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by
Keizo Ishikawa
A Dissertation
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Doctor of Philosophy
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DISSERTATION APPROVAL
by
Keizo Ishikawa
Doctor of Philosophy
Approved by:
Mavis Adjei
John Summey
Edward Nowlin
Matt Rendleman
Graduate School
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
May 13, 2013
AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF
Keizo Ishikawa, for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Business Administration, presented on
May 13, 2013, at Southern Illinois University Carbondale.
Marketers have long observed, or at least assumed, that people buy certain products or
phenomenon from the perspective of self-congruity, assuming that a fit between the
consumers understanding of self (i.e., self-image) and the brands image (or brand
personality) should drive the consumers purchase behavior. This stream of research has
vigorously explored the relations between the fit (i.e., self-brand image congruity or self-
congruity) and various behavioral outcomes. Nonetheless, this research stream has not
succeeded in finding clear and strong evidence of the assumed effects on such a vital outcome as
emotional brand attachment. Moreover, little research has directly explored the relations between
In this context, the main purpose of this dissertation is to shed light on this little
understood relationship. Specifically, this research proposes that consumers brand experience
and self-congruity jointly create the strong driving force that directs consumers to an emotional
attachment to the brands. Here, brand experience is conceptualized as the positive impact of
brand-related stimuli or the magnitude of consumer responses to the stimuli that reflects a
consumers past interactions with brands or brand-related information. On the other hand, self-
congruity can be understood as the direction that indicates which brand image a consumer
wants to go with. The existing research has focused exclusively on the direction. Taking the
i
magnitude into account, this research aims to develop the theory that explains the assumed
effects of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment as well as clearly demonstrate the effects,
image fit and their past interactions with brands affect the formation of emotional brand
attachment. In order to test the hypotheses that were derived from the theory, data were collected
from 397 U.S. consumers using an online survey. The proposed interaction effects were clearly
detected, along with the direct effects of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment, which
the previous study had not been able to identify. The research revealed that brand experience
ii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my brother Ichiro and my father Tomohisa in heaven, and to
my mother Yachie who always made selfless sacrifices to support me while facing unbearable
hardships.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would first like to express my deepest gratitude to a great marketing philosopher and
my committee chair person, Professor Terry Clark. His thoughtful and considerate support
throughout my career in the doctoral program always saved me from countless hardships and
critical situations. Without his generosity, I would not have been able to stay here now, let alone
complete the dissertation. I also would like to thank the other professors on my dissertation
committee for their invaluable help. A distinguished educator, Professor John Summey,
teaching skills, while graciously placing his trust in my work and academic performance.
Professor Mavis Adjei generously offered invaluable support by supervising the methodology
and statistical analysis in my study. Her favors were indispensable to me in moving forward
especially in the steps after the dissertation proposal. Professor Edward Nowlin never hesitated
to share his time and energy whenever I asked for his advice and cooperation to get through
difficult issues at various stages in the dissertation process. Professor Charles Rendleman saved
me by graciously participating in the dissertation committee at the last minute. I wish to express
I am also grateful for the unselfish assistances provided by my fellow doctoral students
and friends. Especially, Dr. Carol Azab consistently helped me anytime I faced a serious
hardship. Also, Tyson always encouraged me to move forward beyond daunting dilemmas.
Finally, I would like to thank all the members of the marketing family. Although I might
not have been able to express my appreciation enough, I fully recognize that I would never have
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv
CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 1 Introduction.................................................................................................1
2.3 Self-Congruity..................................................................................................16
v
2.3.2 Self-Congruity...................................................................................19
vi
CHAPTER 4 Analysis and Results .................................................................................71
vii
5.3.4 Limitation and Future Research ......................................................105
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................109
APPENDICES
VITA ..........................................................................................................................................132
viii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
Table 4.5 Purification Process of the Measurement Model Brand Experience ..........................80
Table 4.7 Factor Correlation Matrix with square root of AVE Brand Experience .....................82
Table 4.8 Reliability Measure and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) 6 constructs................84
Table 4.9 Factor Correlation Matrix with square root of AVE 6 constructs ..............................84
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 3.1 Hypothesis Testing Models for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) ........................70
Figure 4.2 ISC X BE Interaction Plot and Estimated Group Means of BA...................................88
Figure 4.4 ASC X BE Interaction Plot and Estimated Group Means of BA .................................91
x
1
CHAPTER 1
IINTRODUCTION
Marketers have long observed, or at least assumed, that people buy certain products or
brands as a means of expressing themselves (e.g., Sirgy, 1982; Aaker, 1999). With regard to this
phenomenon, researchers in social and personality psychology have pointed out that consumers
identify themselves with those characteristics of brands that reflect their ideal or actual self-
images (Kleine, Kleine, and Kernan, 1993; Belk, 1988; Kassarjian, 1971; Kernan and Sommers,
1967). Partly drawing from their works, marketing researchers have studied the phenomenon
from the perspective of self-congruity (Sirgy, 1982; 1986), assuming that a fit between the
consumers understanding of self (i.e., self-image) and the brands image (or personality-like
characteristics) should drive the consumers purchase behavior. This stream of research has
explored the relations between self-brand image congruity and various behavioral outcomes,
such as brand attitude, brand preference, purchase intention, brand loyalty, brand attachment, and
so on (e.g., Sirgy, 1985; Kressman et al., 2006; Malar et al., 2011). Nonetheless, this research
stream has not succeeded in finding clear and strong evidence of the assumed effects on such a
In this context, emotional brand attachment (Thomson, MacInnis, and Park, 2005) has
brand loyalty (e.g., Grisaffe and Nguyen, 2011; Swaminathan et al., 2009). Also, emotional
attachment has been found to be a much more significant predictor of purchase intention than
brand attitude, a concept that has been studied as the main antecedent of purchase behavior (Park
2
et al., 2010). However, little research has directly explored the relations between self-brand
image congruity and emotional brand attachment (see, Malar et al., 2011, for example). Research
thus far in this stream found only weak evidence of the supposed relationship between self-image
congruity and emotional brand attachment (i.e., it has not supported the relationship between
In this context, the main purpose of this dissertation is to shed light on this little
understood relationship. This research proposes that brand experience (Brakus, Schmitt, and
Zarantonello, 2009) interacts with self-congruity, determining the intensity of the subsequent
emotional brand commitment. Here, brand experience is conceptualized as the positive impact of
brand stimuli, or the magnitude of consumer responses evoked by the stimuli (Brakus et al.,
2009). Specifically, the impact is considered to reflect a consumers past direct or indirect
interactions with a brand or the related information. On the other hand, self-congruity can be
understood as the direction that indicates which brand image a consumer wants to go with.
Considering the natures of the two concepts, it is reasonably expected that both jointly create the
strong (and detectable) driving force that directs consumers to the subsequent emotional
attachment to the brands, as discussed later. Indeed, Park et al. (2010) claim that brand
memory. The existing research has focused exclusively on the direction (i.e., self-congruity),
leading to only weak evidence thus far. Taking the magnitude (i.e., brand experience) into
account, this research aims to clearly demonstrate the assumed effects of self-congruity on
emotional brand attachment, by proposing the interaction effects between self-congruity and
brand experience.
3
To achieve this goal, the objectives of this research are fourfold. First, the research
examines the direct effects of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment, which previous
research touched upon but could not sufficiently support (e.g., Malar et al., 2011). Second, the
research investigates the direct effects of brand experience on emotional brand attachment. As
briefly mentioned above, brand experience is assumed to reflect consumers past direct and
indirect experiences with brands as a whole. Thus far, marketing research has in general ignored
the effect of consumers past experiences with brands on emotional brand attachment (or the
related concepts), although an emotional attachment develops over time through past interactions
(Thomson et al., 2005; Park et al., 2010) (an exception is Kressmann et al., (2006), which
explored consumers usage experience and the influences on brand relationship quality). Aiming
to fill the critical gap, this research delves into the effects of consumers overall experiences with
brands on emotional brand attachment by employing the concept of brand experience. Third, this
research examines the interaction effects of brand experience and self-congruity on emotional
brand attachment, which also no previous research has examined yet. In these effects, it is
proposed that self-congruity and brand experience amplify the effects each other. Finally, in
addition to these main objectives, this research also inquires the positive effects of emotional
brand attachment on its two behavioral outcomes - willingness to pay a brand premium and
likelihood of positive word of mouth - aiming at enhancing practical implications of the findings
their relationship with attached brands, which are purported to emerge from emotional brand
attachment as its distinctive consequences (Thomson et al., 2005), so are especially suitable for
On the basis of the objectives discussed above, this research aims to answer the following
research questions.
3. Do (ideal or actual) self-congruity and brand experience jointly affect emotional brand
attachment?
4. Does emotional brand attachment affect willingness to pay a brand premium and
The main interest in this research is self-expressive or symbolic benefits of brands (Keller,
1993; Aaker, 1997). Accordingly, the scope of analysis and interpretation in this study is limited
to their self-expressive nature and, basically, functional benefits (Keller, 1993; Katz, 1960) of
target brands or products are not argued. This emphasis is especially important in the discussion
regarding consumers experiences with brands. Such experiences may be accompanied by the
as well as familiarity with those categories, or even their expertise in the domains (Hutchinson
and Eisenstein, 2008). However, in the current context, the analysis and interpretation do not
refer to those aspects and the scope is limited to such facets of consumers experiences that form
their overall impressions of those brands. For example, a certain brand may form strong
impressions in consumers minds and the images may evoke intense arousals relevant to their
personal goals or orientations, even when those individuals are not familiar with that product
category. The interest is in such emotional or symbolic natures of brands that may serve
5
consumers self-expressive needs and their functional features and the related outcomes (e.g.,
familiarity, expertise) are outside the scope of the analysis and interpretation, here.
Regarding the target brands, the current study has also its scope and limitation. First,
this study mainly deals with relatively durable goods or product brands. The basic reason that
fast-moving consumer goods are eliminated is the following. One of the basic assumptions in
this study is that individuals social roles influence their perception of brands, ultimately
affecting the formation of emotional brand attachment, the major dependent variable here. As for
fast-moving consumer goods (e.g., beer, perfume), Aaker (1999) found that consumers
effect of individuals social roles is less likely to be detectable in such categories than durable
goods that are not easily replaced depending on such transitory impacts. Other brand categories
such as service or retail store brands are also outside the scope of this study. Second, among
durable product categories, the target is still limited to such product categories that are publicly
consumed (i.e., those that are seen by others when the products are being used) (Bourne, 1957).
Symbolic or self-expressive benefits are usually related to underlying needs for personal
expression and outer-directed self-esteem (Keller, 1993). For this reason, privately consumed
categories (i.e., those that are not seen during the use or consumption with the possible
exception) (Bourne, 1957) are excluded from the scope of this research.
Although other possible limitations may be argued, this study does not impose further
constraints. As Aaker (1997) points out, while certain product categories tend to be served for
more self-expressive or symbolic use than others, there are differences in the extent to which a
specific brand is more or less self-expressive than other brands, even in the same self-
expressive product categories. For example in case of the automobile category, one person may
6
ride a sport car brand to show off his coolness, where as another person may use a much cheaper
brand just to satisfy his living needs without caring how others would think of. One of the major
interests in this research is to explicate how such differences in self-expressive natures come
arise and affect the subsequent outcomes, such as emotional brand attachment, even in such
identical product categories. For this reason, although some "self-expressive brands," which are
considered to be salient in self-expressive or symbolic features, and their effects are the main
concern in the research, other less symbolic brands are included in the scope of study here.
Therefore, the focal brands are chosen based on their product categories and the scope is not
In sum, the scope in terms of the target brands in this study covers such brands that
belong to publicly consumed product categories that are more durable than fast-moving
consumer goods. The specific context that was used in the empirical test here is U.S. consumers
in general and their brands that can fit the scope. In this case, for example, the focal brands are
those included in such product categories that consumers usually bring to places where they
frequently visit and often use in front of others in such places. They may contain smart phones,
sport shoes, jeans, cars, tablets, e-books, and so on. On the other hand, such products as beers or
perfumes (i.e., fast-moving consumption goods) as well as game consoles or digital TV sets (i.e.,
privately consumed products) are outside the scope of the current study.
The most remarkable contribution in this research should be brought by its synthesis of
multiple research streams that have attracted significant research interests and have been
intensively studied especially for recent years in the field of brand. Through the synthesis, this
research makes an attempt to incorporate the factor of consumers experience into the study of
7
brand attachment in a comprehensive way, while aiming to more clearly verify the elusive
effects of the self-congruity than ever, from the new theoretical perspective.
First, this research closely ties self-expansion theory to the brand attachment research by
offering a detailed explanation concerning the formation of emotional brand attachment through
self-expansion process. The significant interest in emotional brand attachment has been emerging
for these years (e.g., Malar et al., 2011; Park et al., 2010; Swaminathan, et al., 2009; Thomson, et
al., 2005). The majority of researchers have referred to or mentioned self-expansion theory
(Aaron and Aaron, 1986) as the central mechanism of the attachment formation, or at least part
of the explanation (Malar et al., 2011; Park et al., 2010; Fournier, 1998). However, little existing
research has provided explanations that explicitly describe the psychological process the theory
details. The current study extensively discusses the process and develops a systematic
Second, this is the first study that examines the influence of consumers comprehensive
experiences with brands on the formation of emotional brand attachment by applying a recently
developed concept by Brakus et al. (2009) to the brand attachment research. Since emotional
attachment develops over time, consumers past experiences with brands should play a crucial
role in the formation process. Nonetheless, not only do few studies refer to this factor, but also
those exceptions argue or examine solely usage experience (e.g., Fournier, 1998; Aaker et al.,
2004; Kressmann et al., 2006). Experience can be direct interactions with brands, such as usage
social influence (Brakus et al., 2009). Brakus et al.s (2009) brand experience is a comprehensive
concept that encompasses indirect as well as direct consumers experiences. By employing the
8
concept first in the brand attachment research, the current study aims to explicate and empirically
examine the impact of consumers past experience on emotional brand attachment inclusively.
