Mapping and Structural Geology

in
Metals Exploration

Rod Holcombe

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Table of Contents
MAPPING AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY IN METALS EXPLORATION ........................ 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 4
PART 1: REVIEW OF MAPS AND MAPPING .............................................................. 7
1.1 Fundamentals of a good interpretation map ..................................................... 7
1.2 Fundamentals of the mapping process: ............................................................. 8
1.3 Mapping scales .................................................................................................. 9
1.4 Map types .......................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Mapping design ............................................................................................... 10
Where to start ......................................................................................................... 11
How much to measure ............................................................................................ 11
Data confidence ...................................................................................................... 12
Time allocation........................................................................................................ 12
1.6 Contact interpretation....................................................................................... 13
1.7 Mapping precision............................................................................................ 14
Importance of map fidelity ....................................................................................... 14
1.8 Reading Outcrops the thought processes ..................................................... 15
1.9 Model vs Facts................................................................................................. 16
1.10 Reading Outcrops and model synthesis an example..................................... 17
Creek Traverse ....................................................................................................... 17
Putting it all together: synthesising a model ............................................................ 21
1.11 Map production: from field to computer ............................................................ 22
Field fact map........................................................................................................ 22
Compiled fact map .................................................................................................. 23
Structure of Observed Data tables .......................................................................... 23
Interpretation added ................................................................................................ 24
Structure of Interpretation tables ............................................................................. 24
1.12 Underground mine mapping............................................................................. 25
1.13 Open Pit Mapping ............................................................................................ 27
PART 2: DETAILS: TECHNICAL ASPECTS ................................................................ 28
2.1 Geodetic Basics ............................................................................................... 29
Locations and grids ................................................................................................. 29
The Idea of North .................................................................................................... 30
Declination rate of change ...................................................................................... 31
Declination gradient ................................................................................................ 32
2.2 Structural Measurements ................................................................................. 32
Direction azimuths: ................................................................................................. 32
Orientation conventions for planes: ......................................................................... 32
Measurement of planes .......................................................................................... 33
Orientation conventions for lines: ............................................................................ 34
Measurement of lines.............................................................................................. 34
Conversions of pitch angles of lines to plunge and direction ................................... 35
2.3 Symbols and annotations................................................................................. 35
2.4 Contacts and topography ................................................................................. 36
Planar contacts and topography ............................................................................. 36
Curved contacts and topography ............................................................................ 39
Determination of strike and dip from topographic contact trace ............................... 41
2.5 Database Fundamentals ...................................................................................... 43
Database design ..................................................................................................... 46

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PART 3: DETAILS - GEOLOGICAL ISSUES ................................................................ 47

