtopickitplainsothatpeoplewillknowwhatIamtryingtoplay.8

Boggsimpliesthatmuchofhisstyleisbasedonwhatheheardfromtheseblackplayers.(Iamsurethatother
whitebanjoplayerscouldalsotalkaboutblackplayers,iftheywereaskedtherightquestions.)

Nearlyalloftheinformantssaidthatthereweregenerallyalotofblackbanjo(andfiddle)playersintheprevious
generationandthattheyplayedfrequentlyatdances.Italladdsuptosubstantialevidenceofaveryactiveblack
traditionofbanjo/fiddlemusicfiftytoseventyyearsago.Thosefromwhomtheinformantslearnedwereadults
duringthisperiod,so,assumingthattheytoohadlearnedwhentheywereyoung,thetraditionmusthaveexisted
backasfarasaround1890.Infact,oralhistoriesfromsomeoftheinformantsprovidespecificinformationfor
tracingthetraditionbackevenfurtherthanthat.

BobJones'sgrandfather,EllieRobinson,playedbanjoinafrailingstyle.Hewasprobablyborninthe1870sand
presumablylearnedtoplayinthe1880sintheBedfordarea.InnearbyHuddleston,bothofRufusKasey's
grandfathersplayedfrailingstylebanjo(BobJonesandRufusKaseyareactuallydistantcousins).Kasey'sfather
(18821946)learnedtoplayfromthem,andKaseyhimselfwasdirectlyinfluencedbythem,sincetheywerealive

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andstillplayingwhenhewasyoungandlearningtoplay.Kaseythinksthattheywereprobablybothborn
sometimeinthe1850s.

Twootherscouldalsotracetheirtraditionsbacktosomeonebornaround1850.UncleHomerWalkerlivedfora
whilewithhismaternal
[Endpage11]
grandfatherandlearnedbanjofromhim(aswellashismotherandanuncle,asnotedabove).Hisgrandfatherwas
bornaslaveinWestVirginia,probablyaround1850.Walkerclaimsthathelivedtobe102anddiedsometwenty
oddyearsago.Aspreviouslymentioned,ClarenceTross'sinfluencescanbedatedtothe1850s.

Theseblackbanjoplayersbornsometimearoundthe1850sindicatethatatraditionofblackbanjoplaying
extendsasfarbackasthe1860satleast.HowactiveorwidespreadthetraditionwasinVirginiaandWest
Virginiaatthattimeisnotclearfromtheoralevidence,butmyguessisthatifalltheinformantscouldsupply
informationgoingbackthisfar,theoutlinesofatraditionjustasactivethenasitwasfiftyyearslaterwouldbe
apparent.

DocumentaryevidenceshowsthatablackbanjotraditionexistedinVirginianotonlyduringtheCivilWaryears,
butalsouptoahundredyearsearlier.Thisdocumentaryevidenceissummarizedinthefollowingtableof
historicalreferencestoblackbanjoplaying.MuchofithasalreadybeenmadeavailablebyDenaEpsteininher
1975articleinEthnomusicology,"TheFolkBanjo:ADocumentaryHistory,"andinhermorerecentbook,Sinful
TunesandSpirituals:BlackFolkMusictotheCivilWar.Ihavegonebacktoheroriginalsourcestogetmore
specificinformationaboutlocationfortheVirginiareferences,andIhaveaddedanumberofreferencesfrom
sourcesshedoesnotutilize,especiallyexslaveinterviews.

ReferencestoBlackBanjoPlayinginVirginiaandWestVirginia,
17501865

Dates PlayedFor Location

1850s1860s "frollicking" "easternVirginia"9

1850s1860s songs Richmondarea10

1850s1860s dances Suffolk(NansemondCo.)11

[Endpage12]

1850s1860s songsanddances CharlotteCo.12

1850s1860s dances nearNorfolk13

danceswithfiddles,tambourines,
1850s1860s
bones Yanceyville14

1850s1860s songsanddances Forest(BedfordCo.)15

1853 dancewithfiddle,bones Lynchburg16

1840s1860s dances AppomattoxCo.17

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1840s1860s dances FranklinCo.18

1840s1850s withfiddles KingGeorgeCo.19

1840s1850s danceswithfiddle FranklinCo.,nearRockyMount20

1830s1850s dances PrinceGeorgeCo.21

1830s1850s songs SouthamptonCo.22

18391842 danceswithfiddles MecklenburgCo.23

1830s dance PrinceEdwardCo.,lowerend24

1832 songsanddances betweenRichmondandJamestown25

touredNorthernNeck,Fredericksburg,
1820s notspecified
Charlottesville,Richmond,Norfolk26

1820s taughtJoelSweeney AppomattoxCo.27

1817 songs Richmond28

1806 dance Wheeling,W.Va.29

1799 songs Richmond30

1781 notspecified Virginia,esp.AlbemarleCo.31

17551780 notspecified NansemondCo.,nearSuffolk32

1774 dance WestmorelandCo.33

touredNorfolk,Jamestown,Richmond,
late1760s dances
PetersburgsouthtoNorthCarolina34

17591775 songsanddances CarolineandKingGeorgeCo.35

1750s songs nearFredericksburg36

ThedocumentaryevidencedepictsacontinuouslineofblackbanjoplayersinVirginiaasfarbackasthemiddle
oftheeighteenthcentury.Howwidespreadthetraditionwasatvariouspoints
[Endpage13]
alongthewayisdifficulttosay.Someofthesourcesreferonlytoindividualplayers,butathirdofthem,
distributedthroughoutthecenturybetweenthe1760sandthe1860s,specificallymakeacaseforthegeneral
popularityoftheinstrumentamongVirginiablacks.Itisalsousefultopointoutthat,forthecenturyjust
mentioned,morehistoricalreferencestoblackbanjoplayinghavebeenfoundforVirginiathanforanyother
state.Thismayhaveasmuchtodowiththedistributionofhistoricaldocumentsasitdoeswiththedistributionof
blackbanjoplaying,butitisapointworthnoting.