Third, this research is also the first attempt to establish the theory that explains how such
experiences are accumulated and determine their subsequent impacts. As mentioned above, the
current study employs the concept of brand experience to examine the impact of consumers past
experience. However, the literature in brand experience has not argued how the impact of
experience is determined. Meanwhile, the research streams in social psychology, such as goal-
directed perception (Janiszewski, 2008) or behavioral priming (Bargh et al., 1996) have recently
begun to intensively examine the psychological processes regarding how consumers interactions
with brands develop their responses to brand-related stimuli (e.g., Chartrand et al., 2008;
Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Ferraro et al., 2009). By taking advantage of this emerging stream and
merging it into the brand experience literature, the current study proposes the first theoretical
Finally and most importantly, on the basis of these integrations, this research examines
the effects of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment. The self-congruity effect has been
studied over five decades concerning various consumers outcomes, such as brand attitude, brand
preference, or purchase intention (e.g., Levi, 1959; Sirgy, 1982; Aaker, 1999). However, the
findings have been controversial for decades (Aaker, 1999). Recently, Malar et al. (2011) first
examined the effect of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment and the results were partly
inconclusive. Building on their study, this research aims to further delve into the traditional
research stream that has consistently captured substantial research interests from another
perspective. Thus, the main contribution of the current study is to demonstrate the effects of self-
9
congruity clearly by synthesizing the recent achievements in various growing research streams
This dissertation is organized into five chapters as follows. Chapter1 has described the
purpose of this research as well as the motivation. It has also introduced the research questions
that the dissertation intends to answer. Finally, it outlined the scope of the study and the potential
contributions. Also, the definitions of key concepts are presented in the Table 1.1 at the end of
this chapter.
self-congruity, and brand experience. The theoretical models of this study are presented and
explained, first. Subsequently, the concept of emotional brand attachment is detailed. In the
following discussion of self-congruity, after self-concept and the concept of self-congruity are
described, the theories of self-motives are presented to explain how ideal as well as actual self-
congruity lead to an emotional attachment to brands. Following this, the concept of brand
experience is introduced and discussed in detail. Based on this conceptualization, the theory is
developed to explain the direct effects of brand experience as well as its interaction effects with
self-congruity on emotional brand attachment. Finally, the two outcomes of emotional brand
attachment, willingness to pay a brand premium and likelihood of positive word of mouth, and
the effects of emotional brand attachment on these outcomes are discussed. Research hypotheses
Chapter 3 covers the research methodology for testing the models and the research
hypotheses. It outlines the research design and its rationale, especially in relation to the sample
characteristics and the focal brands. In addition, the chapter discusses operationalization of the
10
constructs, assessment of reliability and validity, and statistical techniques used to analyze the
data.
Chapter 4 summarizes the data collection procedures and reports the details of statistical
analysis performed for the pretest and the main study. Specifically as to the main study, results of
hypothesis testing mainly based on structural equation modeling are presented. First, the
assessment of the measurement model for the constructs used in the subsequent hypothesis
testing is reported. Psychometric properties of these constructs are examined to test construct
reliability and validity as well as dimensionality here. Thereafter, results of the structural model
analysis to test the proposed hypotheses are detailed, along with the further examinations of the
Chapter 5 concludes the study by offering an overall summary of the dissertation and
discussions regarding the implications of the findings as well as their theoretical and practical
contributions. Also, the limitations of the study are argued and suggestions for future research
are discussed.
For ease of reference, key conceptual definitions are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Key conceptual definitions
Concept Definition
Emotional Brand Attachment An emotion-laden target-specific bond between a person and a specific brand.
Emotional Brand Attachment consists of three dimensions:
Affection (warm feelings toward a brand);
Passion (intensely aroused positive feelings toward a brand); and
Connection (feelings of being joined to a brand).
(Thomson, McInnis, and Park, 2005)
Self-Concept The total set of beliefs about, and attitudes toward the self (Rosenberg, 1979)
In other words, self-concept is ones understanding of him or her-self, including personal
characteristics, values, goals, feelings, and images.
11
Self-Schemata Cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and
guide the processing self-related information contained in the individuals social
experiences. Self-schemata are supposed to be a cognitive structure, and the self-concept is
a reflection of the system of the cognitive structure.
(Markus, 1977; Markus and Wurf, 1987)
Self-Representations Cognitive representations of the self that comprise the self-concept.
Self-representations are a reflection of self-schemata and the self-concept is composed of
(active) self-representations.
(Markus and Wurf, 1987)
Self-Image Self-representations that can be the subject of conscious reflection are
usually termed self-conceptions. Self-images are self-conceptions of a person's perceived
potential. Thus, a self-image represent each of possible selves, such as actual self-image,
ideal self-image, and so on.
(Markus and Nurius, 1986; Markus and Wurf, 1987)
Ideal Self-Image Ones self-image of the attributes they would like to possess. In other words, a self-image
of who I would like to be
(Higgins, 1978; Markus and Nurius, 1986)
Actual Self-Image Ones self-image of the attributes the individual believes they actually possess, that is a
self-image of who I am
(Higgins, 1978; Markus and Nurius, 1986)
Self-Congruity The match between a consumers self-image and the brand user image or brand personality
of a brand
(Kressman et al., 2006; Sirgy et al., 1997)
Ideal Self-Congruity Self-Congruity between ideal self-image and the brand user image or brand personality of a
brand
(Kressman et al., 2006; Sirgy et al., 1997)
Actual Self-Congruity Self-Congruity between actual self-image and the brand user image or brand personality of
a brand
(Kressman et al., 2006; Sirgy et al., 1997)
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview
brand experience are surveyed. First, the concept of emotional brand attachment is summarized.
Next, after the concepts of self and self-congruity are reviewed, how self motives affect the
development of emotional states, including attachment, is explained. Starting with Sirgys (1986)
self-congruity theory, self-enhancement theory (Rogers, 1961; Shrauger, 1975) and self-
verification theory (Swann, 1983; Swann et al., 1992) are developed in order to explain the
processes. Following that, the concept of brand experience is presented, and the effects of
interaction between brand experience and self-congruity are examined, by employing self-
expansion theory (Aron and Aron1986). Also, as outcomes of emotional brand attachment, the
concepts of willingness to pay a brand premium and positive word of mouth are briefly reviewed.
Finally, on the basis of this literature review, the hypotheses are developed for the present study.
Marketing research suggests that brand attachment is critical because it has been shown
to affect behaviors that result in brand profitability or customer lifetime value (Thomson,
McInnis, and Park, 2005). Furthermore, recent research suggests that brand attachment predicts
consumer attitudes or behaviors, such as purchase intentions, purchase behaviors, and brand
choices (Park et al., 2010). Reflecting this, research interest in this area has been rapidly growing
13
especially since a reliable, empirically tested measure was developed by Thomson, McInnis, and
Park (2005).
2.2.1 Attachment
person and a specific object (Bowlby, 1979; Thomson, McInnis, and Park, 2005). From a
cognitive perspective, this bond can be represented by a rich and accessible memory network and
characterized by perceived ease and frequency with which the object-related thought and feeling
are brought to mind (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007). However, consumer researchers as well as
social and personality psychology researchers have characterized attachment as extending ones
self-concept to or identifying oneself with an object (Belk, 1988; Aron et al., 1991; Kleine,
Kleine, and Karnan, 1993). That is, attachment as a bond implies ones categorizing the object as
The resulting bond is an inherently emotional state, which is associated with strong
feeling, such as connection, affection, love, and passion, and especially distinguished by ones
willingness to maintain proximity to the object and separation distress when the object is lost
object (Aron et al., 1991). Thus, attachment can be understood as a strong emotional state
accompanied by hot affects (Park et al., 2010; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007), resulting from
extension of the self-concept to others or objects and including them in the self (Aron and Aron,
1986).
14
tangible object with a brand, the concept can also encompass broader meanings. For example,
Grisaffe and Nguyen (2011) point out that branded items are mass produced and therefore an
attachment to a brand may not be the same as an attachment to a specific possession. Indeed, a
brand itself is not objective existence but a collection of perceptions stored in the memory of
consumer (Fournier, 1998; Keller, 1993). With regard to this, brand research has assumed brand
user image or personality-like characteristics in brands (i.e., brand personality). Based on this
notion, self-congruity research has postulated that brand user image or brand personality that a
product reflects is a point of reference with which a consumer compares his or her self-image
and a focus with which a consumer identifies his/her-self (Kressmann et al., 2006; Aaker, 1997;
1999). Similarly, as to brand attachment, research has posited that consumers attach to such
characteristics (e.g., Aaker, Fournier, and Brasel, 2004; Swaminathan, Stilley, and Ahluwania,
2009). Thus, research suggests that the targets of attachment can be such abstract concepts as
Thomson, McInnis, and Park (2005) applied the concept of attachment to brand research,
developing the first empirically tested scale to measure strength of attachment to a brand. They
refer to the concept as emotional brand attachment. In the scale development process, the
concept was found to consist of the three components labeled affection, passion, and
connection. The first factor, affection represents the warm feelings a consumer holds toward
a brand and the scale includes such items as affectionate, loved, friendly, and peaceful,
supposedly. The second factor, passion reflects intensely aroused positive feelings toward a
brand, composed of such items as passionate, delighted, and captivated. The third factor
15
connection denotes a consumers feelings of being joined to the brand, including such items as
connected, bonded, and attached. In sum, the research confirms that emotional brand attachment
also closely relates to proximity maintenance (i.e., a commitment to preserving relationship with
psychological distress resulting from real or threatened separation from the brand) and leads to
such outcomes as brand loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium, which imply the ensuing
behavioral commitments.
Thomson, McInnis, and Park (2005) and Park et al. (2010) also argue the distinction
between emotional brand attachment and brand attitude. First, strong brand attachments develop
over time, while positive strong attitudes may not be so time dependent. Such attitudes are based
on thoughtful processing and can be formed in a rather limited time. On the other hand,
attachments are attended by rich sets of accessible memory networks or schemas that can lead to
affectively-laden linkage of the self to a brand, which can reflect a more advanced stage of
relationship development. Next, attachments are the subjective sense of self-brand relationship,
indicated by the connection between the self and the brand and varies depending upon the
link the brand to the self-concept. Rather, attitude strength is indicated as a function of the
confidence with which the attitude is held. The difference is well illustrated by such specific
behaviors as proximity maintenance and separation distress displayed by individuals who are
emotionally attached to a brand. Finally, these two constructs are different in their range of
valence. Attachments vary in strength from weak to strong, although strong attitudes can range
from positive to negative. Through their empirical examination, Thomson, McInnis, and Park
16
(2005) find that emotional brand attachment is distinct from brand attitude construct, and also
different from other closely related marketing constructs, such as satisfaction and involvement.
Furthermore, Park et al. (2010) demonstrate that attachment construct can predict behavioral
outcome variables such as purchase intention, actual purchase behavior, or brand purchase share.
The foregoing discussion can be summed up by saying that emotional brand attachment
extension of self-concept to a brand and inclusion of the brands concept in the self. Accordingly,
and in general, the stronger the brand-self connection is, the stronger the attachment becomes.
This suggests the question of what facilitates the extension of the self-concept. The marketing
literature suggests that brand-self relations are developed by self motives (Malar et al., 2011;
Park et al., 2010; Sirgy, 1986). A recent comprehensive review in psychology, regarding the
links between self-motives and emotions, concludes that self-motives which lead to emotional
states can be integrated into the following: self-expansion motive, self-enhancement motive, and
self-verification motive (Leary, 2007). In the following sections, the attachment development
2.3 Self-Congruity
For decades, it has been assumed that consumers purchase certain products or brands as a
means of expressing themselves (e.g., Levi, 1959; Evans, 1959). On some occasions, consumers
may buy such brands to make them more attractive and to realize their aspired states (Landon,
1974). At other times, they may search for brands that suit with who they actually are, seeking
some comfort (Landon, 1974; Dolich, 1969). In either case, what matters is the fit or congruity
between self-images (i.e., what I would like to be or what I am) and brand images. This fit is
examine such phenomenon (e.g., Sirgy, 1982; Aaker, 1999). In this section, self-congruity and
the effects on emotional brand attachment are discussed. The discussion begins with a review of
Following that, the concept of self-congruity is clarified. Finally, how self-motives relate to self-
Self-concept is defined as the total set of beliefs about, and attitudes toward the self
including personal characteristics, values, goals, feelings, and images. People develop such
understandings by making inferences from their own actions, internal arousal reactions,
cognitions, emotions, and motivations as well as through direct self assessment, social
comparison, or direct interaction with others (Markus and Wurf, 1987). Similar to other
cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, organize and guide
In a comprehensive review of self-concept research, Markus and Wurf (1987) point out
some representations, such as chronic personality traits (e.g., Big Five factors; Digman, 1990),
are central to self-concept and consistent, while others are peripheral and more adaptive to
environmental change. Self-representations can also be affectively charged. Some are positive
18
(e.g., smart, active, or diligent), whereas others are negative (e.g., shy, lazy, or fat). Finally, the
representations also differ in regard to whether they reflect who the person actually is or who
they would like to be. Some are actual-selves and others are hoped-for ideals. For example, a
person may perceive herself as a modest and retiring person, while she wants to be cheerful and
active.
Not all self-representations are active at the same time. Indeed, self-representations and
the corresponding self-schemata become activated depending upon ones social roles at the time
or particular situations (Aaker, 1999; Sirgy, 1986). For example, a person may be very attentive
to how much they look professional and sophisticated at workplace shortly after beginning
working career, whereas they used to care much more about how creative and energetic they
appeared when students on campus. These activated schemata function as selection mechanisms
which determine whether information is attended to and how it is processed, and as a result, the
becomes more central or more salient, it becomes more likely to affect or even to regulate the
focused on two: actual self-image; and ideal self-image, because they have assumed that these
representations are concerned with brand choice as a means of self-expression. Actual self-image
refers to the attributes the individual believes they actually possess, that is, who I am?, whereas
ideal self-image refers to the attributes they would like to possess, that is, who I would like to
be? (Higgins, 1987; Markus and Nurius, 1986). Researchers have assumed that the fit
between such self-representations and brands influences consumers preferences for brands or
19
other behavioral outcomes, and have studied relationships by conceptualizing the fit as self-
brand image congruity or self-congruity (e.g., Evans,1959; Dolich, 1969; Landon, 1974).
2.3.2 Self-Congruity
Since Levi (1959) argued that consumer behavior is often influenced by symbolic aspects
of products rather than solely by functional attributes, consumer researchers have attempted to
verify this conjecture, assuming that self-congruity is the key driver of consumers preferences
for brands in self-expressive product categories. In this context, the concept of self-congruity is
essentially concerned with the symbolic features or images of a brand, in terms of the match
between the consumers self-image and the user image or brand personality of a brand
In this context, self-image has referred to either actual self-image, ideal self-image, or
both, in the majority of self-congruity research (see Sirgy, 1982, for review). As discussed above,
such self-images are sub-parts of the self-representations reflecting ones self-schema, partly
evoked by the specific social role or the situational cues. Brand-user image refers to the
stereotypic image of the typical user of a brand (Kressmann et al., 2006). However, a brand itself
has also been assumed to have its own image of personality-like characteristics (Johar and Sirgy,
1991). In actuality, a brands image is not necessarily limited to the brand user image. For
example, the brand spokesperson (e.g., Michael Jordan), the product design (e.g., i-Mac), the
charismatic entrepreneur (e.g., Steve Jobs), and so on, often form and evoke a strong human
personality-like image associated with the brand, which have been referred to as brand
With regard to the concept of self-congruity, it has been postulated that self-image and
brand personality (or brand-user image) have some common image categories or dimensions
20
related to the brand and its values (Sirgy, 1986). Accordingly, self-congruity conceptually
signifies ones perception regarding the extent to which these two images are close to each other
(match), resulting from a comparison of the values in each image dimension. The closer self-
image and brand personality are, the higher self-congruity is, and vice versa (Sirgy, 1985). In this
context, congruity between ideal self-image and brand personality is defined as ideal self-
congruity, while congruity between actual self-image and brand personality refers to actual self-
To clarify the concept of self-congruity, some properties of the scales for the construct
need to be discussed. As mentioned above, the concept assumes the image categories or
dimensions related to a brand and the values. Traditionally, the image dimensions were elicited
as a function of the product used, while the exception of a few studies used a standard set of
image dimensions (Sirgy et al., 1997). However, the elicited dimensions not only contained
irrelevant dimensions depending on the different brands, but also were not typically
generalizable to other product category contexts (Sirgy et al., 1997). On the other hand, the
standard set of image dimensions were not developed specifically for consumer research (Aaker,
1997). Furthermore, these scales simply add each dimension assuming a compensatory decision
rule, which may not always be the case (Sirgy et al., 1997).
