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To cite this article: Takayuki Hata & Masami Sekine (2010) Philosophy of Sport and Physical
Education in Japan: Its History, Characteristics and Prospects, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
37:2, 215-224, DOI: 10.1080/00948705.2010.9714777
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Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 2010, 37, 215-224
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216 Hata and Sekine
The system of production in Western countries, as Kataoka (7: p.79) put it,
was characterized by the division of labor. Similarly, a division of institutions was
established by that time. To divide was the most useful method at that time and
influenced every field of organized social activity. Sport was separated from festi-
val in order to pursue its full enjoyment. Gymnastics was separated from the
methods of human education to pursue its purely physical components for their
own sake.
According to Kataoka (7: p.80), such division, was brand new in Japanese
thinking about, and manner of dealing with, human activities. In sport, for exam-
ple, the annual regatta in the Sumida River in Tokyo exhibited purely the power of
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students who enjoyed it very much, and gymnastics had a purely physical aim.
Each of them had its own aim. Sport had its formal style of playful social behav-
iors, such as playful competition, playful contest, playful conquest and playful
game, that were designed originally for a playful and festive space where we play-
fully dedicated human performances to God. To put a dance on a stage also
belonged to this playful and festive space. Gymnastics had no rules and playful
elements. It had its own method of training, exercise and practice for physical
improvement. We can understand from what has already been stated that there
were two separate attitudes and related methods regarding physical activity in
Japan around the turn of the 19th century. One was the method of playful physical
activities, and the other was the method of serious physical activities. Of these two
methods of physical activities, the former developed as the sport culture for stu-
dents and latter developed to form the most important content of school physical
education until World War II finished.
sport whether in the East or in the West. In the United States, for example, Weiss
(34) wrote:
Yet philosophers, as a rule have not looked carefully into the topic. They have
neglected sport. Sport, of course, is not the only wide-spread activity that they
have slighted. Sex, work, play, and worldly success never won the steady
attention of eminent philosophers. They have given considerable thought to
the nature and desirability of achieving pleasure; they have occupied them-
selves with the idea of excellence and with desire for it; they have been appre-
ciative of the fact that in many basic ways men everywhere are men, with
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similar natures and appetites. But this has not led them to devote their time
and energy to studying some of the most universal occupations of men. (p.4)
This situation was the same in Japan for a long time. In 1933, however, Japa-
nese philosopher, Nakai (19), wrote an article in Shis, The Structure of My
Feelings When Playing Sport, which was at that time the only work by a Japa-
nese philosopher who treated sport philosophically. In this article, he gave phe-
nomenological consideration to his personal aesthetic experiences gained by
rowing. The same kind of philosophical interpretation, unfortunately, did not
spread to other Japanese philosophers. Nakai himself stopped any further philo-
sophical studies on sport after 1933.
On the other hand, physical education was introduced into school when the
educational system was established at the Meiji Restoration, and it became an
essential part of the school curriculum in Japan. It was important as a means to
make the strong body, or the strong nation, until World War II finished. Postwar
physical education made much of sport as a means to improve the peoples health
and was meant to be character building. We had a good grounding in Japan in
studying physical education philosophically so that the development of philo-
sophic study was easier in the field of physical education than in the field of sport.
The following are the reasons why philosophy of physical education went
before sport philosophy in Japan. Firstly, physical education was guaranteed in
the national education system, so that, secondly, there were a constant number of
researchers in the field of physical education who studied sport philosophically.
The study of sport philosophy in Japan, as the philosophic study of physical edu-
cation, became popular after World War II. We would like to consider the reasons
that sport philosophy widened its object from physical education to sport.
extended not only to the economy but also to sport as a social and cultural phe-
nomenon. As a result, people came to enjoy sport in places other than in school
sport facilities. In addition, it was recognized to be important to play sport after
completing school. Also, the idea of lifetime sport spread quickly in Japan, after
being introduced the idea of lifelong integrated education, on which Lengrand
(11) made a speech at one of the meetings held by UNESCO in Paris. In this way,
thoughts and conditions of both lifetime sport and lifelong integrated education
were introduced into Japan at the same time, and sport was largely accepted by the
nation and gained a lot of popularity. Thus, the requirements for considering sport
philosophically were fulfilled.
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sport philosophy in Japan. Several professors among the founders of the Japan
Society for the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education were influenced by
those Western sport philosophers. Kataoka for example was much influenced by
Zeigler (36; 37) and others. Their achievements in sport ethics, especially those of
Fraleigh (1) and Lenk (13; 14), spread to the graduate students who studied sport
philosophy. The most influential philosopher was Weiss (34). Sport: A Philo-
sophic Inquiry has been one of the most influential works on sport philosophy in
Japan.