ThegeographicaldistributionofthesecitationswithinthestateofVirginiaisalsointeresting.Nearlyallare
locatedinTidewaterandPiedmontVirginiaintheearlypartoftheperiodtheyaremostlyfromtheTidewater
area,andinthelatterpartoftheperiodsomeareattheverywesternedgeofthePiedmont.Thisdistributionisnot
toosurprising,giventhepatternofsettlementinVirginia,butitdoesindicatethatthisareashouldbesubjectto
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morefieldworkthanithasbeensofarespecially,Iwouldsay,theNorthernNeckandtheareasouthof
Richmond,westofNorfolk,andeastofDanville.

Threeotherobservationsaboutthesehistoricalreferencesarealsoimportant.Themajorityspecificallyconnect
thebanjoplayingwithdancing,justasthecontemporaryinformantsdo,indicatingcontinuityintheprimary
functionoftheinstrument.Inaddition,againconsonantwithoraltestimonyrelatingtothelatenineteenthandthe
twentiethcenturies,anumberofthedocumentarycitationsmentionthebanjoandfiddletogether.Sincethe
principalfocusofthisessayisthebanjo,manyreferencestoblackfiddlerswillnotbediscussed.Thepointisthat
blackbanjoplayingisonlyonehalfofacontinuoustraditionofbanjo/fiddlemusicfunctioningprimarilyas
dancemusic.

Thethirdobservationismorespeculative,butstillworthdiscussingitdealswiththenumberofstringstheblack
folkbanjohadinearlierperiods.Mostofthesourcesdonotmentionthe
[Endpage14]
precisenumberofstringsonthebanjostheyrefertoinfact,onlytwomakeunequivocalstatements:Jefferson
saidtherewerefourandJohnSmythspecifiedthree.37Thisismeagerevidence,butit,alongwithothernon
Virginiareferences,suggeststhatintheearlyperiodtheformoftheinstrumentwasprobablyvariable.Bythe
middleofthenineteenthcentury,however,thiswasnolongertrue.LewisMiller's1853sketchisalittle
ambiguous,sinceitshowssixtuningpegsonthepegheadbutonlyfivestringsandfiveknotsatthetailpiecebut
thetestimonyofClarenceTross,RufusKasey,andUncleHomerWalker,basedinallthreecasesondirect
knowledge,isquiteclear.Pross'sfather,Walker'sgrandfather,andbothofKasey'sgrandfathers,whowereall
bornaround1850andprobablylearnedtoplaybanjointhe1860s,allplayedfivestringbanjos.Soitseemssafe
tospeculatethatsometimebetweenthe1760sandthe1860s,theformofthebanjoinblackfolktraditionbecame
standardizedatfivestrings.

Weknowthatthefivestringbanjobecamestandardintheminstrelshowsbythemid1840satthelatest,and
probablyearlier.Itseemsquitepossiblethattheextremelypopularminstrelshowbroughtstandardizationtothe
formofthebanjoplayedinblackfolktradition,aswellashavingbeenofgreatimportanceinintroducingthe
banjotolargenumbersofwhites.Thisstandardization,infact,maybeJoelWalkerSweeney'srealclaimtofame.
Hemayhavebeenthefirsttopopularizethefivestringformoftheinstrument,causingtheminstrelshowto
adoptit,andtherebyinfluencingallotherbanjotraditions.Thisisallsomewhatspeculativethefivestringbanjo
mayalreadyhaveexistedinblackfolktraditionbeforeSweeneyandtheminstrelshowarrivedonthescenebut
evenifthatwerethecase,Isuspectthatitwasstillonlyoneofseveralforms,andthatittookSweeneyandthe
minstrelstoactuallystandardizeit.

ContemporaryblackbanjoplayersinVirginiaandWestVirginia
[Endpage15]
usetwobasicplayingstyles:adownstroking,frailingtechniqueandanupstroking,twofinger(meaningone
fingerandthethumb)pickingtechnique.Thereare,ofcourse,manyindividualvariationsonthesebasicstyles,so
notwoplayerssoundexactlyalike.

Leastnumerousarethosewhoplayonlyinthetwofinger,thumblead,pickingstyle.Theyinclude"BigSweet"
LewisHairston,whosestyleisharddriving,somewhatsyncopated,andratherbluegrassy,andIrvinCook,whose
styleisamorestraightforward,oldtime,twofingerpicking.

Fiveofthethirteenbanjoplayersstudiedplayonlyinafrailingstyle.UncleHomerWalkerplaysinafairly
uncomplicated,nondropthumbfrailingstyle,asdoesBobJones.38JohnLawsonTyreeusesanondropthumb
frailingtechniquewhichincorporatesafairamountofsyncopation.LeonardBowle'snondropthumbfrailing
placeslittleemphasisonmelodyandheavyemphasisonrhythm,thoughwithoutmuchsyncopation.John
Callowayalsoplaysinarathernonmelodicstyle,thoughhisplayingissorustythatitishardtoknowexactly
whathisstyleis,orwas.