Two different solutions have been proposed to resolve the problems. First, Sirgy et al.
specifying any image dimensions. This scale indicates overall perceptions of self-congruity
without the problems associated with adding multiple dimensions (although it does not allow
researchers to profile and compare images among competing brands). Second, Aaker (1997)
develops the brand personality scale. This scale consists of the five dimensions that can be
21
applied across various product categories, while still assuming the compensatory decision rule
when each dimension is added to calculate overall perception of self-congruity. Recent studies
use either of these measures or both (e.g., Kressmann et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2005). In this
dissertation, these two scales are used to take advantage of each merit. The global scale is used to
test the hypothesized relations between overall perceptions of self-congruity and other constructs,
whereas the brand personality scale is used to facilitate respondents to clearly recall and describe
brand personality in order to enhance the quality of responses to the global scale. Accordingly,
the five dimensions of Aakers brand personality scale are considered a part of self-congruity
The Five Dimensions of Aakers Brand Personality. Aaker (1997) defined brand
personality as a set of human characteristics associated with a brand. The author developed a set
of trait scales for measuring distinct dimensions of brand personality. The Brand Personality
Scale (BPS) is constructed on the basis of the five factor model of the human personality traits
(Digman, 1990). Aaker found a robust five-factor structure of the brand personality concept
which applies across brands based on the development process using 60 brands from various
The sincerity dimension captures the idea of a warm and accepting brand personality
represented by four facets: down-to-earth, honest, wholesome, and cheerful. Excitement was
characterized as sociable, energetic, and active brand personality, also represented by four facets:
responsible, dependable, and secure, represented by three facets: reliable, intelligent, and
22
successful. Finally, sophistication was represented by two facets: upper class and charming
and the Ruggedness dimension is also represented by two facets: outdoorsy and tough.
Thus, the concept of self-congruity was reviewed. On the basis of this conceptualization,
consumer researchers have argued that self-congruity affects consumers cognitive, affective,
and behavioral outcomes. That is, the higher the self-congruity between self-image and a brand,
the more the likelihood of favorable outcomes to the brand (e.g., Evans, 1959; Dolich, 1969;
Landon, 1974). Among these studies, Sirgys (1986) self-congruity theory explicitly refers to the
mediation process of self-motives. In the theory, it is posited that ideal self-congruity is mediated
by the self-motive to enhance ones self-esteem, while actual self-congruity is mediated by the
self-motive to maintain the self consistent. That is, for ideal self-congruity, a consumer is
motivated to enhance his or her (actual) self-image toward the ideal self-image and prefers a
brand with a high ideal self-congruity to help improve the consumers self-image. On the other
hand, for actual self-congruity, a consumer is also motivated to be consistent in his or her actual
self-image, so seeks a brand balanced with such image. Thus, both ideal self-image and actual
self-image facilitate positive consumer responses, but are led by different self-motives.
Not limited to the self-congruity research stream, brand researchers have employed self
expansion theory (Aron and Aron, 1986; Aron, Aron, and Norman, 2001; Aron et al., 2005) to
explain how an attachment to a brand develops (e.g., Fournier, 1998; Kressmann et al., 2006;
Park et al., 2010; Malar et al., 2011). Self expansion theory is concerned with the formation of an
attachment to others in general, including persons, objects, and so on. The theory posits that
people have an essential motivation to expand the self-concept in the sense that they seek to
improve their potential efficacy (i.e., self-expansion motive). This motive drives people to
23
increase the physical and social resources, perspectives, and identities that facilitate any goal that
might arise, by fostering relationships with others that have such elements. In terms of the self-
concept, this implies including concepts of others in the self. For example, a person who is newly
rich, but does not have the right social background may feel as if he attained a higher social
status solely because he bought a prestigious car or a piece of sophisticated furniture (cf. Holt,
1998; Henry, 2005). The expansion of the self-concept itself evokes a strong positive arousal,
supposedly, due to the expected increase in self-efficacy. This positive affect is, in turn,
associated with the partners or target objects, which eventually turns to be an emotional
In the current context, it may seem that an attachment is attained solely by extending the
self-image through possessing a brand, as Belk (1988) suggests. However, according to Aron,
Aron, and Norman (2001), an emotional attachment is formed even in an unreciprocated love
when high level of desirability in the possible relationship exists. This corresponds with the long
supposed phenomenon that people purchase a brand because of their aspiration for the brand
image or brand personality (Sirgy, 1982). Further, they suggest that, in addition to expanding the
of the self, which could explain why people try to maintain proximity in an attached relation and
experience separation distress when the relation collapsed. In brand-related contexts, this is
clearly illustrated by Fourniers (1998) finding that consumers develop an emotional attachment
to such brands that consistently affirm their core self-identity. Thus, self-expansion theory is
As discussed above, self expansion theory postulates that the self expansion motive leads
suggests that other different self-motives take part in the individual processes depending on the
self-congruity that facilitates the processes. For example, Sirgys (1986) self-congruity theory
specifically posits that ideal self-congruity is mediated by the self-motive to enhance ones self-
esteem, while actual self-congruity is mediated by the self-motive to maintain the self consistent,
as discussed above. With regard to this, although self-congruity theory has not previously been
explicitly related to emotional attachment, Malar et al., (2011) recently develop a theoretical
explanation that may partly fill the gap based on the framework consistent with Sirgys. They
propose that ideal self-congruity is mediated by self-enhancement motive, whereas actual self-
congruity is mediated by self-verification motive, and that these self-congruities may support the
formation of an emotional brand attachment through these self-motives. On the basis of this
Self-enhancement theory (Rogers, 1961; Shrauger, 1975) posits that people are motivated
to approach desired reference values and avoid undesired reference values (i.e., self-
enhancement motives). In the self-congruity research, ideal self-image represents one of desired
values referred to in the theory. According to Higgins (1987), people recognize the discrepancy
between ideal self-image and actual self-image, which subsequently creates emotional states.
Such emotional states are assumed to motivate the person to resolve the discrepancy by
enhancing the self-esteem or the perception of actual self-image in some way (Markus and Wurf,
1987). All individuals experience a strong desire to enhance their self-esteem or perceived actual
self-image (Brown, Collins, and Schmidt, 1988). In such cases, ideal self-congruity is considered
processes, while the psychological processes may vary to some extent depending on the level of
25
self-esteem or the extent of the discrepancy between actual self-image and ideal self-image, as
detailed below.
For individuals whose chronic self-esteem is high (and accordingly whose degree of
discrepancy between actual and ideal self-images tends to be low), ideal self-image as a point of
reference is perceived as a goal so the discrepancy between actual self-image and ideal self-
image tends to evoke a positive emotion (Boldero and Francis, 2002). Meanwhile, the
discrepancy tends to be smaller than those with low self-esteem, so the motivation is relatively
weak (Swann, et al., 1987). In addition, these individuals are apt to believe that such goals are
attainable, so they are more likely to engage in directly pursuing the goals, rather than relying on
such indirect ways as purchasing a brand to improve their self-images (Brown, Collins, and
Schmidt, 1988). Accordingly, such effects of brands with ideal self-congruity tend to be
substantially weak for those with high self-esteem. However, self-enhancement motives still
likely direct such individuals to brands congruent with their ideal self-image due to positive
By contrast, individuals whose chronic self-esteem is low (and accordingly whose degree
of discrepancy between actual and ideal self-images tends to be high) are assumed to choose
different ways for self-enhancement. They are more likely to distort and bias personal
information in a self-enhancing direction (Brown, Collins, and Schmidt, 1988). Such individuals
tend to perceive ideal self-image not only as a goal, but also as a standard to be fulfilled, mostly
through social comparison (Boldero and Francis, 2002). So, the discrepancy between ideal self-
image and actual self-image sometimes evoke negative emotions, leaving themselves to
uncomfortable states (Carver and Scheier, 1981; Higgins, 1987). They are also more susceptible
to such negative emotions, the lower the self-esteem is (Higgins, 1987). Besides, the discrepancy
26
tends to be substantially large in comparison with those with high self-esteem (Swann et al.,
1987). Accordingly, they are considerably more motivated to reduce the discrepancy than those
with high self-esteem (Swann et al., 1987). However, due to the lack of confidence, such
individuals doubt their competence and consider that the desired states are not easily attainable in
direct ways (i.e., engaging in pursuing for the goals). As a result, they are prone to choose more
indirect ways to enhance their perceived self-image rather than direct ways (Brown, Collins, and
Schmidt, 1988).
(Collins, 1996). This type of self-enhancement is more often observed in such cases that their
self-concept is threatened and known by its typical forms such as self-serving or self-
handicapping (Markus and Wurf, 1987). In downward self-enhancement, people change their
focuses of interpretation to some personally relevant matters or features that they consider the
most important or are best at, and underestimate or ignore other characteristics as irrelevant, so
that they can protect their self-image from a direct comparison with others (I may not be smart,
On the other hand, such people also tend to engage in upward self-enhancement. In
upward self-enhancement, individuals compare themselves with others who are superior and
assimilate themselves with the superior individuals by featuring the similarity or community
(Collins, 1996). By doing so, individuals sometimes associate themselves with those superior in
the self-relevant domains and bolster their self-image in these domains (Markus and Wurf, 1987;
Brown, Collins, and Schmidt, 1988). For example, such individuals sometimes bask in the
reflected glory of others achievements by highlighting their association with them (Cialdini et
al., 1976). In addition, Wicklund and Gollwitzer (1982) found that people who are concerned
27
with unachieved self-relevant goals (therefore, concerned with the low self-esteem) are more
likely to display visible symbols to achieve desired self-images rather than admitting mistakes
made by committing actual behavior. In the current context, it is likely that brands take important
roles in achieving this upward self-enhancement process and the contribution depends on the
Thus, brands congruent with ones ideal self-image evoke positive emotions, although the
process may be different depending on the level of self-esteem or the extent of the discrepancy
between actual self-image and ideal self-image. By associating themselves with such brands and
experiencing the positive arousal repeatedly, consumers are expected to more clearly focus on
the brands and more closely relate the brands to their self-image, which will gradually lead to an
- H1: Ideal self-congruity has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand
attachment.
That is, the higher the ideal self-congruity of a brand, the higher the emotional
1985) used in Sirgys self-congruity theory. Self-consistency theory contends that people engage
in cognitive and behavioral activities that perpetuate their self-concept in striving for consistency
itself (Swann et al., 1987). In the current context, this implies that people tend to prefer brands
congruent with their actual self-images, as Sirgy (1986) proposed. Although self-verification
theory also postulates that people seek to maintain the consistency, it is also proposed that they
28
are motivated to confirm their self-concept to bolster their perceptions of prediction and control
(i.e., self-verification motives; Swann, Stein-Seroussi, and Giesler, 1992). By applying the theory
to emotional brand attachment research, Malar et al. (2011) argue that consumers are motivated
to search for experiences that affirm their self-concept and one way for them to satisfy the
motive is to consume a brand with a personality that is congruent with the actual self. They
maintain that doing so results in positive reinforcement and leads to positive feelings about the
As discussed regarding ideal self-congruity, also in the relation between actual self-
congruity and emotional brand attachment, the nature of self-verification processes can vary
depending on the level of self-esteem, or the extent of discrepancy between actual self-image and
ideal self-image. Individuals whose chronic self-esteem is low, in fact, seek such information
which cognitively verifies actual self-image even when negative feedback occurs (Swann et al.,
1987). By doing so, they try to dissolve inherent anxiety about the epistemic consideration (they
want to be reassured by a partner who would confirm their self-view) and pragmatic
consideration (they want to have a smooth, harmonious interaction with a self-verifying partner)
(Swann, Stein-Seroussi, and Giesler, 1992). In addition to getting the relief, such self-verifying
interactions evoke such warm feeling that the partner has empathy (i.e., feeling spontaneously
what others feel) to them, which facilitates including the partner in the self-concept (the partners
feeling are my feelings) (Aron, Aron, and Norman, 2001). Meanwhile, because they tend to have
a negative self-view, they are also prone to receive certain (in comparison with self-enhancement
information) and negative emotions from such self-verification information (Swann et al., 1987).
Thus, for those with low self-esteem, partners or brands congruent with actual self-image are
likely to lead to somewhat ambivalent emotional states. However, such individuals still likely
29
direct themselves to such brands, seeking to satisfy their self-verification motives through
On the other hand, people whose chronic self-esteem is high are more likely motivated to
maintain or confirm their self-images and obtain positive emotions simultaneously from the same
self-verification process than those with low self-esteem (Swann et al., 1987). As discussed
above, such individuals tend to engage in direct pursuit of goals rather than indirect ways such as
self-enhancement. However, brands still have considerable impact on emotional attachment for
such consumers. Brands congruent with their actual self-image evoke what they have attained or
what they are good at, and help them verify their important self-identity, consistently sustaining
and affirming the actual self-image in certain and positive ways (Fournier, 1998). Such certain
feelings and positive emotions can be repeatedly reinforced by the brand stimuli, making them
feel that such brands are part of their identity (Fournier, 1998). Therefore, it is likely that this
self-verification process will ultimately form a strong emotional attachment to the brands and the
Thus, brands congruent with ones actual self-image provide psychological benefits or
positive emotions, such as reliefs, comfort, or self-affirmation, although their nature and intensity
may be different depending on the level of self-esteem. By associating themselves with such
brands and experiencing such positive psychological states repeatedly, consumers are expected
to be more clearly aware of the brands and more closely connect the brands to their self-image,
- H2: Actual self-congruity has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand
attachment.
30
That is, the higher the actual self-congruity of a brand, the higher the emotional
As discussed above, an emotional brand attachment develops over time. That is, a brand
has to be interacted with or be experienced by the consumer before they become attached to it
(Thomson, McInnis, and Park, 2005). However, little research in brand attachment has
considered the effect of such experience. An empirical study conducted by Aaker and colleagues
(Aaker, Fournier, and Brasel, 2004) may be an exception, but they mainly followed the
respondents temporal changes of an emotional attachment and did not examine the differential
effect of experiences on the attachment. Grisaffe and Nguyens (2011) qualitative study
identified the potential effects of consumer-brand interactions. Nevertheless, they did not
quantify the impact of such brand experiences. Most studies seem to have ignored this factor.
