POWER TRANSFORMER CORE BEHAVIOR UNDER TRANSIENT CONDITIONS

Glenn W. Swift

University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Canada

Abstract - The solution of an electric circuit problem is only
valid if the circuit elements have been validly modelled. The iron-cored
coil is a common nonlinear circuit element, especially in power system
circuits, where the iron core is laminated grain-oriented silicon-iron
sheet. This paper attempts to show that eddy-current loss modelling
in such a core is at least as important as hysteresis loss modelling, and
demonstrates the accuracy of linear modelling of the eddy-current
effect. If the circuit analyst has confidence in this complete model
he can then decide which aspects of the model can be ignored with
impunity when studying such circuit phenomena as ferroresonance,
subharmonics and inrush current.
I. INTRODUCTION
When analyzing electric utility power system networks it is some-
times necessary to simulate the dynamic behavior of a transformer or
reactor, that is, to simulate the time-dependent relationships among
current, voltage and flux for a winding on an iron core. Three
examples of problems in which nonlinear effects must be included, are
ferroresonance (as for example in an unloaded transformer at the end
of an underground cable), subharmonics (as for example in the current
into an unloaded transformer at the end of a series-capacitor-com-
pensated power transmission line), and transformer inrush current.
The qualification "unloaded" is used here because that is the condition
most likely to lead to ferroresonance or subharmonics. An unloaded
transformer has one winding open-circuited and is therefore equivalent
to a reactor for calculation purposes. The term "iron core" as used
here refers to a laminated core of grain-oriented silicon-iron sheet,
universally used in modern power transformers and reactors.
There are three' nonlinear effects introduced by iron cores:
1. saturation
2. hysteresis, and
3. eddy-currents.
In this study, the three effects are carefully distinguished, and in
this context it is of interest to examine prior papers concerned with
iron-cored coil modelling. Some of these consider saturation only
[1,2,3]; some consider saturation and (pure) hysteresis only [4,5,6,7];
and some consider saturation and eddy-current effect only [8,9].
There are papers which consider all three effects, but for special
circumstances, e.g. isotropic iron (not laminated) [10], or single
iron grains [11 ] .
The central purpose of this paper is to show that
1. if hysteresis is to be considered in a particular circuit analysis,
then eddy-currents must also be considered, because they represent a
larger effect, and
2. a linear modelling of the eddy-current effect is very accurate
for commercial power transformers.
The factor which distinguishes the saturation effect from the others
is that energy loss is involved in the others, that is, energy is dissipated
as heat loss in the cases of hysteresis and eddy-currents. Saturation by
itself does not introduce loss.
Even though saturation is the predominant effect, it is sometimes
necessary to include loss-associated effects as for example in cases
where the total system loss appears to be a major determinant as to
whether or not subharmonic oscillations will be self-sustaining [4].
III. DISPLAY OF LOSSES
Consider a circuit element having an arbitrary voltage-current
relationship. If the relationship is shown on fe dt and i coordinates,
then the area of the closed curve resulting from periodic applied e
or i represents the loss per cycle. See Fig. 1. The reason for this is
straight-forward:
The loss per cycle is
T
W=f pdt, (1)
0
where p is the power being dissipated and T is the time for one
cycle of the periodic voltage, current or flux. Referring to Fig. 1, let
fe dt = y for notation convenience. Then the area enclosed by the
contour is
y(T) T T T
A= f idy=fiidt= fie dt= f pdt
y(0) 0 0 0
and comparing this with (1), it is seen that A = W, that is, the loop area
on such a plot does equal the energy loss per cycle.
Consider now, two cases: 1) a resistor, and 2) an iron-cored coil
with negligible winding resistance. If sinusoidal voltage is applied in
each case, the loss cycles are as shown in Fig. 2. The iron-cored coil

II. THE THREE NONLINEAR EFFECTS

Of the three effects mentioned in the preceding section, saturation

is the most predominant in causing what Gibson [ 12] calls "pathologi-
cal" response, meaning behavior not encountered in linear systems.
Paper 71 TP 88-PWR, recommended and approved by the Power System
Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N.Y., January 31-February 5, 1971.
Manuscript submitted June 24, 1970; made available for printing November 20,
1970. Fig. 1. Display of loss in an arbitrary circuit element.
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loss cycle of Fig. 2(b) is recognizable as a "hysteresis loop" and this component of coil current associated with it: ie. We now have
is to be expected, since
e = Em cosct,
e=AdB
e = NA-
-dt
giving
Em
fe dt = -
(A
sinwt, (3)
.
so,