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Theothersixinformantsusebothstylesinallinstances,though,thefrailingstyleisusedmorecommonlythan
thefingerpickingstyle.Duetoseverearthritis,ClinksFantleroynolongerplaysthebanjo(andtheguitar,his
maininstrument,onlyalittle),buthesaysthatheoncebothfrailedandpicked.Hisfriend,PeterBundy,playsa
normalbanjolefthanded,sobothhispickingandpseudofrailingstylearealittlestrange.ThetapesofClarence
Tross'splayingthatIhaveheard(recordedandgraciouslymadeavailabletomebyMikeSeeger)indicatethatin
additiontosimpletwofingerpickingandstandarddropthumbfrailingstyles,Trossplayedatleastonepieceina
modifiedfrailingstylewhichreversestheflowofthestroke(sothatthethumbnoteratherthanthefingernote
comesonthebeat)andcreatesconsiderablesyncopation.JohnJacksonplaysthebanjointwoandthreefinger
pickingstyles,inastraightnondrop
[Endpage16]
thumbfrailingstyle,andinauniquestyleofhisownthatstartsasafrailingdownstrokeandendsaspicking,
producingaveryfull,ripplingsound.RufusKaseyplaysthebanjomostofteninarathersyncopatednondrop
thumbfrailingstyle,butheoccasionallyfingerpicksatune,usuallyabluesyone,withtwofingers.RobertStuart
doesnotplaymuchanymorebut,whencoaxed,playsmostlyinasimplenondropthumbfrailingstyle,thoughhe
usedtwofingerpickingononepieceheplayedforme.

ContemporaryblackbanjoplayingtraditioninVirginia,then,includesbothfrailingandfingerpicking,withsome
musiciansusingonlyoneortheother,butmanycapableofusingboth.Iwasunabletofindacoherentpatternof
distributionoffrailingvs.pickingstylestheybothseemtobespreadthroughouttheregion.Overall,frailingis
morecommon.Amongthosewhofrail,onlyacoupleuseadropthumbtechniquemostusethethumbonlyon
thefifthstring.Otherfeaturescommontobothbasicstylesamongthesemusiciansareslidesandthefrequentuse
ofhammeronsandpulloffswiththelefthandtogetextranotes.Rarelydoanyofthemplayabovethefifthfret.

Thewayinwhichthesemusicianstunetheirinstrumentsissomewhatrelatedtotheirplayingstylessotheyuse
severaldifferenttunings,allofwhicharealsoknownandusedbywhitebanjoplayers.Themostcommontuning
istheGtuning,gDGBD,alsocalled"highbass"bysome.Thenextmostfrequentlyusedtuning,sometimes
called"lowbass,"istheCtuning,gCGBD.AnopenDtuning,aDF#AD,isusedfor"Reuben"andafewother
pieces,andthe"Cuckoo"tuning,amodaltuning,gDGCD,isusedfor"CuckooBird"andseveralotherpieces.
The"FoxChase"tuning,gDGAD,isusedonlyforthatpiece.Nearlyalloftheinformantstunedtheirinstruments
somewhatbelowstandardpitch,andafewtunedthemquitefarbelow.

Bothfrailingandpickingwerealsoknowntothepreviousgenerationofplayers,backattheturnofthecentury,
althoughfrailing
[Endpage17]
wasprobablyevenmoreprevalentthenthanitisnow.Andmoreofthefrailersusedadropthumbtechniquein
thatgenerationthantoday.Forinstance,RufusKaseydoesnotdrophisthumb,butsaysthathisfatheranduncles
didintheirplaying.AsyetIhavefoundnoevidenceofanythingbutfrailingamongblackplayerstwo
generationsago,backintothe1860s.Aslightamountofdocumentaryevidencelendssupporttothethesisthat
theearliestblackplayingstyleinVirginiawasprobablyakindoffrailing,notfingerpicking.

WilliamSmith'scommentsabouta"beerdance"inthe1830sincludesomeremarksthatrelate,indirectly,to
playingstyle.Heattributesthe"pleasurablehilarity"ofthescene,nottothepersimmonbeer,whichhefeelsis
notintoxicating,butrathertothe"wildnotesofthe'banjor"':

Thereisanindescribablesomethinginthetonesofthisrudeinstrument,thatstrikesthemostdelicate
andrefinedearwithpleasingemotiontheuninterruptedtwangorvibrationofitsstrings,producesa
soundasitdiesaway,thatbordersonthesublime.Inevercouldaccountforitswonderfuleffectona
wellorganizedear,capableofdistinguishingandappreciatingagreeablesoundsunlessitbe
admitted,thatconcordanddiscordaresocompletelyblendedastoproduceperfectharmony.

Theseroundaboutremarkswouldseemtosuggestthattherewassomethingstrangeyetpleasingaboutthesound
ofthebanjotooneusedtoEuropeanmusic.Furtheron,hespeaksofthe"banjorman...Tumminghisbanjor,
grinningwithludicrousgesticulationsandplayingoffhiswildnotestothecompany,"andof"thebanjor'stum,
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tum,tum."39Thewildnessofthesound,theuninterruptedtwang,andthetum,tum,tummingareallmore
suggestiveofthesoundofafrailedbanjothanafingerpickedone.Inthe1760s,JonathanBouchersuggested
someofthesamequalitiesinhisdescriptionofthebanjo:"Itssoundisadull,heavy,grumblingmurmuryetitis
notwithoutsomethinglikemelody,norincapableofinspiringcheerfulnessandmirth."40InterpretingSmith'sand
Boucher'sremarksasevidencethatafrailingstylewasusedmaybesomewhatconjectural,butotherremarks
providecomparisonsthatmakethisinterpretationmoresubstantial.

[Endpage18]

In1799,ThomasFairfaxrecordedthefollowingimpressionofblackbanjoplaying:

HeappearedtobequiteanadeptonthisAfricaninstrument,whichthoitmaynotbearacomparison
withtheGuitar,iscertainlyCapableofConveyingmuchpleasuretoamusicalear.Itswildnotesof
melodyseemtoCorrespondwiththestateofCivilizationoftheCountrywherethisspeciesofmusic
originated.41

Herearethe"wildnotes"again,andanawarenessthatthebanjosoundedquitedifferentfromaguitar,whichat
thistimewouldhavebeenplayedinasimplified,"classical"fingerpickingstyle.Furtherevidencethatthe
earlieststylewasakindoffrailingratherthanfingerpickingcomesagainfromJonathanBoucher.Heendshis
commentsonthebanjobyquotingthefollowingsongverse:

NegroSamboplayfinebanjar,
Makehisfingersgolikehandsaw.