Thus, no existing study has yet examined how brand experience systematically affects emotional
attachment. Similarly, the self-congruity research has not incorporated the effect of brand
experience in the models, although some studies focused on such products that the respondents
In the following sections, the impact of brand experience on the resultant brand
attachment will be explored by employing the concept and measure of brand experience, recently
developed by Brakus, Schmitt, and Zarantonello (2009). First, the concept of brand experience
will be introduced. Then, its main effect on emotional brand attachment will be discussed.
Finally, the interaction effects with self-congruity on brand attachment will be examined.
31
Experiencing a brand does not necessarily imply any usage experience of the brand. A
brand can be experienced indirectly (i.e., virtually presented brand stimuli such as symbol, logo,
slogan, packages, product ads, etc.), as well as directly (i.e., physical contact with the product or
the consumption experience) (Brakus, Schmitt, and Zarantonello, 2009). Furthermore, a longer
usage or repeated purchases do not always mean greater experiences. For example, a frequent
purchase may simply reflect the consumers inertia rather than a deep relationship (Fournier,
1998). Conversely, a consumer may yearn toward a good without expecting a chance to buy, as
described in O Henrys well known short story, The Gift of the Magi. Thus, conceptualizing
brand experience and operationalizing its strength or intensity, which should represent the
proportional impact of brand experience on the subsequent outcomes, cannot simply be related to
and scale of brand experience. They define brand experience as subjective, internal
consumer responses (sensations, feelings, and cognitions) and behavioral responses evoked by
brand-related stimuli that are part of a brands design and identity, packaging, communications,
and environments (p.53). Here, brand experience is supposed to vary in strength and intensity,
as implied above. According to this definition, psychological and behavioral responses (to
However, the intensity of such responses intrinsically reflects direct and indirect interactions (the
authors also refer to them as experience) prior to an exposure to specific brand stimuli, rather
than the physical configuration or narrative contents of the stimuli (Schmitt, 2009; Brakus et al.,
2009; Phillips and McQuarrie, 2010). Such interactions as experience can include direct
32
encounters with the product (e.g., consumption or physical contact), contacts with marketing
communication tools (e.g., TV advertisings, press release, websites, sales promotion, or events),
and social influences (e.g., word of mouth or observing others who are using the product) (cf.
Brakus et al., 2009; Schumitt, 2009; Schultz, 2007; Chattopadyay and Laborie, 2005; Whelan
and Wohlfeil, 2006; Ha and Perk, 2005). Through such interactions, a consumer develops
holistic impression of a brand in the memory, and, the concept of brand experience is supposed
information accumulated through past interactions or experiences with the brand, and the brand-
related stimuli function as the trigger of such responses. Accordingly, the intensity represents the
Thus, Brakus et al.s (2009) conceptualize brand experience as the responses evoked by brand-
related stimuli, enabling researchers to measure the impact of general experiences related to a
brand, regardless of whether they are direct or indirect experiences, and do so independently of
Brakus et al.s (2009) concept and scale identifies four dimensions of brand experience,
each of which represents a different facet of internal or behavioral response (Brakus et al., 2009;
Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010). The first dimension is sensory experience, which refers to the
visual, auditory, tactile, gustative, and olfactory stimulations provided by a brand. The scale
items are designed to capture the overall level of the intensity of responses related to aesthetics
or sensory perceptions in general. The second dimension is affective experience, which refers
to a wide range of emotional feelings, such as fun, refreshed, inspired, or nostalgia. The scale
items are designed to reflect the overall level of the intensity of affective or emotional reactions
33
that the stimuli arouse, regardless of its specific nature of the reactions. The third dimension is
intellectual experience, which refers to such responses that stimulate or motivate analytical and
imaginative thoughts. These scale items are designed to capture the overall level of stimulative
responses that make an individual engage in convergent and divergent thinking. The fourth
lifestyles aspects, and active interactions with the brand. These scale items are designed to
measure the overall subjective degree to which an individual is likely to associate themselves
On the basis of this conceptualization, Barkus and colleagues create a second order
construct of brand experience, consisting of the above four dimensions. The measure is
composed of twelve items, with three items for each dimension. The construct and scale is
developed to capture the strength and intensity of positive responses in each of the four
dimensions in order to quantify the overall strength of such responses in terms of brand
experience. More specifically, the scale is designed to assess "a lasting trace stored in long-term
memory based on multiple exposures to brand related stimuli" (p. 55), as the source of such
responses. Accordingly, the four dimensions are supposed to capture multiple facets of the
overall brand experience as reflections of "a lasting trace stored in long-term memory" that was
formed and accumulated through past interactions with the brand. With regard to its effects,
research suggests that the stronger or more intense an individuals overall brand experience, the
more it is likely to predict positive outcomes for the brand (Phillips and McQuarrie, 2010).
Brakus and the colleagues also examined the discriminant validity of the brand
constructs. These constructs include brand attachment as well as brand attitude, brand
34
involvement, consumer delight, and the results support the discriminant validity of brand
Thus far, the concept of brand experience has been examined based on the existing
literature. In the review, it was suggested that the construct and scale enables researchers to
measure an individuals overall experience of a brand regardless of the natures and durations of
prior experiences. Also, it was shown that a more intense brand experience is more likely to
predict positive outcomes for the brand. In the following section, the effects of brand experience
regarding self-congruity and self-esteem are examined. Finally, the hypotheses as to the possible
evoked by brand stimuli which reflect past interactions with the brand. Research in social
psychology and consumer behavior suggests how such responses develop through those past
interactions with a brand (e.g., Ferraro et al., 2009; Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Janiszewski, 2008;
Custers and Aarts, 2005; Bargh et al., 1996). According to this research stream, each interaction
can be considered such a process that a brand or the related stimuli function as cues, activating
mental representations associated with the brand, which, in turn, elicit psychological or
behavioral responses (Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Sela and Shiv, 2009). Based on this notion,
research postulates that the accumulation of past interactions creates the perceptual variance to
the cues among consumers and influences their psychological and behavioral responses (i.e.,
brand experience) at a certain point of time, affecting the consumers relationship with brands
At the early stage of the development of such processes (Figure 2.1), for example, when a
new brand is introduced into the target market, the cues are usually consciously (or possibly
unconsciously) processed and associated with the mental representations, such as traits,
stereotypes, or goals, that can be related to the brand (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999; Bargh et al.,
1996, Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Ferraro et al., 2009; Sela and Shiv, 2009). Through repeated and
consistent activation of such representations, those mental representations become more strongly
linked to representations of the cues (in this context, brand representations) in memory and
become chronically more accessible from such cues (Chartrand and Bargh, 1996; Bargh et al.,
1996; Custer and Aarts, 2005; Gillath et al., 2006). As the accessibility increases and becomes
stronger, the mental processes tend to be more automatic (i.e., spreading activation) (Fitzsimons
et al., 2008; Bargh et al., 2001; Gillath et al., 2006; Bargh and Chartrand, 1999). In this
developmental process, all of the possible sources of such activation can enhance the
accessibility strength in an accumulative fashion (Bargh et al., 1996). Concerning this, research
found that, whatever the cues may be, either explicitly or implicitly related to the brand (e.g.,
priming stimuli), or even either subliminal or supraliminal stimuli, they can activate those mental
representations, suggesting that, potentially, any kind of interactions with or exposures to the
brand-related information can contribute to the strength of accessibility (Chartrand, 2005; Bargh
and Chartrand, 1999; Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Shah, 2003; Janiszewski and van Osselaer, 2005;
Among the mental representations activated by such cues, goal representations are
supposed to play a central role in creating those responses (Chartrand and Bargh, 1996; Custers
and Aarts, 2005; Bargh et al., 2001; Chartrand et al., 2008; Shah, 2003; Fitzsimons et al., 2008).
In memory, goals are represented as some desired states that individuals want to attain or to
36
Mental Representation
Direct/Indirect Interaction (Traits, Stereotypes, etc)
MR R
with a brand
Brand / Positive
B
Stimuli GR Affect R
R
as Cues
MR Goal Representation
R
Brand Representation Mental Representation
(Traits, Stereotypes, etc) Psychological or Behavioral
Responses
Spreading Activation
R
MR
Brand / Positive
B
Stimuli GR Affect R
R
as Cues
MR
R
MR
R
Brand / Positive
B
Stimuli GR Affect R
R
as Cues
MR
R
maintain (or recover), and the representations are intrinsically linked to positive affect (Custers
Once goal representations are activated by cues, they elicit the associated positive affect
(e.g., feelings or emotions), and subsequently, can motivate individuals to engage in mental or
physical activities (e.g., thinking or behaviors) (Custers and Aarts, 2005; Bargh et al., 2001; Shah,
2003; Cartrand et al., 2008). Meanwhile, traits and stereotype representations are also known to
induce some of these responses (e.g., ideomotor action; James, 1890; Bargh et al., 1996; Wheeler
et al., 2007), but they are usually not associated with positive affect and therefore do not have
motivational properties (Sela and Shiv, 2009; Fitzsimons et al., 2008). However, goal
representations and such semantic constructs (i.e., traits or stereotype representations) may
become closely associated through further activation by the related cues (In this context, a brand
and the related stimuli), and as a result, they may develop a somewhat schematic structure
regarding the mental representation of the specific cues (i.e., brand representation) (Fitzsimons et
al., 2008; Gilliath et al., 2006). Supporting this notion, past studies suggest that goal
representations can become activated via semantic constructs, subsequently eliciting affective,
motivational, and behavioral responses (Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Sela and Shiv, 2009; Wheeler et
Thus, in addition to the accessibility strength to the related mental representations from
the brand information, goal representations and the associated positive affect are considered to
determine the nature and intensity of responses evoked by such cues. Individuals are usually
aware of those responses (Chartrand, 2005). Accordingly, Barkus et al.s (2009) brand
related stimuli, and accordingly, those stimuli become able to consistently elicit the associated
positive affects, other environmental cues and mental representations related to the brand (i.e.,
traits or stereotypes, etc.) may activate goal representations, and subsequently, activate the brand
representations associated with the goal (Fitzsimons et al., 2008). In such cases, the brand
representations are perceived as a means or resource to attain or maintain the desired states,
while evoking positive affects (and other responses) associated with the states (Fitzsimons et al.,
2008). Self-expansion theory (Aaron and Aaron, 1986) suggest that, once a brand is recognized
as a means or resource to potentially realize the goal states, the positive affect may facilitate
As discussed in the previous section, the theory posits that individuals have an essential
motive to expand their self-concept, seeking to enhance their potential self-efficacy (Aron and
Aron, 1986; Aron et al, 2001). Such self-expansion is attained by including the concept of others
into their self-concept, when such others are recognized as resources that facilitate any goals that
might arise (Aron et al., 2001). As the self-expansion process proceeds, individuals come to
perceive the resources as parts of themselves (even when individuals do not actually possess
such resources, as already discussed) (Aron and Aron, 1986; Aron et al., 2001; Aron, Paris, Aron,
1995; Aron et al., 1991). As a result, those individuals begin to feel as if the ability of the
resources to achieve the goals is their own (Aron and Aron, 1986; Aron et al., 2001). Thus, self-
expansion leads to higher potential self-efficacy (and self-esteem) (Aron et al., 2001).
arousals that reflect perception of enhanced potential self-efficacy (Aaron et al., 2005; Aaron et
al., 2001; Aaron and Aaron, 1986). The intensity of such arousals is considered to reflect the
39
extent of self-expansion that the resources facilitate during the process (accordingly, the degree
of perceived enhancement of potential self-efficacy) (Aron et al., 2001; Aron et al., 1995).
However, individuals may not be aware of the source of those arousals (i.e., self-expansion
process), so they may not be able to attribute them to the process itself (Wheeler et al., 2007).
With regard to this, research suggests that individuals form expectations regarding the degree of
self-expansion (and the ensuing enhancement of self-efficacy), based on the positive arousals
associated with goals attained by such resources. (arousal-attraction effect; Aaron et al., 2001;
Foster et al., 1998; Aaron and Aaron, 1986; Dutton and Aaron, 1974) Also, the theory implies
that enhancement of self-efficacy should be realized by obtaining the ability of the sources to
facilitate attractive goals, as a part of the self (Aaron et al., 2001). Therefore, positive arousals
associated with such goals can be considered the critical determinants of the self-expansion
motive.
efficacy (and self-esteem) with intense positive arousals, by which they can experience strong
affirmation of their self-concept (Aaron et al., 1995; Aaron et al., 2001; Fournier, 1998). Because
of this self-affirmation, those individuals are prompted to further interactions and the ensuing
development of close relationship with the resources, which ultimately leads to their emotional
attachment to those resources (Aaron and Aaron, 1986; Aaron et al, 1995; Aaron et al., 1991;
Aaron et al., 2001; Fournier, 1998). Thus, attachment formation through self-expansion can be
understood as a positive reinforcement process (Fournier et al., 1998). In such cases, the theory,
accordingly, implies that fearing of potential loss of self-efficacy will lead to proximity
maintenance and actual loss will result in separation distress, both of which are distinctive
although the self-expansion process itself produces strong positive arousals that expedites further
interactions, the intensity is considered still to necessarily reflect the strength of positive arousals
associated with the goals fulfilled by the resources. For example, once the goals became
unattractive and the associated arousals disappear, the resources will become unable to enhance
self-efficacy and elicit strong positive arousals that they did before (Aron and Aron, 1986).
Therefore, the goal-associated positive arousals can be considered the fundamental determinants
When the above argument is applied to the current context, the following can be said.
First, since brands can be regarded as resources to attain certain goals, individuals may apply
them to the self-expansion process, seeking to enhance their self-efficacy. Second, although the
process itself evokes positive arousals that could motivate self-expansion, individuals form
on the intensity of positive arousals associated with the goals that those brands facilitate. This
can be considered basically the same positive affect and responses that a brand experience scale
the process, individuals experience enhancement of self-efficacy and strong positive arousals
through interactions with such brands, which serves affirmation of their self-concept. The self-
affirmation directs individuals to further interactions and development of close relationships over
time, leading to their emotional attachment to the brands. In sum, although the feeling of self-
affirmation itself may reinforce this attachment formation process, it is considered that the
the brand-related goals, here again. Thus, those positive arousals, which brand experience scale
is assumed to capture, should positively affect emotional attachment to brands (Figure 2.2).
41
MR
R
Brand / Positive
B
Stimuli GR Affect R
R
as Cues
MR
R
Positive Reinforcement
Interactions
Self-Efficacy &
Self-Affirmation Self-Expansion
Positive Arousals
- H3: Brand experience has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand
attachment.
That is, the higher the brand experience of a brand, the higher the emotional brand
On the basis of the previous arguments regarding self-congruity theory and brand
experience based on self-expansion theory, the following interaction effect of self-congruity and
brand experience on emotional brand attachment can be proposed. With regard to self-congruity,
it was argued that self-concept, which reflects activated self-schemata, functions as selection
mechanism in information processing (Markus and Wurf, 1987; Markus, 1977; Aaker, 1999).
Especially in this context, it was shown that ideal-self image and actual self-image, two self-
representations in self-concept, are the key drivers of consumers preference for brands in self-
expressive product categories, in that consumers tend to selectively focus on brands whose brand
images are congruent with their ideal self-images or actual self-images (Sirgy, 1986; 1982).