Researches into theories of the body currently represent a main emphasis of sport
philosophy in Japan. Articles concerning the body have been published constantly
in several journals. In 1980s two articles on the human body were accepted by the
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education. Kato (8) considered
the concept of subject and clarified the concept of identity as a way of studying
human movement. Takizawa (27) studied the problem of consciousness in physi-
cal activities, and clarified the work of our consciousness in action using a phe-
nomenological analysis.
From the 1990s to present, studies concerning theories of the body have
developed using phenomenological methods. Takizawa (29) presented a paper
entitled A Process of Forming Ones View of the Human Body and clarified the
differences in approach between Japan and the Western countries. He presented a
paper on the human body from a phenomenological standpoint in 2006, the title
of which is The Present State of Ones View of the Human Body in Japan, and
not only showed clearly what our view of the human body in Japan was, but also
considered how the view of the human body was constructed (30). He also devel-
oped a comparative cultural study in Formation Process of Ones View of the
Human Body through a Comparison between Japan, Germany and England. The
results of questionnaires on ones view of the human body in this paper were com-
pared and clarified that its formation depended on ones culture (31). Takamatsus
(26) A Study of the Mode of Existence on the Body in Sport, addressed whether
the human moving body, which is the medium of expression in sport, is retreated
behind the expressed meanings. The medium of expression vanishes and leaves
the expressed meaning like the spoken language. He also described the mode of
existence of the body through comparison with the mediums of language and art.
It was described that the human moving body is not retreated behind the expressed
meanings and showed sensuous characteristics of its existence, and that the mean-
ings expressed in sport were not tightly combined with the human moving body.
Katafuchi (6) clarified how the modernization in Meiji era influenced the
change of traditional Japanese view of the body. From educational viewpoint,
Takizawa (28) raised new questions about the relationship between body and soci-
ety, and emphasized the educational value of the body culture different from the
modern sport culture. As concerns the social problems and the body of the present
age, Yamaguchi (35) wrote an article on the lack of sense for ones life in our time,
An Inquiry into Physical Freedom as It is Related to the Transfiguration of the
Eye to Human Body. She investigated in this article how to restore ones life and
220 Hata and Sekine
concluded that physical freedom had a key to the solution of this difficult
problem.
Thus the characteristics of the Japanese journal articles are that many of them
take the human body as an object of study.
In recent years, articles in the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, have often
focused on ethical problems in sport, and the ethical study of doping in particular
has been an ongoing important theme (3; 4). When we turn our attention to the
Japanese journal articles, ethical studies on sport have been carried out by Kondo
(9; 10), Masumoto (15; 16; 17) and other researchers like Sekine and Hata (22).
Kondo (19) considered ethically gender verification regulation in order to propose
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There are several articles about possibilities of making relations with others
not only through the language, but also the body. Tanaka (32), for example, in her
paper entitled Education for Consideration to Others in Physical Education,
reconsidered a general idea of consideration to others, in order to clarify ones
relation to others in physical education. She concluded that consideration to
others is not just a feeling, but an ability to interpret a situation from certain
viewpoint, as well as producing the necessary action. Takahashi (25) clarified
how we understand and practice connection as action with other players in
movement. He concluded that connection as action is the practical ability to
make an intersubjective communication, and that movement should be grasped
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Conclusion
The study of sport philosophy in Japan has many relations with themes about
others and communication with them. The study of sport ethics is focused on
interpersonal relations rather than on personal ethics. These are important main
characteristics of sport philosophy and sport ethics in Japan. It is thought that in
the background there is a social quest to recognize a sense of community. Sport
philosophy in Japan may develop in this direction to spread this sense of
community.
Until now, sport philosophy in Japan has often developed by relying impor-
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Acknowledgment
We are most grateful to Professor John Russell for his helpful suggestions on an earlier
draft of this paper and constructive comments and suggestions to improve the paper. We
also would like to thank the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. This work was
supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (22300209).
Notes
1. The Edo period, or the Tokugawa shogunate period, is a division of Japanese history run-
ning from 1603 to 1868 and is the premodern era. The period marks the governance of the Edo
or Tokugawa shogunate, which was officially established in 1603 by the first Edo shogun, Ieyasu
Tokugawa. The period ended with the Meiji Restoration, the restoration of imperial rule by the
15th and last shogun, Yoshinobu Tokugawa. The Edo period is also known as the beginning of
the early modern period of Japan.
2. The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution or Renewal, was a chain
of events that led to enormous changes in Japan s political and social structure. It occurred in
the latter half of the 19th century, a period that spans both the late Edo period (often called Late
Tokugawa shogunate) and the beginning of Meiji Era.
3. The Meiji period, or Meiji era, denotes the period in Japanese history during the 45-year
reign of the Meiji Emperor (from 23 October 186830 July 1912). During this time, Japan began
its modernization and rose to world power status. Meiji means Enlightened Rule.
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