Fingerpickingdoesnotmakethefingersgolikeahandsaw,butadownstrokingfrailingstyledoes.

JoelWalkerSweeneyandminstrelshowbanjoplayingarealsorelevanttothisdiscussionofearlyblackbanjo
playingstyleinVirginia.Inapreviousarticle,Ishowedthatminstrelbanjostylewasessentiallydropthumb
frailing,thatthisstylemusthavederivedfromblackplayingstyle,and,morespecifically,thatdescriptionsof
Sweeney'splayingindicatethathetoousedthisstyle.42SinceitisalsohardnottoconcludethatSweeneylearned
toplaythebanjofromblacksinAppomattoxinthe1820s,thisstylecanbeattributedtothem,Soallofthe
admittedlylimitedevidenceavailablesuggeststhattheearliestblackplayingstylewasadownstroking,frailing
style.

AconnectioncanalsobemadebetweenminstrelplayingandtheplayingofClarenceTross,theblackbanjo
playerfromWestVirginia.Onewayinwhichminstrelbanjostylediffersfromtraditionalplayingisintheuseof
whatIcallareversedstroke.Whereasthestandardstroke,usedbyalltraditionalbanjoplayers,
[Endpage19]
beginswiththedownstrokingfingerfollowedbythethumb,thereversedstrokebeginswiththethumbhittinga
stringfirst,onabeat,followedbythedownstrokingfinger.Whilenotallminstrelbanjopiecesusethis
technique,itisnotuncommoninthem.AndClarenceTross,onthetapesIhaveheard,playsonesongusingthis
technique.Thisonesongisarathertenuousconnectionbetweenblackbanjoplayingandearlyminstrelplaying,
butonethatIthinkisworthmentioningbecause,whileIhaveheardnowhitebanjoplayerswhousethis
technique,Ihaveheardtwootherblackbanjoplayers,oneinNorthCarolinaandtheotherinMississippi,who
alsouseit,eventhoughmostblackbanjoplayersdonot.

Alesstenuousdifferentiationbetweenwhiteandblackplayingingeneralinvolvessyncopation,Theplayingof
thecontemporaryVirginiaandWestVirginiablackplayersdiscussedhere,takenasagroup,ismarkedbya
generaltendencytowardmoresyncopationthantheplayingofwhites.(Thisisonlyatendency,anditappearsin
varyingdegreesamongtheindividualplayerssomedonotshowthistendencyatall.)Overall,thesimilaritiesin
whiteandblackplayingstyleoutweighthedifferences,afactIwillcomebackto.

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Ihavebeeninterestedinexploringnotonlytheplayingstyles,butalsotherepertoireoftheseblackbanjoplayers.
Atthispoint,whatIhavetosayaboutrepertoireisonlypreliminary.Ihavebeentoseemostoftheseperformers
onlyonce,forseveralhours,andwhileineachcaseIthinkIrecordedthesongsandtunesthatwereuppermostin
theirminds,Icertainlycannotclaimtohaveexhaustedtheirrepertoires.43Nonetheless,Ithinkthefollowinglist
ofpiecesthatthesemusiciansplayandsingpresentsagoodcrosssectionofthetotalrepertoireknowntoblack
banjoplayersinVirginiaandWestVirginia.Whatmaynotbevalidaboutthelististhenumberofinformantswho
actuallyknowanyonesong.Ihaveindicatedalternatetitles
[Endpage20]
whereIknewthemorthecommontitleofasongforwhichtheinformantgaveanunusualtitle,butIdonot
guaranteethatIhaverecognizedandclarifiedallsuchsituations.

Song/Tune Informants Number

JOHNHENRY LH,JJ,LB,IC,CT,BE,EN 7
GOIN'DOWNTHEROADFEELIN'BAD(LonesomeRoad
LH,JJ,IC,JT,RK,HW 6
Blues)
FOXCHASE PB,RS,JT,CT,RK,HW 6
OLDJOECLARK JJ,LB,RK,HW,PB,CF 6
SOLDIER'SJOY LB,CT,RK,HW,PB,CF 6
CUCKOO(Bird) RS,JT,JC,RK,HW 5

CLUCKOLDHEN RS,RK,HW,CF 4
SALLYANN HW
ShakeYourLittleFootSallyAnn JT
4
DineEO RK
PrettyLittleGirlGetYourFootOutoftheSand CT

MISSISSIPPISAWYER LH,RK(2),HW 3
CINDY JJ,CT,HW 3
REUBEN JJ,RK,HW 3
SHORTNIN'BREAD LB,RK,PB 3

CRIPPLECREEK RK(2),CT,HW 3

HALLIECOMETOTHEWINDOW LH,LB 2
TURKEYINTHESTRAW LH,CT 2
REDWING JJ,PB 2
BOILTHEMCABBAGEDOWN LH,JJ 2

OHSUSANNA JJ,CT 2
COMIN'ROUNDTHEMOUNTAINCHARMINGBETSEY JJ(2),JC 2
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HOPLIGHTLOU(=Roustabout) JT,RK 2
I'LLSEEYOUWHENYOURTROUBLESGETLIKEMINE JC,RK 2