1 where Em is the peak value of the coil voltage e, and the constant of
B=-A fe dt
integration is zero in the steady state. Also,

where N is the number of coil turns, B is the effective core flux density, ie = K' coswt (l-sincot), (4)
and A is the effective core cross-sectional area; and the current i is
proportional to the magnetic field intensity H within the core. where K' is a constant incorporating K of (2) and the linear propor-
Experimentally, fe dt can be easily formed from e using an operational tionality between He and ie. Plotting fe dt vs. ie using (3) and (4)
amplifier connected as an integrator, and it is then possible to display gives the loss cycle of Fig. 3.
loss cycles like those of Fig. 2 on an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder.
4-0-

e a)

i -

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Loss cycles for (a) resistor and (b) iron-cored coil.

IV. THE EDDY-CURRENT EFFECT

It is well known that the shape of the contour of Fig. 2(b) is Fig. 3. Eddy-current loss cycle according to equations (3) and (4).
dependent on the rate at which the contour is traversed. For very slow
(essentially zero frequency) traverses of the loop, the loss can be
termed "pure" hysteresis loss and is attributable to domain wall V. A POSTULATED CIRCUIT MODEL
movements back and forth across crystal grain boundaries, non-
magnetic inclusions and imperfections [13]. Increasing the frequency It is here postulated that the eddy-current effect can be closely
increases the loss per cycle. Classically, any increase in loss above the simulated by a pure resistance branch in parallel with a non-frequency-
value at zero frequency has been attributed to "seddy-current effect", dependent branch. This simulation has been postulated before [181;
and for modern commercial grain-oriented silicon-iron sheet this effect what is added here is experimental veriflcation for a commercial
power transformer, and indication of the comparative magnitudes of
accounts for about three times as much loss as does the pure hysteresis
or zero-frequency effect [ 14]. Recent studies on domain wall motion
the two types of core loss. See Fig. 4 in which Fig. 4(d) is constructed
and shape tend to indicate that the pure hysteresis effect is frequency
dependent in some way [14], [15]. These studies were stimulated ih
by the fact that a classical calculation of eddy-current loss does not i
agree with measurements of the frequency-dependent loss. The dis-
crepancy has been called "anomalous loss" [ 15].
However one subdivides this total core loss, the fact remains that Re
there is a frequency-dependent part and a non-frequency-dependent (a)
part. For convenience, the frequency-dependent part will hereafter in
this paper be referred to as the eddy-current part. a)- v)
'a
As the preliminary justification for the postulation to follow, 1)
7l-

consider some empirical and theoretical work of Hale and Richardson

[161. They have developed the following expression for magnetic
field intensity due to eddy currents:
je
ti
He = K coscot (1-sincot) [900 < cot < 1800] (2)
(b) (c) (d)
where K is a constant for a particular core and is the radian
co

frequency of an applied cosine voltage e. Let He be proportional to a Fig. 4. Postulated simulation of the core losses.
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by addition of its constituent ie and ih. A single point in Fig. 4(d) is struction. In this case the eddy-current effect simulation did not
shown as derived from i' = i4 + ih by way of exaurnple. What has been produce as satisfactory results. A more complex simulation could be
done here, in essence, is to assume that the ellipse of Fig. 4(b) is a found to suit this kind of core but the author is not aware of a practical
close enough approximation to the contour of Fig. 3, and experimental need for such.
verification follows in the next section.
It is not hard to show that the area of the ellipse of Fig. 4(b) n.
obeys the classical eddy-current loss expression [18] when either
voltage magnitude or frequency is changed.
VI. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Eddy Current Effect:

To verify the eddy-current effect simulation postulate, the ex-

perimental circuitry of Fig. 5 was used. The transformer may be thought
of as an iron core with an exciting winding (left side) and a search
coil winding (right side). Since the integrator has a very high input
impedance we may ignore voltage drop due to resistance of the search
coil winding and thus fe dt is truly proportional to coil flux.