Furthermore, it was suggested that consumers are motivated to interact with those brands by
different self-motives depending on the self-images the brands reflect (Sirgy, 1986; Malar et al.,
2011). That is, in some occasions, consumers are facilitated to interact with brands whose brand
images are congruent with their ideal images when they are motivated to enhance their self-
images (i.e., by self-enhancement motive). In some other cases, consumers are expedited to
interact with brands whose brand images are congruent with their actual self-images when they
are motivated to maintain or restore their self-images (i.e., self-verification motive). Based on
these arguments, it was also proposed that such interactions with brands lead consumers to
43
emotional attachment to the brands through self-expansion process (Malar et al, 2011; Fournier,
1998).
Among those self-congruent brands, consumers are likely to choose such brands that
evoke stronger positive responses than brands with weaker positive responses, according to the
self-expansion theory (Aron et al., 2001; Fournier, 1998). Last discussion regarding self-
expansion process suggests that consumers are motivated to include the brands concepts as a
part of their own self-concept (i.e., self-expansion) as a means or resources to attain those desired
states, aiming to enhance their potential self-efficacy (Aron and Aron, 1986; Aron et al., 2001). It
was also argued that consumers form expectation of self-expansion and the subsequent
enhancement of potential self-efficacy based on positive responses that the brands evoke, the
intensity of which is reflected as brand experience (Aron et al., 2001). Thus, in general, it is
considered that consumers selectively focus on such brands that are congruent with their ideal or
actual self-images and induced to interact with such brands, and thereafter, among those brands,
they are especially motivated to further interact with specific brands that evoke stronger positive
responses rather than weaker positive responses. As a result, those specific brands are more
By contrast, other research suggests the other way. That is, it is also possible that brands
associated with strong brand experience themselves activate consumers ideal or actual-self
images, leading to the ensuing emotional attachment. Previous research has consistently found
that priming stimuli can activate specific parts of self-concept and change the subsequent
responses in various social contexts (e.g., Barkowitz, 1984; Dijksterhuis and van Knippenberg,
1998). Based on these findings, Wheeler et al.s (2007) active-self account suggests that, when
brand stimuli worked as priming stimuli, they can temporarily activate specific parts of self-
44
concept relevant to the brands, which, in turn, affects individuals' various responses, such as
feelings, emotions, motivations, and behaviors. In the current context, this implies that brands
stimuli can activate individuals ideal or actual self-images, and the specific images can
selectively direct their attention to the brands, eliciting the resulting responses. In fact, recent
studies (Fitzsimons et al., 2008; Sela and Shiv, 2009) found that brand stimuli can cause such
responses that are related to the brand-specific ideal or actual images. For example, in an
experiment, the respondents were motivated to do some creative task, after an exposure to
Apple logo mark (Fitzsimons et al., 2008). Those studies also revealed that people whose goals
(i.e., ideal or actual self-image) include the brand-related desire states were significantly more
motivated to engage in such tasks than those whose goals were not concerned with such states.
Thus, previous research suggests that brand stimuli can temporarily activate ideal or actual self-
images and evoke various positive responses. Therefore, it can be considered that such brand
stimuli may motivate consumers to interact with those brands and lead to self-expansion when
In either way, it is considered that self-congruity and strong positive responses (as brand
experience) interactively or jointly work, and affect the driving forces toward the resulting
emotional brand attachment. This interactive process can be explained as follows, based on the
above discussion. On the one hand, individuals are motivated to selectively direct their focus on
such brands that are congruent with their ideal self-image or actual self-image, and the brand
stimuli will activate a part of self-concept that corresponds to the self-image, eliciting positive
responses (i.e., self-congruity brand experience). On the other hand, when some brand stimuli
activate a part of self-concept that may be congruent with their specific ideal self-image or actual
self-image and elicit strong positive responses, such strong responses will motivate them to
45
selectively focus on the specific brands, reflecting the activated ideal self-image or actual self-
image (i.e., brand experience self-congruity). These two processes will work interactively and
reinforce further interactions with a specific brand, facilitating further inclusion of the brand
concept into their own self-concept (i.e., emotional brand attachment) through self-expansion
processes. As a result of such interaction effects between self-congruity and brand experience,
expected that the positive relationship between self-congruity and emotional brand attachment is
stronger when brand experience (i.e., positive responses elicited by the brand stimuli) is strong
H4: The interaction between ideal self-congruity and brand experience has a
positive effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of
H5: The interaction between actual self-congruity and brand experience has a
positive effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of
In order to argue the practical implications of marketing efforts regarding the theories as
well as the effects discussed thus far, two outcome variables of emotional brand attachment -
willingness to pay a brand premium and likelihood of positive word of mouth - were included in
the models of this study. These outcomes were chosen for the following couple of reasons. First,
these two outcome variables can be directly related to behavioral commitments or financial
previous literature (e.g., Thomson et al., 2005; Park et al., 2010). Second, these two outcomes
were preferred because these variables do not necessarily assume a consumer's usage experiences
or possessions of brands. As discussed above, the interest of the current study is not limited to
direct interactions with brands. Rather, this study intends to capture the influences of indirect
interactions as well. Inversely, for this reason, such outcomes as brand loyalty (which
intrinsically assumes usage experiences or possessions of brands (e.g., Oliver, 1999)) were not
chosen.
Willingness to pay a brand premium (WTP) refers to the extent to which a consumer is
willing to pay a higher price for his/her preferred brand over comparable/lesser brands in the
same product category (Netmeyer et al., 2004). This construct is also known as one of the
strongest indicators of brand loyalty (Aaker, 1997). Willingness to pay a brand premium can be
understood as a form of consumers' investment for their relationship with brands (Thomson et al.,
2005; Fedorikhin et al., 2008). With regards to such investments, recent studies suggest that
when attachment to a brand is stronger, individuals are more motivated to willingly make
sacrifices of their personal resources such as money, time, and energy, so that they can develop
47
or continue a close relationship with the brand (Thomson et al., 2005; Carroll and Ahuvia, 2006;
Park et al., 2006; 2010). As previously argued, such consumers' willingness to sacrifice their
investments (e.g., willingness to pay a brand premium) (Thomson et al., 2005). Thus, the
literature suggests that there is a positive effect of emotional brand attachment on willingness to
pay a brand premium. This prediction has been consistently supported by empirical evidence in
the past studies (e.g., Thomson et al., 2005; Fedorikhin et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010). Therefore,
it is expected that emotional brand attachment is positively related to willingness to pay a brand
premium.
- H6: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on willingness to
That is, the higher the emotional attachment to a brand, the higher the willingness
quality orientation, and so on (Brown et al., 2005; Harrison-Walker 2001). As discussed above, it
is purported that a consumer with strong emotional attachment to a brand is willingly to make
sacrifices of their personal resources. Such motivations can also lead to various brand supporting
behaviors, such as extended search for the brand, involvement in brand communities, or making
recommendations to others (i.e., positive word of mouth) (Park et al., 2006; 2010). In addition,
48
for consumers with an elevated attachment to a brand, positive thoughts and feelings (activated
by the rich set of schema or affectively-laden memories) about the brand are easily accessible,
and the resulting prominence of favorable thoughts and feelings is postulated to lead them to
devote cognitive, emotional and behavioral resources to the target of attachment (Park et al.,
2006; Fedorikhin et al., 2008). Furthermore, Park et al. (2006) even maintain that such
consumers tend to be willing to face the risk of social ridicule, discredit or social rejection, which
may be caused by publicly advocating or promoting the brand, because of their strong
attachment to the brand. Thus, the literature, as a whole, suggests that the stronger a brand
attachment is, the more likely a consumer engages in spreading positive word of mouth. This
prediction has been also consistently supported by empirical evidence in the past studies (e.g.,
Carroll and Ahuvia, 2006; Fedorikhin et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010; Batra et al., 2012).
- H3: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on likelihood of
That is, the higher the emotional brand attachment to a brand, the higher the
The central purpose of this research is to examine the interaction effects between self-
congruity and brand experience, which are supposed to determine the intensity of emotional
brand attachment. Reflecting the research purpose, the general conceptual framework (Figure
2.3) includes brand experience and self-congruity as independent variables, along with their
49
interaction term. The literature review suggested that these two factors interact with each other
and the combined effect will lead to a stronger emotional brand attachment, which is the
In addition, the general model is designed to examine the individual effects of each
emotional brand attachment. The other is the effect of brand experience on emotional brand
attachment, which has not yet been examined. Each of these is postulated to strengthen the
subsequent emotional brand attachment. Finally, emotional brand attachment is posited to create
positive influences on two outcomes in the model: the positive effects of emotional brand
mouth.
attachment through distinct psychological processes and their interaction effects with brand
independently in separate models. The conceptual models are presented in Figure 2.4. The two
models also map the proposed hypotheses. These hypotheses are also listed in Table 2.1.
50
Brand Experience
(BE)
Willingness to Pay a
(Positive Impact of Brand Stimuli)
Brand Premium
(WTP)
Likelihood of Positive
Word of Mouth
Self-Image Congruity (WOM)
(SC)
(Actual/Ideal)
Brand Experience
Willingness to Pay a
(BE)
Brand Premium
H3 (WTP)
H6
H7
H1 Likelihood of Positive
Ideal Self-Image Word of Mouth
Congruity (ISC) (WOM)
Brand Experience
Willingness to Pay a
(BE)
Brand Premium
H3 (WTP)
H6
H7
H2 Likelihood of Positive
Actual Self-Image Word of Mouth
Congruity (ASC) (WOM)
Table 2.1
List of Research Hypothesis
Research Hypotheses
H3 Brand experience has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand attachment.
H4 The interaction between ideal self-congruity and brand experience has a positive
effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of ideal
self-congruity on emotional brand attachment is significantly greater when brand
experience is high than when brand experience is low.
H5 The interaction between actual self-congruity and brand experience has a positive
effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of actual
self-congruity on emotional brand attachment is significantly greater when brand
experience is high than when brand experience is low.
H6 Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on willingness to pay
a brand premium (WTP).
Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on positive word of
H7 mouth (WOM).
53
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview
This chapter details the research methodology in this study and is divided into the
following five parts. The first section describes the research design of the study along with its
rationale. The second section describes the procedures used to collect the data. Next, the
operationalization of the constructs, and thereafter, their reliability and validity testing are
detailed. Finally, the statistical analyses used for the hypothesis testing are explained.
The main objective of this study is to test the hypothetical relationships proposed in
Chapter 2. The context for the study is U.S. consumers as the target population and emotional
attachments to self-expressive brands that were formed by various kinds of past interactions with
brands in their actual experience. This research intended to capture the influence of such past
experiences and individuals emotional bonds with the brands they cherish through those
interactions. For this purpose, a survey was conducted mainly using online samples and several
In this study, online samples were mainly used, primarily because online samples can be
constructed to better represent the target population (i.e., U.S. consumers), and so can attain
higher generalizability of the results, than would be the case using convenient samples. In
addition, some of the online survey solution providers offer customized group of respondents,
which enables researchers to limit the respondents based on their properties. Other advantages of
54
this approach include that providers can offer fast feedback at reasonable costs, and also they
have been recognized as reliable sources of data in social sciences (Paolacci et al., 2010).
As discussed in the introduction section, the target product category from which the focal
brands were chosen was determined based on the following two conditions. As the primary
consideration, symbolic or self-expressive benefits are usually related to underlying needs for
personal expression and outer-directed self-esteem (Keller, 1993). Therefore, the target category
was selected from such categories that are socially visible or publicly consumed (i.e., those that
are seen by others when the products are being used) (Bourne, 1957), while privately consumed
categories (i.e., those that are not seen during the use or consumption with the possible
exception) (Bourne, 1957) are excluded. Meanwhile, as Aaker (1997) points out, there are
differences in the extent to which a specific brand is more or less self-expressive than other
brands, even in the same self-expressive product categories. For example in case of the
automobile category, one person may ride a sport car brand to show off his coolness, where as
another person may use a much cheaper brand just to satisfy his living needs without caring how
others would think of. One of the major interests in this research is to explicate how such
differences in self-expressive natures come arise and affect the subsequent outcomes, such as
emotional brand attachment, even in such identical product categories. For this reason, although
features, and their effects are the main concern in the research, other less symbolic brands are
included in the selection of the focal brands (i.e., no further constraints were imposed to
In addition, as the second condition of the target product category, relatively more
durable goods than fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) were preferred. In other words, such a
product category that is typically used longer than one year is the scope of the current study
(Hereafter, such products are called non-fast-moving consumer goods or non-FMCG). This
limitation is set based on the following discussion also made in the introduction section. One of
the basic assumptions in this study is that individuals social roles influence their perception of
brands, ultimately affecting the formation of emotional brand attachment. As for fast-moving
consumer goods, which consumers can select depending on time and occasion (e.g., perfumes,
beers), Aaker (1999) found that consumers information processing is susceptible to the temporal
context of their situations. Accordingly, the effect of individuals social roles is less likely to be
detectable in such categories than durable goods that are not easily replaced depending on such
transitory impacts. Therefore, as the second condition of the target product category, non-fast-
moving consumer goods were selected, in order to more focus on the continuous influence of
individuals social role, which is assumed to be critical in the formation of brand attachment,
With regards to the selection of the focal brands in the target product category, the only
condition needed to be satisfied was high brand awareness, so that respondents can reasonably
answer to the questions in the survey. The main focus in this study is to explicate the interaction
effects of self-congruity and brand experience on emotional brand attachment. Considering that
many studies have already examined self-congruity effects on the subsequent outcomes, the
especially intriguing issue is whether brand experience amplifies the effects of self-congruity on
those outcomes. Accordingly, the diversity in the focal brands was welcomed in order to create
variability in the responses (especially regarding brand experience, self-congruity, and brand
56
attachment) that would make it easier to detect the proposed effects. For this reason, the other
The above three conditions were examined using a survey in the pretest as explained
below. Before the survey phase, a review of recent brand literature was conducted. On the basis
of the literature review, and the subsequent considerations based on expert judgments,
smartphones were selected as the target product category because of its desirable characteristics
for the current purpose, as detailed in the next section. In addition, several candidates of the focal
brands were also chosen from major smartphone brands based on the brand literature and actual
market data. Accordingly, in the survey phase, the appropriateness of smartphones as the target
category was examined in terms of the first two conditions regarding product category.
Following this, five focal brands were chosen from the candidate brands mainly based on the
A pretest was conducted to confirm the suitability of smartphones as the target product
category and to select the focal brands used in the main study. Following this, data collection of
the main study was executed to test the proposed hypotheses using the brands selected in the
pretest.
As discussed above, a pretest was conducted to select the focal brands. The pretest
consisted of two phases. First, the brand literature was reviewed to select candidate product
categories that may fit the two conditions of the target category discussed above. From the
candidate categories, smartphones were selected as the target product category (based on expert
judgments) for the reasons discussed below. Next, a survey was implemented in order to verify
57
suitability of smartphones as the target category for the current purpose and also to select the
focal brands used for the hypothesis testing in the main study.