JESSEJAMES RK(2),HW 2
SOURWOODMOUNTAIN RK(2),HW 2
SALLYGOODIN PB,CF 2
ROUNDTOWN(Buffalo)GALS RK(2),CT 2

COTTONEYEDJOE LH 1
DANCEAROUNDLITTLEMOLLY(=Molly&Tenbrooks) LH 1
GOINGACROSSTHEOCEAN LH 1
IDARED LH 1
MOUNTAINDEW LH 1

POORBOYLONGWAYFROMHOME LH 1
SITTINGONTOPOFTHEWORLD LH 1
HARDLUCKBLUES LH 1
BILLYINTHELOWGROUND LH 1

GRANDPA'SOLDMULEYCOW(=HereRattlerHere) RS 1
MCKINLEY(=WhiteHouseBlues) RS 1
BLACKANNIE RS 1
LEFTMETHISMORNINGBLUES JJ 1

WHENYOUANDIWEREYOUNGMAGGIE JJ 1
[Endpage21]
HATTIEWANNALOU JJ 1
IWISHIWASAMOLEINTHEGROUND JJ(2) 1

GROUNDHOG JJ(2) 1
LEATHERBRITCHES JJ(2) 1
IT'SGOINGTOBERAINORSNOWWHENYOUHEAR
JJ(2) 1
THATCOCKADOODLECROW
MYMOTHERTOLDMEIFIBEGOODSHEBUYMEA
JJ(2) 1
RUBBERDOLLY
IFYOUHAVETROUBLE,SAVEYOURSOUL LB 1

EATWHENI'MHUNGRY LB 1
TAKETHISRINGIGIVEYOU LB 1
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THEMANWHORODETHEMULEAROUNDTHEWORLD LB 1
MOMMA,MOMMA,LOOKATSIS LB 1

RABBITONALOG LB 1
JOHNCROSSEDTHEISLANDONHISKNEES LB 1
WISHTOTHELORDI'DNEVERBEENBORN LC 1
OLDROOSTERCROWEDINPINETREETOP LC 1

HERECOMESAREDBIRDTHROUGHTHEWINDOW LC 1
OLDBLUE CT 1
YOUAREMYSUNSHINE CT 1
CARRYMEBACKTOOLDVIRGINNY CT 1

MISSLUCYNEALDOWNINTHECOTTONFIELDS CT 1
GOINGBACKTOBALTIMORE CT 1
SORRYILEFTMYFATHER'SHOME(tunelikeGeorgie
CT 1
Buck)
GOIN'ONDOWNTOTOWN CT 1
FAREWELLTOANGELINE CT 1
COLDDRINKOFWATER,COLDDRINKOFWINE CT 1

LOWANDLONELY CT 1
DARLINGWRITETOME CT 1
BABY,LORD,IDOLOVEYOU RK 1
SEEYOUWHENYOU'REALLOUTANDDOWN RK 1

OLDAUNTDINAH RK 1
OH,LORDMOMMALOOKATSAM RK 1
WILLTHECIRCLEBEUNBROKEN RK 1
TAKEMEBACKANDTRYMEONEMORETIME RK(2) 1
ROCKINGCHAIRBLUES HW 1

SUGARHILL HW 1
BRIGHTERDAYACOMING HW 1
STEALAWAY HW 1
UNCLOUDYDAY HW 1

IFYOUDON'TLIKETHEWAYIDO,MOVEONDOWN HW 1

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THELINE
WORRIEDBLUES HW 1
DANCEALLNIGHT HW 1
JOHNHARDY HW 1
LIZAJANE HW 1

WHOAMULE HW 1
ROLLONBUDDY HW 1
MYBLUEHEAVEN PB 1
FISHER'SHORNPIPE CF 1

JOHNBROWN'SDREAM CF 1

[Endpage22]

Anumberofobservationscanbemadeabouttheprecedinglist.First,mostoftheinformantssingwordstomost
oftheirpiecesstrictlyinstrumentalrenditionsareintheminority,althoughthisvarieswiththeindividual.Some,
likeLewisHairstonorUncleHomerWalker,singwordstonearlyalloftheirpieces,whileother[s],likeRufus
KaseyorJohnLawsonTyree,knowsomewordstomostoftheirsongsbutrarelysingunlesspressuredtodoso,
claimingtheyarenotgoodsingers.Second,therepertoireincludesextremelyfewballadssongswithanything
likeafullandcoherentnarrativearerare.Thelyricalfolksongistherule.Third,agenreofsongthatonemight
particularlylookforfromblackmusicians,thebluessong,iswellrepresentedintherepertoirebutwhilemostof
theinformantsplayedafewbluespiecesonthebanjo(somewerepickedandsome,lessexpectedly,were
frailed),suchpiecesaredefinitelyaminorportionofanyindividual'srepertoire.Fourth,althoughafewofthe
songsaremorepopularthantraditional("WhenYouandIWereYoung,Maggie,"MyBlueHeaven"),thevast
majorityseemtobetraditional,evenifquitelocal("HallieCometotheWindow").Butitisespeciallyinteresting
tonotethatagoodnumberofthetraditionalpiecesapparentlyoriginatedinanearlierpopularinstitution
connected,inwaysnotyetfullydocumented,toblackmusic:theminstrelshow.Minstrelsongsintherepertoire
include"TurkeyintheStraw,""OhSusanna,""RunNiggerRun,""Shortnin'Bread,"BuffaloGals,""CarryMe
BackToOldVirginny,""MissLucyNealDownintheCottonFields,""GoingBackToBaltimore,""Goin'On
DownToTown,"and"OldAuntDinah."Theinformantwhoserepertoirecontainsthelargestpercentageof
minstrelsongs,ClarenceTross,inalsotheonewhoseplayingononesong,asnotedabove,usedatechnique
commoninminstrelbanjotunesbutnotintraditionalplaying.