3.1 Surface traces of fold hinges............................................................................ 48
Difference between fold trends and axial traces ...................................................... 48
Oddities of reclined folds in maps and sections....................................................... 48
Fold axial traces in maps ........................................................................................ 49
3.2 Handling disharmonic folding ........................................................................... 51
The general mapping problem ................................................................................ 51
Bedding in strongly folded outcrops ........................................................................ 52
Cross-sections and disharmonic folding .................................................................. 53
Transposition and mapping ..................................................................................... 54
3.3 Mapping in areas lacking mappable contacts................................................... 55
3.4 Trend surface contours in areas of low dips ..................................................... 56
3.5 Handling folded or cleaved outcrops ................................................................ 58
Down-plunge viewing .............................................................................................. 58
What to measure .................................................................................................... 58
The advantage of vergence .................................................................................... 59
Extracting more information .................................................................................... 60
Location in the larger fold structure ......................................................................... 61
3.6 Using bed facing (younging) ............................................................................ 62
3.7 Using fold facing .............................................................................................. 63
3.8 Shear zones: high-strain zones in lower strain rocks ....................................... 65
Questions to think about when interpreting shear zones: ........................................ 67
Dilation, veins, and mineralisation in shear zones ................................................... 80
3.9 Complex multiple deformation: when to call in the experts ............................... 83
PART 4: GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: UNDERSTANDING THE GEOMETRY......... 85
4.1 Younging criteria in rocks ................................................................................. 86
Cross-lamination (cross-bedding) ........................................................................... 87
Density flow (turbidite) structures ............................................................................ 89
4.2 Map contacts ................................................................................................... 92
Types of contact: .................................................................................................... 92
Concordant contacts in sedimentary rocks.............................................................. 93
Concordant igneous contacts.................................................................................. 94
Discordant contacts in sedimentary rocks ............................................................... 95
4.3 Basic structures: faults ..................................................................................... 96
Determining fault slip from slickensides and slickenlines ........................................ 97
4.4 Basic structures: folds ...................................................................................... 98
2D fold shape ......................................................................................................... 98
3D fold shape:......................................................................................................... 99
Fold orientation names and outcrop patterns .......................................................... 99
4.5 Disharmonic folding ....................................................................................... 100
Disharmonic folding and transposition .................................................................. 101
Disharmonic folding and congruency of minor folds .............................................. 102
Fold vergence ....................................................................................................... 102
4.6 Fabrics: foliations, cleavage, lineation............................................................ 103
Basic terminology ................................................................................................. 104
4.9 Structure compatibility, linkage and anomalous structures ............................. 105
Regionally linked structures .................................................................................. 105
Relay structures .................................................................................................... 107
Local accommodation structures .......................................................................... 108

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PART 5: GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: DEFORMATION AND FLOW IN

METAMORPHIC ROCKS ............................................................................................ 111
5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 112
5.1 Deformation ................................................................................................... 112
Types of deformation ............................................................................................ 113
Instantaneous strain ............................................................................................. 115
Finite strain ........................................................................................................... 116
Progressive Deformation ...................................................................................... 117
5.2 Strain, Structures, and Grain fabrics ................................................................... 119
3D Strain and Fabric Types .................................................................................. 120
Crustal deformation modes ................................................................................... 122
Local deformation producing prolate (L) and oblate (S) fabrics ............................. 124
Deformation partitioning ........................................................................................ 125
5.3 Shear zones .................................................................................................. 126
5.3 Structural fabric elements: the basic elements of structural analysis .............. 131

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INTRODUCTION
Fieldwork and mapping are fundamental activities in almost every branch of geology, but
perceptions vary widely as to what makes a good map and what constitutes appropriate
fieldwork to produce a good map. The realities of modern University courses are such that
many graduates have received only perfunctory training in the very basics of mapping even
though they may have done considerable fieldwork in more advanced subjects. Geological
mapping is a subset of fieldwork but other subsets are commonly presumed by some
training institutions as being sufficiently synonymous with mapping to provide the basic
field training of a geologist. Systematic petrological sampling surveys, geophysical surveys,
and compilation of stratigraphic transects are important activities, but none of them is a
substitute for training in geological mapping.

In exploration and mining, geological mapping is the process of producing a 2D

interpretation of the distribution of rock units and structures across an area that might be as
small as a quarry floor or as large as an entire mining district. One important aspect of the
process is the production of a map showing the raw observational data (commonly known
as a fact map or outcrop map). A fact map alone is not the end product of geological
mapping. At all scales the interpretation map is the target product. Thus geological mapping
is always interpretive. Even when your assigned task is to produce a raw fact map alone,
elements of interpretation should still appear in your raw field data (either in your field book
or on the map). Mapping should never be treated as simply a task of identifying rock types
but of identifying the position of the local outcrop in a stratigraphic or structural sequence of
units. A common problem in many exploration and mining companies is that the urge to
produce database-friendly standardised codes for field observations also tends to suppress
the very important interpretive aspect of the fieldwork. The time for starting the
interpretation process is while on the outcrop, and by the person making the observations
not at a later date by that person, or by someone else analysing their factual data from a
distance.