In the review of recent brand literature, the following product categories were identified
as ones that may fit the two basic conditions discussed above (i.e., publicly consumed products
and non-FMCG): smartphones (e.g., Cheng et al., 2012); laptops (e.g., Gao et al., 2009); MP3s
(e.g., Chatterjee and Rose, 2012); jeans (e.g., Swaminathan et al., 2009); sport shoes (e.g.,
Chernev et al., 2011); and cars (e.g., Esch et al., 2012). Among these categories, smartphones
category were revealed mainly based on the market data. First, in the market, only 5 top brands
cover approximately 90% of the share (Nielsen, 2012a). This implies that the survey can be
effectively administered using a less complicated system, while the results can achieve a higher
extent of generalizability across the entire market. Second, the price range of this category is
considerably less than other product categories such as cars or laptops. Accordingly, this
category is suitable to examine the effects of differences derived from brands. Third, the
possession rate exceeds 50% and is still rapidly growing in the U.S. market (Nielsen, 2012b).
Therefore, the results may create more direct managerial implications than other less active
product categories. Finally, in a similar vein, the markets of a variety of digital devices (laptops,
MP3s, tablets, etc) have also grown rapidly in recent years and most of the players are
competing in these markets using the same brand names as the major smartphones (e.g., Apple,
SONY, and Samsung - smartphones, laptops, MP3s, and tablets; BlackBerry and Motorola -
smartphones and tablets). Therefore, the results of the current study may have still further
generalizability across these growing markets, and so may provide marketing managers with
58
valuable implications, possibly applicable across markets of digital devices, including those
under development.
The secondary considerations were made regarding the characteristics of the brands in the
category. The following desirable features were found also here. First, the smartphone category
includes Apple, which has been considered relevant to desired states and found to elicit goal-
relevant responses or evoke intense positive brand experience in previous studies (Fitzsimons et
al., 2008; Brakus et al., 2009). This brand is also known for strong customer attachment as one of
"iconic brands" (Holt, 2004). Second, it is also found that some of the brands evoke strong brand
experience (i.e., psychological and behavioral responses), while others elicit only weak brand
experience (Brakus et al., 2009). These properties of the brands were considered desirable for the
current purpose because they would help create variability in responses, and therefore, obtain
On the basis of these considerations, smartphones were selected as the target category in
this study, and were tested for appropriateness as the target category in the survey. The survey
included 5 other product categories mentioned above and tablets as another related category, in
order to examine the suitability of smartphone category regarding the aforementioned two
conditions in relation to them. Also, seven major smartphone brands (Apple, Samsung,
BlackBerry, HTC, Motorola, NOKIA, and SonyEricsson) were chosen as the candidate brands
mainly based on the market share, and were examined to select the focal brands in the same
In the subsequent survey, data collection was conducted as follows. Respondents in the
study were drawn from students enrolled in an undergraduate course at a major Midwestern
university. The researcher asked for instructor's permission to contact students, and students
59
were solicited in class to participate in the survey for extra credit. Following this, students were
contacted via email, the purpose of the survey was explained, and their further participation was
requested. In emails sent to students, a survey link to the online questionnaire was attached,
along with a cover letter including brief instructions. Approximately 100 undergraduate students
were invited to participate in the pretest. Before launching the pretest, the researcher had
obtained an approval for the entire procedures from human subject committee of Southern
Illinois University.
The online questionnaire consisted of two sets of questions. First, in order to examine
appropriateness of smartphones as the target category for the study, an item of Publicly/Privately
consumed product scale (Bearden and Etzel, 1982) and an item to ask expected period of use
(Kobayashi, 2005) were included. The main reason to use these scale was to verify that
smartphones as a product category fit the two essential conditions discussed above: a) Publicly
consumed or socially visible product category when it is used; and b) non-fast moving
consumption goods. Also, for the other six product categories, which had been chosen mainly
from the literature review, the same questions were asked to further justify the use of
The second set of questions related to the brand awareness (Yoo and Donthu, 2001) and
brand familiarity scales (Kent and Allen, 1994). These scales were used to select the focal brands,
from the seven major brands of smartphones that were identified as candidate brands in the
literature review and the subsequent judgment. The brand awareness scale served as the main
criterion for selection, and the brand familiarity scale was used supplementally, as detailed in the
In the main study, the survey was conducted using a web-based questionnaire, for the
following reasons: 1) this method allows participants to fill out the questionnaire in their spare
time, which improves the response rate (Assael and Keon, 1982); 2) an online questionnaire
allows for the presentation of graphical stimuli, such as brand logos; and 3) most importantly,
web-based survey software provides a flexible interface that enables one to randomly assign
different questionnaires to each respondent, which is the critical procedure of this study as
discussed later. The online questionnaire was developed using Qualtrics, which offers an easy
and intelligible user interface, while allowing sophisticated and flexible analytics.
Participants of the main study were drawn from active members of Amazon.coms
Mechanical Turk (mTurk). Mechanical Turk is an Internet survey solution provider that has
recently become popular among social scientists as a source of data for academic studies
(Paolacci et al., 2010). Participants were recruited on the website in exchange for 50 cents as
compensation. Respondents were U.S. residents who promised good quality of data, who were
Participants made the decision to participate based on the cover letter presented on Mechanical
Turk website (see Appendix B for survey instrument). Those who decided to participate were
instructed to visit the online questionnaire through the link contained in the cover letter. When
they accessed the Qualtrics website, a questionnaire for one of the five brands was randomly
The questionnaire consisted of a description of the study, brand logo, the question items
for the main constructs, as well as items to gather demographic information. After the description
of the study, respondents were asked to answer the question items related to the main model
61
constructs, such as emotional brand attachment (BA), brand experience (BE), ideal and actual
self-congruity (ISC, ASC), and two outcomes, willingness to pay a brand premium (WTP) and
positive word of mouth (WOM). Following that, they were referred to the demographic
questions including gender, age, income, ethnicity and levels of education. The entire data
collection process was completed within a four day period. After the survey was closed,
participant IDs (as a registered member of Mechanical Turk) were checked to confirm that there
In order to satisfy the requirement to use a SEM in the subsequent statistical analysis, the
desired sample size was 300. This sample size not only exceeds 200 (considered a goal for SEM),
but also satisfies a conventional requirement of more than 5 respondents per parameter (Hair et
al., 2006; Bentler and Chou, 1987). Moreover, power analysis (guided by MacCallum et al.,
1996) suggests that, with a sample size of 300, the power of this model approaches 0.99,
indicating that the sample is sufficient for SEM, given our model with 650 degrees of freedom at
the 0.05 of alpha level. Another power analysis for ANOVA (G-Power) to test the proposed
interaction effects also suggests that a sample size of 300 also produces a power of 0.99,
assuming the effect size of 0.25. Therefore, a sample size of 300 was deemed a reasonable goal
Hypothesis testing deals with the six major constructs described in the conceptual model:
brand premium, and positive word of mouth. Scales and items for the study are shown in
Appendix B. All theoretical constructs were measured using previously developed multi-item
scales. Some of the items are partly reworded to adjust to the study's context. Also, seven-point
62
scales were adopted for these constructs, while different types of anchoring were used depending
In order to measure emotional brand attachment, Park et al.s (2010) brand attachment
scale was used. This scale was recently developed by the authors of the original scale of
emotional brand attachment (Thomson et al., 2005). The improved scale was adopted because it
was deemed a superior option to the original scale for the following reasons.
While Thomson, et al.s scale is widely used and therefore may be useful for a
comparison of results with other studies, the following issues needed to be addressed in this
context: 1) Swaminathan et al. (2009) point out that Thomson et al.s scale is susceptible to the
emotional brand attachment tends to reflect sincerity brand personalities more than other
personality dimensions, while items that measure the passion dimension of the attachment
scale are more sensitive to excitement brand personalities than others; and 2) items in
Thomson et al.s scale essentially measures specific facets of consumers emotions derived from
emotional relationship with brands, while affective dimension of brand experience aims to
conceptually distinctive, it was considered possible that these two measures may suffer from
On the other hand, Park et al.s refined scale was considered to be able to address these
issues by not directly focusing on emotional responses resulting from brand attachment. Rather,
the five items are intended to capture the degree of conceptual overlap between self-image and
brand image. This self-brand image overlap is the core of the concept of emotional brand
attachment and also the theoretical foundation in explaining the formation process, as was
63
discussed throughout the previous chapter. Thus, this scale seemed appropriate for the purpose of
this study, while addressing issues that the original scale intrinsically suffered from. In addition,
the scale focuses on measuring the amount of positive connection between self-image and brand
image by carefully adjusting its anchoring (i.e., Not at all Extremely). Brand attachment is
understood, to reflect the positive connections between a consumer and a brand. Because of this
thoughtful construction, not implemented in the original scale, the refined scale was considered a
superior option.
Based on these considerations, Park et al.s (2010) the brand attachment scale was used to
measure emotional brand attachment. The five items are presented in Appendix B. Each of the
original items was adjusted to fit the current context. Using these five items, respondents were
asked to indicate the extent of emotional connection with a brand, especially regarding self-brand
image overlap.
Self-congruity was measured using five items, adopted from Sirgy et al.s (1997) global
measures, for each of two types of self-congruity (ideal/actual). Each of the items is adjusted
following Malar et al.s (2011) wording (e.g., The personality of brand X is consistent with how
I see myself/how I would like to be). Respondents were asked to indicate the extent of
agreement or disagreement (i.e., 7-point Likert scale) with each of the 5 items concerning the
congruity between self-image and the brand personality. Moreover, instructions for respondents
to recall their own self-image and brand image were included in the questionnaire to improve the
quality of the responses (following Malar et al., 2011). The items are presented in Appendix B.
Furthermore, in order to help respondents describe brand image in mind more clearly, a couple
of devices were implemented before the self-congruity scale. First, in an open-ended question,
each respondent was asked to provide a short description of the overall image of a brand they
64
own. This question was adopted from Aaker (1999), along with its detailed instructions.
Following this, a brand personality scale (Aaker, 1997; 1999) was used to let respondents
imagine the brand image more concretely. The fifteen items (Appendix B) were intended to help
them associate the brand image with different aspects of its personality-like characteristics so
that they can more easily and properly respond to the ensuing self-congruity scales.
Brand experience is measured using a scale adopted from Brakus et al. (2009), including
three items for each of four aspects (i.e., sensory experience, affective experience,
intellectual experience, and behavioral experience). Besides these, two additional items for
each dimension were adopted from Brakus (2001) in order to address concerns of possible issues
relating to model identification after scale purification. Based on the literature, modifications
were made for the items to measure the amount of the positive impact of brand experience.
Following Brakus et al.s (2009) directions, modifiers such as positive were added to each item
(if needed) to clarify the ambiguity of expressions (for example, This brand makes a strong
positive impression on my visual sense or other senses). Following this, marketing experts (i.e.,
marketing professors and doctoral students) were consulted with regards to the face validity and
readability of several possible options for each item. Based on their suggestions, the best options
were chosen, and minimal modifications were done (In fact, the original expressions were
basically retained). In accordance with this modification, scale anchoring was adjusted to Not at
In the scale, respondents were asked to indicate the positive impacts of a brand
experience with each of the 20 items with regards to their sensory, affective, intellectual, and
behavioral responses evoked by the brand. The scale items are presented in Appendix B. Similar
to the self-congruity scale, an open-ended question was presented before the brand experience
65
scale in order to improve the quality of responses. This question was adopted based on Brakus et
als (2009) procedure of scale development (including instructions). In this question, the concept
of brand experience was briefly explained, and they were asked to describe their impressions
of the brand, based on past interactions with the brand or brand-related information, aiming at
Two outcomes of brand attachment proposed in the hypotheses were used: 1) willingness
to pay a brand premium (WTP) was measured using a scale adopted from Netemeyer et al.
(2004). Respondents were asked to indicate the extent of agreement or disagreement (i.e., 7-point
Likert scale) with each of the 3 items as to whether they were willing to pay a higher price for
the brand than others; and 2) likelihood of positive word of mouth (WOM) was measured using a
scale adopted from Maxham and Netmeyer (2003). Respondents were asked to indicate the
extent of agreement or disagreement (i.e., 7-point Likert scale) with each of the 3 items
concerning likelihood that they will spread positive information about the brand or recommend
the brand if they are consulted about purchasing a product in the category. The scale items of
willingness to pay a brand premium (WTP) and likelihood of positive word of mouth (WOM)
Validity is defined as the degree to which instruments accurately measure the constructs
they purport to measure (Churchill, 1979; Hair et al., 2006), and reliability refers to the degree to
which instruments are consistent in what they intended to measure (Churchill, 1979; Hair et al.,
2006). In order to examine the reliability of the measures used in this study, the internal
consistency of each scale was assessed using composite reliability and Cronbachs alpha
(Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978). The acceptable threshold value of alpha (as well as
66
composite reliability) is 0.7 in marketing research (Nunnaly and Bernstein, 1994; Fornell and
discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). Convergent validity assesses the degree to
which different indicators of the same construct are highly related, while discriminant validity
evaluates the degree to which a construct is different from other related constructs (Hair et al.,
2006; Nunnaly and Bernstein, 1994). Support for convergent validity is provided by examining
the average variance extracted (AVE) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The AVE represents the
amount of common variance among latent construct indicators (Hair et al., 2006). In order to
achieve adequate convergent validity, the AVE should exceed 0.5 (i.e., for a construct, more than
half of the variance is explained by the scale items) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Netemeyer et al.,
2003).
Evidence for discriminant validity is indicated when item loadings on the corresponding
construct are higher than their cross-loadings on other constructs in a factor analysis, and the
average variance shared between each construct and its indicators is greater than the variance
shared between the construct and other constructs in the model (Fornell, 1987). While the former
is determined by the size, sign, and significance of the factor loadings, the latter is ascertained if
the AVE is greater than the square of the correlation between the construct and every other
construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Fornell, 1987). In this study, confirmatory factor analysis
was conducted using structural equation modeling to establish these construct validity of the
scales.
67
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypothetical relationships
among the constructs using the EQS (Bentler, 1995). SEM has substantial advantages over
traditional approaches, because it is the only multivariate technique that enables one to
simultaneously estimate multiple equations (Hair et al., 2006). These equations represent the
relationships between latent constructs and their multiple indicators (i.e., the measurement
model) as well as the relationships between such constructs (i.e., the structural model) (Hair et al.,
2006). Based on this property, SEM allows for the testing of measurement characteristics of each
relationships among the constructs (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989; Novak, Hoffman, and Yung,
constructs, which relate to the main purpose of this research (Li et al., 1998; Rigdon, 1998).