Mostimportant,however,isthattherepertoirelistcontainsathoroughmixtureofsongswithsupposedlyAnglo
AmericanoriginsandsongswithsupposedlyAfroAmericanorigins.I'mnotgoingtostickmyneckoutandgo
downthelistsayingwhichonesare
[Endpage23]
[and]which[arenot](someareobvious,somearenot)neverthelessthemixtureshouldbeobvious.Andmostof
thetunesonthislist,whatevertheirorigins,arealsocommonlyplayedbywhitebanjoplayers."JohnHenry,"in
fact,isprobablythemostwidelyknownpieceamongwhiteandblackbanjoplayersalike.

Thatthereisabodyoftunesandsongslike"JohnHenrythatreadilycrossesthecolorlineandhascrosseditfora
longtimeis,ofcourse,notnews.Thephrase"commonstock"hasbeenusedtodescribethisbodyofracially
sharedsongs.TonyRussell,forinstance,doesagoodjobofdiscussingthecommonstockinBlacks,Whitesand
Blues.45Hepresentsalistoftunesthathesays"givesafairlycomprehensiveideaofcommonstockmaterial,"
althoughhesuggeststhatanexhaustivelistmightbetwoorthreetimeslonger.Sinceonlytwelveofthesongson
theaboverepertoirelistareincludedinRussell'slist,Iwouldsuggestthatthecommonstockmaybemuchmore
extensivethanitisusuallythoughttobe,evenmoreextensivethantwoorthreetimesRussell'slist.However,the
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realpointhereisthatlittleabouttherepertoireofblackbanjoplayersinVirginiaisexclusivelyoruniquely
"black"themajorityofitissharedwithwhites.

Thisfactmakesonecuriousabouttheamountofdirectmusicalinteractiontheseblackmusicianshavehadwith
whitemusicians.ThisisanissuethatIdiscussedwithmostoftheinformants,and,asonemightexpect,Igota
varietyofresponses.Unfortunately,Idonothaveresponsesfromfiveoftheinformantsthree(Tross,Cook,and
Calloway),becauseIdidnotinterviewthemandthosewhodiddidnotdealwiththisissue,andtwo(Jonesand
Bowles),becauseImyselfneglectedtodealwithit.Mysuspicionaboutthefiveisthattheymayhavehadsome
directcontactwithwhitemusicians,butprobablynotverymuch.

Theremainingeightinformants,startingwiththosewhohavehadlittleornocontact,provideamoredefinitive
basisfordiscussion.RufusKaseysaidthathehadneverplayedwithwhitemusicians,
[Endpage24]
thoughheknowssome.Heisawareofbluegrassasawhitemusicalformandsometimesgoestohearabluegrass
groupinRockyMount.Yetthismusicappearstohavehadnoinfluenceonhisownmusic,allofwhichheclaims
helearnedfromhisfatherandgrandfathers.Heassumed,infact,thatallwhitebanjoplayersmustuseabluegrass
fingerpickingstyle,andwhenIplayed"CluckOldHen"forhiminafrailingstylelikehisown,hisjawdropped,
andhesaidwhenIwasdone,"Ineversawawhitemanplaythatway."JohnLawsonTyreehasalsohadlittle
directcontactwithwhitemusicians.Hetoldmethathehadsometimesplayedwiththem,butIgotthefeelingthat
thismusthavebeenrare,thathemostlyplayedbyhimselfandwithotherblacksatblackdances.

Atsomeintermediatelevelofblack/whiteinteractionisRobertStuart.Hetoldmeaboutalotofothermusicians
heknewinthearea,allofwhomarewhite.Justhowmuchheplayedwiththemisnotclear,butoneofthefew
piecesheplayedforme,afingerpicked,bluesykindofpiece,hesaidhelearneddirectlyfromawhiteman.

Therestoftheinformantshaveallhadconsiderabledirectcontactwithwhitemusiciansandmusic.UncleHomer
WalkerusedtoplayalotwithwhitefiddlersHenryReed,BuddyThompson,andHarrisonWhite.Healsotalked
aboutthemusicheheardandplayedinthecoalfieldsofWestVirginiawhenheworkedthereintheteensthere
weremanymusicians,blackandwhite,andmanydifferentkindsofmusic.Inaddition,hefelthehadbeen
influencedalittlebyearlyrecordingsofwhitebanjoplayers.JohnJacksongrewupinanatmosphereofextensive
black/whitemusicalinteraction.HesaidthatthemanyblackandwhitemusiciansintheWoodvillearea
frequentlyplayedtogether,andthattheyplayedessentiallythesamemusic.Blackmusiciansplayedforboth
blackandwhitedances.Jacksontoldmethathisfamilywasoneofthefirstintheareatohavearadio,andthat
bothblackandwhiteneighborscameoveronSaturdaynighttolistentotheGrandOleOprytogether.Otherradio
musicandrecordings,
[Endpage25]
both"race"and"hillbilly'"alsohadaninfluenceonhismusicaldevelopment.

AnotherblackbanjoplayerwholistenedfrequentlytotheGrandOleOpryandwhoseemstohavebeeneven
morethoroughlyinfluencedbyit,is"BigSweet"LewisHairston.Heplaysoccasionallywithlocalwhite
bluegrassmusicians,andhisstyleisratherbluegrassy,thoughheusestwofingersratherthanthree.Hisplaying
hasbeensignificantlyinfluencednotonlybytheOpry,butbyrecordingsofFlattandScruggsandBillMonroe.
Hewillplay"old"songsifpersistentlyasked,butheprefersbluegrasssongs,especiallyBillMonroesongs.