Fig. 6. Oscilloscope traces:

ih = hysteresis current (dc)
ih + ie = hysteresis and eddy-current (ac)
ih+1e-ie = hysteresis and eddy-current minus simulated eddy-current.
i simulated eddy-current (ac).
Note that the drawings of Figures 6 to 9 are very accurate tracings of
oscillogram photographs.
Hysteresis Effect:

The remaining modelling problem is the hysteresis or slowly-

varying dc part. The same experimental circuit was used with the source
eO an adjustable and reversible dc supply. (Re may be left in or re-
moved; it has very little effect under dc conditions since a very low
Fig. 5. Experimental circuitry. voltage will drive saturation current through the coil.) Some results
are shown in Fig. 7, 8, and 9.
The experimental procedure involved four steps: The modelling of this effect is more difficult but in one way, it
1) With Sl open and S2 closed, and with eO an adjustable and is less important: the pure hysteresis loss is only about one-third of
and reversible dc supply, the oscilloscope trace marked ih (pure the eddy-current loss, as mentioned earlier. A suggested model which
hysteresis) was made (Fig. 6.) includes the (important) saturation aspect as well, is shown in Fig.
2) With Sl open and S2 closed, and with eo a 60-Hz supply, 10. Though it may appear rather crude, it does behave properly for
the oscilloscope trace marked ih + ie (hysteresis plus eddy-currents) the assymmetrical conditions prevailing in inrush or subharmonic
was made. studies. The model is realizable in digital computer or analog com-
3) With SI closed and S2 closed, and with eO a 60-Hz supply, puter terms and the details can be left to computer programmers. For
Re was adjusted until the oscilloscope trace marked ih + ie - le, the particular core tested by the author, the following saturation
(hysteresis plus eddy-currents minus simulated eddy-currents) was as characteristic was found to be appropriate:
close a fit as possible to the first trace.
4) With Sl closed and S2 open, and with eO a 60-Hz supply, io=cfe dt+f [fe dt]5
the oscilloscope trace marked 4 (simulated eddy-currents) was made.
The close correspondence between the curves of steps 1) and 3)
demonstrates the accuracy of the original postulate.
To be an accurate model for the circuit problems mentioned in 4)
the introduction, the model must also be physically realistic under
other frequency conditions and for asymmetrical loop traverses. To
this end, two additional tests were made with Re left at the value
determined in the first test. The first of these additional tests was a
check at 20-Hz and the second was a check with a 60-Hz input Ih
plus a large dc offset. In both cases the eddy-current modelling fit
was very close.
The transformer used for the foregoing tests was a standard
modern 10-kva distribution transformer. Similar tests were also per-
formed on a spiral-wound-core transformer of the same core material,
the object being to examine the intrinsic iron characteristics without F
the small air gap effects present in normal power transformer con- Fig. 7! Major and minor loop hysteresis (Oscilloscope traces,\.
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where ae and ,B are constants and io is the mean value current of the
hysteresis loop family of curves. (Recall that H-i and B-fe dt where
H is the magnetic field intensity and B is magnetic flux density).
Other mathematical expressions for magnetic saturation abound in
the literature [ 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,17].
4V
CONCLUSIONS
1. When the nonlinear aspects of an inductor (transformer or
reactor) are to be considered-in a circuit theory analysis, it is important
to include the eddy-current effect when the pure hysteresis effect is
also included, since eddy-currents cause more loss than does hysteresis
in modern power apparatus cores. The eddy-current effect is closely
approximated in a linear way.
2. The hysteresis phenomenon is less easy to simulate but also
less important since it contributes less loss.
3. Bearing in mind the above two conclusions, it is suggested that
an adequate compromise is to represent all core loss as eddy-current
loss, where loss is considered to be important.
These statements do not preclude the possibility that both the
eddy-current and hysteresis effects may be ignored and only satura-
tion considered, for many circuit theory problems; this decision must
be made by the circuit analyst in the light of his experience.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. W. A. Lewis of the Illinois

Institute of Technology and the Commonwealth Edison Company
for loaning a 1 0-kva distribution transformer for test purposes.

Fig. 8. Minor loops with common upper limit (Oscilloscope traces).

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CORRECTION TO "A VARIABLE SPEED INDUClION MOTOR

USING THYRISTORS IN THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT"
P. R. Basu
In the above paperl Fig. 5(e) should have appeared as follows

Fig. 5(e). Oscillogram of the switched voltage & current for the stalled condition & j = 1000.

and the last line of second paragraph in Conclusions should read "negligible secondary time-constant ."

Manuscript received August 27, 1971.

1 P. R. Basu, "A Variable Speed Induction Motor Using Thyristors in the Secondary Circuit", IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-90, No. 2, pp 509-514, March/April, 1971.

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