The model analysis followed the two-step approach proposed by Anderson and Gerbing
(1988). In the first step, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to ensure that the
corresponding CFA models attain acceptable levels of goodness of fit and that constructs in the
models indicate sufficient reliability and validity. In this process, constructs in the models were
assessed in terms of reliability and validity based on the criteria discussed above, while the
purification of the measurement models was also done in case model fit was not good enough. In
the second step, the structural models were tested by examining path coefficients, which indicate
the strength and the sign of the theoretical relationships. In addition to these parameters, t-
statistics were used to test the research hypotheses. For model estimation, robust maximum
likelihood (robust ML) method was employed to address lack of multivariate normality (Bentler,
The overall adequacy of the proposed model was assessed based on several overall fit
measures. Because of the model estimation method (i.e., robust ML), the following measures
were adopted: 1) the normed fit index (NFI); 2) the non-normed fit index (NNFI) (Bentler and
Bonett, 1980); 3) the incremental fit index (IFI) (Bollen, 1989); and 4) the comparative fit index
(CFI) (Bentler, 1990). For these goodness of fit indices, values greater than 0.90 indicate an
acceptable level of fit (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Hair et al., 2006). Also, the Chi-square (2)
the correlation matrix computed based on the proposed model is not significantly different from
the correlation matrix derived from the actual data. In addition, the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) was examined. Regarding these indices, values of 0.08 or less indicate
Because measures for independent and dependent variables come from the same source,
it is acknowledged that common method variance may inflate the observed relationships between
the constructs. To address the concern, a post-hoc test of common method variance was executed.
The structural model was re-estimated with a same-source first-order factor, which is added to
the indicators of all latent constructs in the model (Podsakoff et al., 2003). This procedure
controls the portion of the variance in the indicators that results from measuring items from the
same source. Also, the data set was examined beforehand in several ways: 1) no missing data
points were found; 2) deletions of cases were made based on a screening question (Appendix B)
and on examinations of univariate outliers (standardized values and box plot) as well as
assumption were addressed by applying robust maximum likelihood estimation method in the
statistical analyses.
69
The model used in the empirical analysis was developed for each of ideal and actual self-
formation of brand attachment (Figure 3.1). Each model includes brand experience, self-
congruity (ideal/actual), the interaction term of these constructs, and emotional brand attachment
as well as its two outcomes (i.e., willingness to pay a brand premium and positive word of
mouth). The interaction term was incorporated in the structural models to test the interaction
effects of brand experience and self-congruity, following Pings (2007) approach that was
developed to specifically test an interaction moderation effect between a second order construct
and a first order construct. Furthermore, specifically focusing the proposed interaction effects,
ANOVA was also used to analyze the interaction patterns in order to interpret the results in more
detail and confirm the robustness of the findings using a different statistical analysis.
70
Brand Experience
Willingness to Pay a
(BE)
Brand Premium
H3 (WTP)
H6
Brand Experience
(BE) Willingness to Pay a
Brand Premium
H3 (WTP)
H6
Figure 3.1. Hypothesis Testing Models for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
71
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Overview
This chapter presents results of the pretest and the main study, and is divided into four
parts. The first section reports the results of the data collection and data analyses of the pretest.
Next, the results of the main study and the process of data collection are presented. Following
this, reports regarding the measurement models and psychometric properties of the constructs
used in this study will be offered. Finally, results of statistical analysis of the structural model for
the target product category; and 2) selecting the focal brands within the product category.
In the first phase, the product category was examined with regards to the two conditions
discussed in the previous chapter: a non fast-moving consumer goods (non-FMCG) and publicly
consumed product category. In order to verify that smartphones as a product category fit these
conditions, a series of data analyses were conducted with other product categories that may also
satisfy the two conditions. Based on the literature review discussed the previous chapter, the
following six product categories were chosen for this purpose: laptops, tablets, MP3, sport shoes,
For the second objective, several major smartphone brands were examined to choose the
focal brands that are highly recognized among consumers. Seven major brands (Apple, Samsung,
BlackBerry, HTC, Motorola, Nokia, and Sony Ericsson) were chosen as the candidate brands,
72
based on a review of actual market information and brand literature (e.g., Nielsen 2012; Cheng et
al., 2012; Laran et al., 2011). In the data analysis, brand awareness was used as the main
criterion to select the focal brands and brand familiarity was applied as a supplemental criterion
to screen out such brands that consumers are considerably less familiar with than other brands.
With permission of the course instructor (and also, Human Subjects Committee's
approval), college students were recruited from a large section of an undergraduate marketing
course in a large Midwestern U.S. university. Three announcements were made during regular
class hours to invite them to the participation in exchange for extra credit for the course grades.
Fliers were also distributed in the class room in order to encourage participation. Subsequently,
students were contacted by the researcher via e-mails that include a cover latter and the link to
the online survey. The survey instrument was administered using Qualtrics over the Internet.
Participants were allowed five days to complete the survey. The questionnaire consists of cover
107 respondents completed the survey within the specified period and none of the
responses includes missing values. Accordingly, all the responses were considered valid
responses and retained for the subsequent data analysis. Details of the sample characteristics are
4.2.2 Results
that smartphones as a product category is a publicly consumed product and also a non-fast-
moving consumption goods (non-FMCG), and therefore, satisfies the conditions of the target
Table 4.1
Pretest Data Sample Characteristics
First, in publicly and privately consumed product scale item (7-point scale), which
intends to measure the extent to which consumers consider a product category a publicly
consumed product (i.e., socially visible when it is used), smartphones had the highest mean score
(6.40) among the seven categories (Table 4.2). This result clearly shows that smartphones do
indeed represent publicly consumed product categories. Second, regarding expected period of
use, it was found that respondents, on average, expect a smartphone to be in service for
approximately 2 years before replacing it (mean = 23.82 months) (Table 4.2). Thus, the result
74
indicates that smartphones as a product category can also represent non-FMCG, whose expected
Overall, the above results indicate that smartphones as a product category is considered
appropriate for this study, satisfying both of the two conditions examined here.
Table 4.2
Public/Private Consumption and Expected Period of Use
Sport
Laptops Tablets MP3 Smartphones Jeans Cars
shoes
Public/Private
Consumption 5.54 5.19 5.79 6.4 5.77 5.94 6.36
Product (1.586) (1.518) (1.671) (1.228) (1.384) (1.491) (1.216)
Category scale
Selection of the Focal Brands. The brand awareness (5 items, 1: strongly disagree 7:
strongly agree) scale was used as the main criterion to select the focal brands from the 7
candidate brands mentioned above. Mean scores of the 5 items were calculated to examine brand
awareness of these brands (Table 4.3). A mean score of 5.0 was considered as the cutoff point at
first. Three major brands (Apple, BlackBerry, and Sumsung) exceeded this criterion. Meanwhile,
although the mean scores of two other major brands (HTC and Motorola) were slightly below
this cutoff point, both of them exceeded 4.75, which is equivalent to 3.5 point in 5 point scale a
cutoff point that has been used in the previous literature (e.g., Malar et al., 2011). Including these
75
two brands makes it possible for the current study to cover approximately 90% of U.S.
smartphone market (Nielsen, 2012a). By doing so, this study can be expected to attain a
considerably higher degree of generalizability in the entire market of this category than limiting
to the top three brands. For these reasons, HTC and Motorola were retained. Finally, the other
two brands, NOKIA and SonyEricsson, were dropped from the study because both clearly failed
In addition, brand familiarity scale (3 items, 1: strongly disagree 7: strongly agree) was
supplementally used to eliminate such brands that are considerably less familiar than other major
brands, although brand familiarity is not the scope of the current study. Mean scores were
calculated to examine brand familiarity, also here. NOKIA and SonyEricsson were found to be
considerably less familiar than the other brands, being the only brands that fell below 3.0, so they
were eliminated from consideration again. On the other hand, Apple was found to be the most
familiar brand, attaining a higher brand familiarity (5.74) than any other. As to the other four
brands, brand familiarity did not vary considerably and concentrated within a limited interval
ranging from 3.63 (BlackBerry) to 4.22 (Samsung), where HTC (3.97) and Motorola (3.79)
Table 4.3
Brand Awareness and Brand Familiarity
indicated higher familiarity than the third top awareness brand, BlackBerry. Considering that it is
not realistic to expect the respondents as a group to be highly familiar with multiple major brands,
this range of familiarity seems acceptable for the current study. Accordingly, along with the
consideration discussed above regarding market share and generalizability of the results, these
BlackBerry, HTC, and Motorola were selected as the focal brands used in the main study of
this dissertation.
In the pretest, the focal brands used in the main study were selected. As proposed in
Chapter 3, the main study was used to test the proposed hypotheses regarding self-congruity,
brand experience, and brand attachment as well as the outcomes, such as willingness to pay a
price premium and positive word of mouth. In order to achieve greater generalizability of the
findings, U.S. consumers in general were targeted as the population. Thus, a non-student sample
recruited online was used for this study. In the following sections, a short report of the data
collection process is offered. Following that, the measurement model will be discussed and
reports regarding the psychometric properties of the constructs used in the hypothesis testing will
be offered. Finally, results from the structural model testing will be presented.
Participants in the main study were U.S. residents who were active members of
provider that can offer customized online panels for a variety of research purposes, and has
recently become popular among social scientists as a source of data (Paolacci et al., 2010).
77
Participants were recruited on the website, and offered 50 cents as a compensation for their time.
In the recruitment process, Mechanical Turk was instructed to limit the participants not only to
U.S. residents based on registration records, but also to focus on those who have offered good
The survey instrument was administered online using Qualtrics survey software.
Participants were directed to the online questionnaire through the link contained in the cover
letter presented on Mechanical Turk website (see Appendix B for survey instrument). When they
accessed the Qualtrics website, a questionnaire for one of the five brands chosen in the pretest
was randomly assigned to each participant. The corresponding brand logo was continuously
presented at the top left of the screen with each set of questions concerning the brand. The entire
data collection process was completed within a four day period. After the survey was closed,
participant IDs (as a registered member of Mechanical Turk) were checked to confirm that there
A total of 397 participants completed the survey. Participants were generally Caucasian
(78.1%), less than 35 years old (65.3%), and with household incomes less than $50,000 (59%),
and thus appear to fairly well represent the U.S. smartphone market. Moreover, the respondent
profile overlaps considerably with that of the student sample in the pretest. Detailed sample
characteristics are listed in Table 4.4. No missing data points were found. The data were
removed and 353 valid responses were retained for further analyses. The possibility of common
method bias was also examined by referring Podsakoff et al. (2003). Factor loadings of all
constructs used in the model testing were compared between a confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) model with a common latent factor and another CFA model without common latent factor.
78
No substantial differences in factor loadings were found (< 0.055), which suggests that serious
Table 4.4
Main Study Data Sample Characteristics
experience (BE) scale, which is the only multidimensional scale used in this study, a series of
confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were applied mainly for two reasons: 1) primarily to test the
measurement theory that specifies the pattern of factor loadings by examining how well such a
specification represents the actual data (Hair et al., 2005); and 2) to create a better measurement
model by eliminating items that were not fit well. From the purified scale, psychometric
properties were examined to verify construct validity and reliability as well as dimensionality.
The CFAs were performed using EQS 6.1 (Bentler, 1994). The base model of CFA
included four dimensions of brand experience as latent factors and the original 5 indicators
(observed values for the scale items) for each dimension. All 4 dimensions were allowed to
correlate freely as suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). In the initial model estimation, it
was revealed that the Mardias coefficient, a measurement of multivariate kurtosis (Mardia,
1970), was greater than the recommended value of 3 ( = 42.39). The coefficient indicated the
lack of multivariate normality. Accordingly, in order to address the concern regarding the
estimation was used in the subsequent CFAs, following Bentlers (1995) recommendation. As
expected, the measurement model provided a reasonably good fit with the data (comparative fit
index [CFI] = 0.984, non-normed fit index [NNFI] = 0.981, normed fit index [NFI] = 0.975,
Bollen fit index [IFI] = 0.981, root mean-square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.067).
Meanwhile, the results of the Lagrange Multiplier (ML) tests (Bentler and Dijkstra, 1985), which
was used to identify the variables that loaded on multiple latent factors, suggested the possibility
of further improvement of the model fit. Accordingly, a series of model modifications were made,
80
as presented in Table 4.5. Two items were removed in the process and the final measurement
model attained an excellent fit (CFI = 0.994, NNFI = 0.992, NFI = 0.985, IFI = 0.994, RMSEA =
0.045 (95%CI: 0.034 0.055)). Although the chi-square was significant (Satorra-Bentler 2 (df
=125) = 213.67, p<0.001), it is known to be highly sensitive to sample size and this is to be
expected with larger datasets (Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 1994). In this model, each item was found to
Table 4.5
IBE2
293.76 (142) 0.988 0.981 0.990 0.990 0.055 Intellectual BE
dropped
IBE1
213.67 (125) 0.992 0.985 0.994 0.994 0.045 Intellectual BE
dropped
Based on this final measurement model, reliability and validity of brand experience
construct were examined. First, the composite reliability and coefficient alpha (Chronbach, 1951)
were calculated in order to check the internal consistency of the four dimensions of the BE
construct. As shown in Table 4.6, the composite reliabilities were all above 0.70 of the
recommended threshold for adequate reliability (Hair et al., 2005; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988), and
Chronbachs alpha also met the minimum requirement of 0.7 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Netemeyer
procedures established by Fornell and Larcker (1981). In order to verify convergent validity,
average variance extracted (AVE) was calculated for each dimension using the respective
standardized loadings. Convergent validity is supported if AVE values are greater than 0.5
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The AVEs of all four factors of Brand Experience exceeded the
threshold, exhibiting the evidence of convergent validity (Table 4.6). Following this,
than square correlation between the construct and all the other constructs in the model (Fornell
and Larcker, 1981). The matrix below shows the results of the calculations (Table 4.7). The
square root of AVE for each construct (i.e., dimension) is on the diagonal, while the correlations
between the constructs are on off the diagonal. The matrix indicates that the AVEs are greater
than the squared correlations, and therefore, the evidence of discriminant validity was provided.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis: All the Constructs used in the Structural Model Testing.
Following brand experience scale, the measurement model of all the constructs used to test the
hypotheses was assessed by performing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), following the two-
step approach by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). The primary objective of the CFAs is to test
construct reliability and validity as well as dimensionality, in order to verify that all six
constructs can be identified as unique constructs, so that the structural models can be established
to test the hypotheses. The secondary purpose of the CFAs is to obtain a better fit of the
measurement model through scale purification. The initial estimation revealed that the data
robust maximum likelihood (robust ML) estimation was employed again. The measurement
model (Figure 4.2) exhibited an excellent fit to the data in the first run (Satorra-Bentler 2 =
82
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Factor Correlation Matrix with square root of AVE (on diagonal) Brand Experience
IBE 0.957
1076.33 (df = 673, p<0.001), CFI = 0.986, NNFI = 0.985, NFI = 0.964, IFI = 0.986, RMSEA =
0.041 (95%CI: 0.037 0.046). Accordingly, no further attempt to improve model fit was made.
Each of the factor loadings on the corresponding constructs exceeded 0.9, except BA5 (0.653).