And,finally,bothClinksFantleroyandPeterBundyseemtohavehadextensivecontactwithwhitemusiciansand
music.Fantleroy'sfirstintroductiontomusicwasatthehandsofwhitemusicians,Hisfamilyhadalwaysworked
forawhitefamilyintheTappahannockareawhenhewasgrowingup,thesonsinthisfamilywereallmusicians,
andhelearnedfromthem,ratherthanfromhisownfamilytradition(therewasnone)orfromlocalblacktradition
(whichapparentlywasslight).However,bothFantleroyandBundysaythatthefirstfivestringbanjoplayerthey
sawwasablackmanfromoutsidetheirarea.Heinspiredthemtomaketheirownbanjoandlearntoplayit.
FantleroyandBundyplayedtogetherassemiprofessionalmusiciansformostoftheiradultlives,atblackand
whitedancesbothintheirareaandasfarawayasBaltimoreandNewJersey,andtheyapparentlycameinto
contactwithwhitemusicianswithsomeregularity.And,morethananyoftheotherinformantsdealtwithhere,
theirrepertoire(mostlyplayedoninstrumentsotherthanthebanjo)isheavilyinfluencedbywhitepopularmusic
ofthe1920sto1940s,probablythroughcontactwithradioandrecords.
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Somescholars,myselfincluded,havelongconsideredtraditionalbanjo/fiddlestringbandmusicanexpressionof
southern,rural,basicallywhiteAngloAmericanfolkculture.Andthecontemporary[Endpage26]
studyofvariousgenresofAfroAmericanmusichastendedtoemphasizetheuniquenessofthatmusic,the
degreetowhichitdiffersfromAngloAmericanmusicalformthishasbeentrueforblues,forworksongs,and
forreligiousmusic.Buthereisalongstandingmusicaltraditionwhereblackandwhiteplayersinteractwithone
anothertovaryingdegrees,whereblackbanjoplayersusethesametuningsandthesamebasicplaying
techniquesaswhiteplayers,wheretheyplaythesamesongs,forthesamedances.Somedifferences,suchasthe
generaltendencyofblackplayerstomakegreateruseofsyncopation,canbefound,butoverallthesimilaritiesfar
outweighthedifferences.TraditionalAmericanbanjo/fiddlemusicisuniquetoneitherblacksnorwhites,butis
sharedbythem.Perhapstheentiretraditionis"commonstock."

Idonotmeantoimplythatthesimilaritiesareduemerelytoblackshavingabsorbedawhitemusicaltradition.I
repeatmybeliefthattheblack/whiteexchangeinthistraditionhasbeenatwowaystreet.TraditionalAmerican
banjo/fiddlemusicisasmuchanAfroAmericantraditionasanAngloAmericanone.

RobertB.Winans
WayneStateUniversity
NOTES
1ThomasJefferson,NotesontheStateofVirginia,reprintedition,NewYork,HarperTorchbooks,1964,p.135.

2Hiscommentonhowthebanjowastunedisalsoofinterest,thoughithascausedconfusion.ScottOdell
recentlypointedoutthatthekindofguitarJeffersonwouldhavebeenmostfamiliarwith,andprobablywas
referringto,wastheEnglishguitar(ratherthanthenowmorecommonSpanish),whichwastunedCegc'e'g'.This
meansthatthe"banjarwouldhavebeentunedeitherCegc',ifby'lower'hemeant'lowerinpitch'orgc'e'g',ifhe
meant'lowerinpositionwhenheldbytheplayer.'Theformerinterpretationgivesascordaturatuningpatternstill
sometimesusedtodayforthebanjo'sfourfulllengthstrings.Thelattergivesthetuningpatternofthemodern'G
tuning'."
[Endpage27]
(Prepublicationcopyofthearticle,"Banjo,toappearintheforthcomingneweditionofGrovesMusical
Dictionary.)Sincetheearliestknownminstrelbanjotunings,datingfromthe1840sandlikelytohavederived
fromblackfolkpractice,arecloselysimilartothelatter,thatseemstomethemorelikelyinterpretation.
3IhaveinterviewedandrecordedmostofthebanjoplayersIdiscusshere,butImustthankKipLornell,formerly
oftheBlueRidgeInstituteinFerrum,Va.,andnowfolkloristforthecityofNewportNews,forhavingfirst
locatedmanyofthem,andforhelpingmegetstartedworkingwiththem.
4KipLornell,bookletofdescriptivenotesaccompanyingrecordalbum,VirginiaTraditions:NonBluesSecular
BlackMusic,Ferrum,Va.,BRIRecords,1978[BRI001),p.10

5Ibid.,pp.78.

6Ibid.,p.12.

7KipLornellandJ.RoderickMoore,"ClarenceTross:HardyCountyBanjoist,"Goldenseal,2(1976),No.3,78.
ClarenceTrossdiedin1976.
8DockBoggs,"IAlwaysLovedtheLonesomeSongs,"SingOut!,14(1969),No,3,3233.

9JohnB.Tabb,LettertotheEditor,TheCriticandGoodLiterature,n.s.2(August,1884),No.32,65.
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10DorothyScarborough,OnTheTrailofNegroFolkSongs,Cambridge,HarvardUniversityPress,1925,p.164.

11CharlesL.Perdue,Jr.,ThomasE.Barden,andRobertK.Phillips,WeevilsintheWheat:Interviewswith
VirginiaExSlaves,Charlottesville,TheUniversityPressofVirginia,1976,p.225:interviewwithMatilda
HenriettaPerry(b.1852).
12Ibid.,p.231:interviewwithLeviPollard(b1850).

13Ibid.,p.267:interviewwithMarrindaJaneSingleton(b.1840).

14Ibid.,p.316:interviewwithNancyWilliams(b.1847).Yanceyville,Va.isinLouisaCo.,butthereference
heremaybetoYanceyville,N.C.,inCaswellCo.
15Ibid.,p.326:interviewwithRobertWilliams(b.1848).

16WatercolorsketchbyLewisMiller,reproducedinDenaEpstein"TheFolkBanjo:ADocumentaryHistory,"
Ethnomusicology,19(1975),365Epstein,SinfulTunesandSpirituals:BlackFolkMusictotheCivilWar,
Urbana,UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977,p.157andonthealbumofBRI001,NonBluesSecularBlackMusic.
17Weevils,p.49:interviewwithFannieBerry(b.1841).