Thus interpretation is intrinsic to mapping, and an interpretation map is the ultimate product.
In a nutshell my view of a good interpretation map is one that is accurately located,
geologically viable, clearly identifies fact from interpretation, and contains sufficient data to
allow a cross-section to be drawn. In short it is a map that can be usefully interpreted by
any geologist, now or in the future, perhaps using new concepts that are currently not
available.

Modern digital production of maps, and storage in GIS databases, adds a level of
professionalism but also adds complexity to mapping. Similarly the advent of GPS units
with metres-level precision has largely eliminated the use of local grid coordinate systems
but has added the need for geologists to fully understand the fundamentals of geodetic
datums and projections, once the sole province of surveyors and cartographers.

The skills and knowledge required to produce a geological map are both geological and
technical:
Geological (scientific) issues:
o contact recognition
o reading outcrops
o thought processes in the field
o interpretation processes
o geological basics
Technical issues:
o geodetic basics
o structural measurement techniques
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o oriented drill-core procedures

o cartographic considerations
o mapping procedures
o topographic effects
o digital aspects
file and folder structure and names
GIS and software fundamentals
database fundamentals
issues of standardisation

Technical issues relate to cartography, data presentation, and mapping design. They are
aspects that are common to all maps and mapping activities and are skills that can be
easily acquired.

The most important aspect of mapping is the geological thought that goes into it, and by far
the most important aspect listed above is the process I call reading outcrops. This is the
process of combining practical training, experience, and background theoretical knowledge
to understand and interpret every subtle feature in an outcrop, particularly when it contains
features that do not quite resemble textbook examples. Ore bodies, by definition, are
geologically anomalies that occur in geologically anomalous situations. So it is the lot of the
exploration and mining geologist to be routinely confronted by non-textbook geology that
they must understand if they are to be successful. To do so they must draw quite deeply on
both experience and background knowledge.

In practice, outcrop limitations, structural complexity, and mapping scale vary the emphasis
between observation (fact) and geological interpretation. The more these activities move
toward interpretation, the more geological knowledge and experience is required. Thus
there is a management issue balancing the duties of the most experienced geologists
between supervisory roles and hands-on fieldwork, yet allowing the less experienced
geologists to acquire experience. Too often I see middle level geologists push all fieldwork,
irrespective of complexity, on to the most inexperienced, thus raising the level of exploration
risk to the company.

The material in this manual reflects my personal view as to what makes a good map and
how to map. Mapping and nomenclature conventions vary considerably and the emphasis,
the views expressed, and the conventions used in this manual need to be merged with in-
house conventions.

The manual is aimed at the practising geologist, particularly in exploration, and particularly
working in orogenic areas with folded sedimentary and metamorphic rocks at various scales
and in areas that can be mapped and solved by the average geologist. It does not enter
very far into the world of advanced structural analysis required for the very complex areas,
although many of the observations and principles required to solve such areas are outlined.
It is born out of my experience that many of the projects I am called on to troubleshoot do
not require anything more than the application of basic techniques obtained from a
conventional training background.

The manual is divided into five successive parts:

Part 1: A moderately concise outline of the geological and technical issues of mapping.
Part 2: Expansion of some of the technical aspects of mapping and map production.
Part 3: Expansion of some of the geological techniques used in field mapping.
Part 4: Review of basic geological structures and geometrical concepts.
Part 5: Review of deformation, flow, and advanced structures.
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The assumption has been made that the reader already has a geological background and
this manual is intended as a way to focus and revise that background. It has been arranged
in reverse order to a conventional University text in that the early sections explain how and
when to apply particular techniques in the context of fieldwork and mapping, and the last
sections explain the theory behind those techniques.

This text is a work in progress. It is incomplete in some theoretical aspects and will be
added to from time to time as I find new ways for professional geologists to forget their
basic training.

2009

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________________________

September 28th 2009

Mapping & Structure in Metals Exploration Part 5 Rod Holcombe

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