18Ibid.,p.265:interviewwithMarthaShowvely(b.1837).

[Endpage28]
19WilliamFergusonGoldie,SunshineandShadowofSlaveLife,ReminiscencesasToldbyIsaacD.Williamsto
"Tege."EastSaginaw,Mich.,EveningNewsPrintingandBindingHouse,1885,p.62,reprintedinEpstein,"Folk
Banjo,"357.
20Weevils,p.82:interviewwithBailyCunningham(b.ca.1838).

21PeterRandolph,SketchesofSlaveLifeor,Illustrationsofthe'PeculiarInstitution,2nded.,Boston,published
bytheAuthor,1855,p.68citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"357.
22Weevils,p.141:interviewwithMarriahHines(b.1835).

23MaryA.Livermore,TheStoryofMyLifeor.TheSunshineandShadowofSeventyYears,Hartford,Conn.,
A.D.WorthingtonandCo.,1897,p.257citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"357.Epstein'sdateof1847isalittlelater
thanLivermorewasactuallyinVirginia.
24WilliamB.Smith,"ThePersimmonTreeandtheBeerDance,"Farmers'Register(Shellbanks,Va.),6(April,
1838),5861reprintedinBruceJackson,TheNegroandHisFolkloreinNineteenthCenturyPeriodicals,Austin,
UniversityofTexasPress,1967,pp.39.
25JohnPendletonKennedy,SwallowBarn:or,ASojournintheOldDominion,Philadelphia,CareyandLea.
1832,I,pp.110113citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"355356.
26JohnFinch,TravelsintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandCanada,London,Longman,Rees,Orme,Brown,
GreenandLongman,1833,pp.237238citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"360.
27ArthurWoodward,"JoelSweeneyandtheFirstBanjo,"LosAngelesCountyMuseumQuarterly,7(Spring,
1949),7.

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28JamesKirkePaulding,LettersFromtheSouth,byaNorthernMan,NewYork,HarperandBrothers,1835,I,
pp.9697citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"355.
29ThomasAshe,TravelsinAmerica,Performedin1806,London,R.Phillips,1808,I,p.233citedinEpstein,
"FolkBanjo,"360.
30ThomasFairfax,JourneyfromVirginiatoSalem.Massachusetts(1799),London,PrintedforPrivate
Circulation,1936,p,2citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"354.
31Jefferson,Notes,p.135.

32VirginiaGazette,Jan.8,1780,p.[2],col.3,andFeb.18,1775,p.[3],col.2citedinEpstein,SinfulTunes,p.
34.
33HunterD.Parish,ed.,JournalandLettersofPhilipVickersFithian.17731774,Williamsburg,Va.,Colonial
Williamsburg,1943,p.83citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"360.
34JohnF.D.Smyth,ATourintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,London,PrintedforG.Robinson,J.Robson,andJ.
Sewell,1784,I,p.46citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"354.

[Endpage29]

35JonathanBoucher,Boucher'sGlossaryofArchaicandProvincialWords,London,PrintedforBlack,Young
andYoung,1852,BANcitedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"353.
36JohnDavis,TravelsofFourYearsandaHalfintheUnitedStatesofAmericaDuring1798,1799,1800,1801,
and1802,NewYork,HenryHolt,1909,pp.413416citedinEpstein,"FolkBanjo,"360.Anoldslavementions
playingthebanjoasayoungman,probablyinthe1750s.
37"abanjor(alargehollowinstrumentwiththreestrings)Smyth,ATour,I,p.46.

38Joneshintedatonepointthathealsoplayedinafingerpickingstyle,butheneverdemonstratedthistome.

39Smith,"PersimmonTreeandBeerDance,"italicsinoriginal.

40Boucher,Glossary,BAN.

41Fairfax,JourneyfromVirginia,p.2.

42RobertB.Winans,"TheFolk,theStage,andtheFiveStringBanjointheNineteenthCentury,"Journalof
AmericanFolklore,89(1976),407437.
43InafewcaseswhereIhavenotactuallybeentoseetheinformant,Ihavebeenfortunatetoheartapesand
receiveinformationcollectedbyKipLornellandMikeSeeger.Inseveralothercases,tapesmadebyLornellhave
supplementedmyown.
44Theinitialsusedherestandforthefollowinginformants:LH=LewisHairston,JJ=JohnJackson,LB=
LeonardBowles,
IC=IrvinCook,CT=ClarenceTross,RK=RufusKasey,
HW=HomerWalker,JT=JohnLawsonTyree,PB=PeterBundy,RS=RobertStuart,CF=ClinksFantleroy,
JO=JohnCalloway.A"(2)"followinganinitialmeansthattheinformanttoldmethatsomeoneintheprevious
generationplayedthatsong,thoughtheythemselvesnolongerplayit.

http://faculty.virginia.edu/vafolk/ffv1.htm 19/20
4/24/2017 Folklore&FolklifeinVirginia,Vol.1,1979
45TonyRussell,Blacks,WhitesandBlues,NewYork,SteinandDay,1970,pp.2531.

[EndPage30]

[Note:Forthosewhowouldliketohearexamplesofblackbanjomusicfrommanyofthesameindividualsand
fieldrecordedsourcesRobertWinansdiscussedinthisarticle,seetheeditor'scommentaryontherecentrelease,
BlackBanjoSongstersofNorthCarolinaandVirginia,alongwithdirectionsfororderingtheCDfrom
SmithsonianFolkwaysRecordingsontheWhat'sHappening?page.]

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http://faculty.virginia.edu/vafolk/ffv1.htm 20/20