Based on this measurement model, reliability and validity were examined as to the six
constructs. For all of them, Chronbachs alpha exceeded the cutoff point (0.7) and composite
reliabilities were also well above the threshold of 0.7 (Table 4.8). Thus, construct reliability was
supported. Next, AVEs were calculated in order to verify construct validity. The AVEs of the
six constructs were all greater than 0.5 of threshold, and therefore, the evidence of convergent
validity of these constructs was established. With regards to discriminant validity, as presented in
the matrix below (Table 4.9), each of the AVEs exceeded the square of the correlations between
the corresponding construct and all the other constructs without exception. Accordingly, solid
evidence was provided for discriminant validity concerning the six constructs. Thus, construct
reliability and validity were established for all the constructs used in the subsequent hypothesis
testing.
By establishing the structural model that specifically focuses on the interaction effect
between ideal self-congruity and brand experience on brand attachment (ISC Model, see Figure
4.1), a structural equation modeling (SEM) was executed to test the proposed hypotheses. EQS
6.1 was used for the model estimation. The proposed interaction effect was tested following
Ping's (2007) approach that was developed specifically to test an interaction effect between a
second order construct and a first order construct. Mardias coefficient (= 57.65) suggested
Table 4.8
Reliability Measures and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) 6 constructs
BE 0.957 0.846
Table 4.9
Factor Correlation Matrix with square root of AVE (on diagonal) 6 constructs
ASC 0.962
BA 0.606 0.909
method was employed to estimate the model fit. The hypothesized structural model exhibited a
good fit to the data (Satorra-Bentler 2 = 1308.90 (df = 643, p<0.001), CFI = 0.972, NNFI =
0.970, NFI = 0.947, IFI = 0.972, RMSEA = 0.054 (95%CI: 0.050 0.058).
Regarding H1, which stipulates the positive relationship between ideal self-congruity and
brand attachment, the relationship was found to be positive and statistically significant at 0.01
level (= 0.229, t = 3.193, p < 0.01). Thus, the results supported H1 and confirmed a positive
effect of ideal self-congruity on brand attachment. Also, the results confirmed the positive effect
of brand experience on brand attachment. The relationship was positive and statistically
significant at 0.01 level (= 0.542, t = 5.125, p < 0.01), in support of H3. Furthermore, H4,
which predicted the interaction effect between ideal self-congruity and brand experience on
brand attachment, was supported. The relationship was positive and statistically significant at
0.01 level (= 0.293, t = 5.197, p < 0.01). Thus, it was confirmed that ideal self-congruity leads
to stronger brand attachment when brand experience is higher, as was further discussed also
below.
With regards to the two outcomes, willingness to pay a brand premium and positive word
of mouth, the results confirmed the positive effects of brand attachment on them. First, H6,
which posits the positive effect of brand attachment on willingness to pay a brand premium, was
supported. The relationship was positive and statistically significant at 0.01 level (= 0.671, t =
3.678, p < 0.01), in support of H6. Also, H7, which predicted a positive effect of brand
attachment on positive word-of-mouth, was supported. The relationship was positive and
In order to further examine the results, and specifically focusing on the interaction effect,
an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was executed. The primary objective of this was to analyze
86
Brand
Experience
(BE)
Willingness to Pay a
= 0.542*** Brand Premium
(WTP)
= 0.671***
Positive Word of
= 0.229** Mouth
(WOM)
Ideal Self-
Congruity
(ISC)
* Denotes significant at p < 0.05; ** Denotes significant at p < 0.01; *** Denotes significant at p < 0.001
the pattern of the interaction effect using a graphical representation that is strictly based on the
corresponding statistical analysis, in order to confirm the correctness of the interpretation of the
effect discussed above. The second goal is to test the robustness of the findings using a different
methodology for examining the effect. For the purposes, a factorial 2 X 2 ANOVA was
performed with brand attachment as the dependent variable and ideal self-congruity and brand
experience as the independent variables. In order to accomplish this, the cases were split into
groups at the median of the two independent variables that were calculated as the sum of the
reported scores. Specifically for brand experience, the items that were eliminated in the
aforementioned CFAs were removed first, and then the average scores for the retained items of
each dimension were summed so that each dimension would not be unequally weighted. As a
result, 4 groups were formed based on the following classifications - high and low levels of ideal
self-congruity and high and low levels of brand experience. Meanwhile, brand attachment was
also reduced to a single measure by averaging the observed scores of its five items.
Results of the ANOVA corroberated the conclusions of the SEM analysis discussed
above. The analysis detected the positive direct effect of ideal self-congruity (F (1,349) = 23.533, p
< 0.001) as well as that of brand experience (F (1,349) = 73.429, p < 0.001) on brand attachment.
Also, the significant interaction between ideal self-congruity and brand experience (F (1,349) =
9.844, p = 0.002) was revealed from the results. The interaction plot based on the group means
(Figure 4.2) estimated by the analysis clearly confirmed the interpretation that supports the
Following the hypothesis testing using ISC Model, the structural model that
88
3.631
(High ISC & High BE)
2.320
(Low ISC & High BE) 1.710
(High ISC & Low BE)
1.428
(Low IC & Low BE)
mainly conceptualized the interaction effect between actual self-congruity and brand experience
(ASC Model, see Figure 4.3) was also tested by a structural equation modeling (SEM). EQS 6.1
was used for model estimation. Pings (2007) approach was followed to test the proposed
interaction effect here again. Mardias coefficient (= 55.77) indicated violation of normality
assumption again. Therefore, robust maximum likelihood (robust ML) method was applied. The
model obtained a good fit to the data (Satorra-Bentler 2 = 1380.43 (df = 643, p<0.001), CFI =
0.968, NNFI = 0.965, NFI = 0.942, IFI = 0.968, RMSEA = 0.057 (95%CI: 0.053 0.061).
89
Brand
Experience
(BE)
Willingness to Pay a
= 0.542*** Brand Premium
(WTP)
= 0.671***
Positive Word of
= 0.235***
Mouth
(WOM)
Actual Self-
Congruity
(ASC)
* Denotes significant at p < 0.05; ** Denotes significant at p < 0.01; *** Denotes significant at p < 0.001
First, H2, which stipulates a positive relationship between actual self-congruity and brand
attachment, the relationship was supported. The relationship was positive and statistically
significant at 0.01 level (= 0.235, t = 3.627, p < 0.01), in support of H2. Next, the results again
confirmed the positive effect of brand experience on brand attachment also in this Model. The
relationship was positive and statistically significant at 0.01 level (= 0.542, t = 5.049, p < 0.01),
in support of H3. Still, H5, which posits the interaction effect between actual self-congruity and
brand experience on brand attachment, was supported. The relationship was positive and
statistically significant at 0.01 level (= 0.304, t = 5.086, p < 0.01), supporting H5. Thus,
similar to the interaction effect as to ideal self-congruity, it was revealed that actual self-
congruity leads to stronger brand attachment when brand experience is higher. This finding was
further examined below, in the same way as was done regarding ideal self-congruity. The results
again verified the two hypotheses regarding the outcome of brand attachment in ASC Model as
well. First, H6 was supported. The relationship was positive and statistically significant at 0.01
level (= 0.671, t = 4.257, p < 0.01). Thus, the results confirmed the positive effect of brand
attachment on willingness to pay a brand premium. H7 was also supported. The relationship was
found to be positive and statistically significant at 0.01 level (= 0.626, t = 20.031, p < 0.01).
Accordingly, the results confirmed the positive effect of brand attachment on positive word-of-
mouth.
In the same way as for the ISC Model, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted
to specifically focus on the interaction effect tested in the ASC Model. The interaction plot based
on the group means (Figure 4.4) estimated by the analysis clearly confirmed the interpretation
The analysis found a significant positive direct effect of actual self-congruity (F (1,349) =
16.700, p < 0.001), as well as that of brand experience (F (1,349) = 88.903, p < 0.001) on brand
attachment. Also, the significant interaction between actual self-congruity and brand experience
3.569
(High ASC & High BE)
2.474
(Low ASC & High BE)
1.628
(High ASC & Low BE)
1.429
(Low ASC & Low BE)
Table 4.10
H3: Brand experience has a direct and positive effect on 0.542 5.125
emotional brand attachment.
(Upper raw: Results in ISC Model; Lower raw: Results in Supported
ASC Model) 0.542 5.049
H6: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive 0.671 3.678
effect on willingness to pay a brand premium (WTP).
(Upper raw: Results in ISC Model; Lower raw: Results in Supported
ASC Model) 0.671 4.257
H7: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive 0.626 5.334
effect on positive word of mouth (WOM).
(Upper raw: Results in ISC Model; Lower raw: Results in Supported
ASC Model) 0.626 20.031
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CHAPTER 5
5.1 Overview
This chapter presents a summary of the previous chapters and discusses the implications
of the study, and is divided into two parts. The first section summarizes the background,
hypotheses, methodology, and findings of the study. In the next section, implications of the
findings and theoretical contributions as well as managerial implications of the study will be
discussed. Limitations of this study and directions of future research will be also presented.
Marketing researchers have studied such a phenomenon that people buy brands as a
means of expressing themselves, from the perspective of self-congruity (Sirgy, 1982, Aaker,
1999). They postulate that a fit between a consumers self-image and a brands image should
drive the consumers purchase behavior. This stream of research has explored the relations
between self-brand image congruity and various behavioral outcomes (e.g., Sirgy, 1985;
Kressman et al, 2006; Malar et al., 2011). However, this research stream has not succeeded in
finding clear and strong evidence of the assumed effects on such a vital outcome as emotional
brand attachment, although emotional brand attachment (Thomson et al., 2005) has attracted
loyalty (e.g., Grisaffe and Nguyen, 2011; Swaminathan et al., 2009) as well as a better predictor
of purchase intention than brand attitude (e.g., Park et al., 2010). In order to shed light on this
94
little understood relationship, this research proposed that brand experience (Brakus et al., 2009)
interacts with self-congruity, determining the intensity of the subsequent emotional brand
commitment. Along with the main proposition, individual effects of self-congruity and brand
experience on emotional brand attachment and its effects on the subsequent outcomes such as
willingness to pay a brand premium and likelihood of positive word of mouth were also
examined. Thus, the following research questions were established in this study.
3. Do (ideal or actual) self-congruity and brand experience jointly affect emotional brand
attachment?
4. Does emotional brand attachment affect willingness to pay a brand premium and
5.2.2.1 Hypotheses
In order to examine the above research questions, the following hypotheses were
developed on the basis of the well grounded literature regarding self-concept, self-congruity, and
self-expansion theory, as well as the latest findings in rapidly growing fields such as experiential
H1: Ideal self-congruity has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand attachment.
H2: Actual self-congruity has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand attachment.
H3: Brand experience has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand attachment.
H4: The interaction between ideal self-congruity and brand experience has a positive
effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of ideal self-
95
H5: The interaction between actual self-congruity and brand experience has a positive
effect on emotional brand attachment, such that the direct positive effect of actual self-
H6: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on willingness to pay a
H7: Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on positive word of
mouth (WOM).
Data were collected from 397 U.S. residents who are active members of Amazons
Mechanical Turk. A questionnaire was used to collect data from respondents with regards to the
5 focal smartphone brands. A pretest (n = 107) indicated that smartphones as a product category
was publicly consumed products and non-fast-moving consumption goods. Also, the results
revealed that the 5 focal brands obtained high brand awareness and relatively higher brand
familiarity among major smartphone brands. In the main survey, each respondent was asked to
answer the questionnaire concerning one of the 5 focal brands that was randomly assigned. All
theoretical constructs were operationalized using previously developed multi-item scales, some
of which were partly modified to fit the current context. The proposed models were examined
mainly using structural equation modeling (SEM) with EQS. The overall models were tested
based on a two-step structural equation modeling approach (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The
overall model fit was assessed using robust maximum likelihood estimation with multiple fit
96
criteria. Also, additional analysis was conducted using analysis of variance (ANOVA), in order
Overall, the results supported the hypothesized relationships. The results indicated that
both ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity positively and directly affect the intensity of
emotional brand attachment. Also, brand experience was found to positively and directly affect
the intensity of emotional brand attachment. Furthermore, the interaction effect between self-
congruity and brand experience was confirmed as expected. That is, for both ideal self-congruity
and actual self-congruity, it was revealed that the interaction between self-congruity and brand
experience positively affects emotional brand attachment, in such a way that self-congruity leads
to stronger brand attachment when brand experience is high than when it is low. In addition, the
results also suggested that brand experience has larger effects (= 0.542) on emotional brand
attachment than self-congruity (= 0.229; 0.235, for ideal self-congruity and actual self-
congruity, respectively), and that self-congruity may create still greater effects than its individual
effects by interacting with brand experience (= 0.293; 0.304, for ideal self-congruity and
actual self-congruity, respectively). Finally, with regards to the two outcomes, the results
indicated that emotional brand attachment has positive effects on both willingness to pay a brand
5.3 Discussion
The first important finding is the positive effect of ideal self-congruity on emotional
brand attachment. The results are consistent with the notion that consumers are attracted to a
97
brand that is congruent with their ideal self because such a brand facilitates a self-enhancement
process (Rogers, 1961; Higgins, 1987; Collins, 1996), which helps consumers enhance their self-
esteem or actual self-image and motivates them to interact with the brand, leading to strong self-
brand connections.
This relationship was not found in the previous study (Malar et al., 2011). The possible
explanations for this discrepancy can be partly sought in their methodology. In Malar et al.
(2011), the focal brands were chosen from among several Interbrand rankings (across various
product categories), based on their intention to choose such brands that are highly familiar with
respondents. Accordingly, only top or highly popular brands were selected, whose images were
likely to be favorable and congruent with their ideal self-image. This procedure might have
resulted in a less variability in responses on ideal-self congruity scale than would be required to
detect the proposed effect. Furthermore, among their focal brands, some might have been
perceived as being out of reach, and therefore, unreal, or not authentic. (p.46). In such special
cases, other factors than a high degree of ideal self-congruity (e.g., price ranges) would affect the
motivation to interact with the brand, and therefore, hamper researchers from detecting the
proposed effect of ideal self-congruity. By contrast, the current study addressed these issues by
specifying the target product category, in which products do not seem considerably different in
other factors than the brand itself (e.g., price ranges, functions), while also including such brands
The second important finding is the positive effect of actual self-congruity on emotional
brand attachment. The results support the notion that consumers are motivated to focus on a
brand that is congruent with their actual self because such a brand motivates a self-verification
process (Lecky, 1945; Swann, Griffin,, Predmore, and Gaines, 1987; Swann, Stein-Seroussi, and
98
Geisler, 1992), which leads consumers to psychological benefits such as warm feelings, relief or
self affirmation, forming strong attachment to the brand over time. Thus, the results suggest that
both ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity positively affect the intensity of emotional
brand attachment. Based on their results that indicated nonexistence of a general positive effect
of ideal self-congruity, Malar and her colleagues emphasized the importance of actual self-
congruity. The current results may compel us to reconsider such an emphasis and call on
recognizing the importance of both ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity in attaining
The third important finding is the positive effect of brand experience on emotional
brand attachment. The results are consistent with the prediction derived from the theory that was
developed in this study on the basis of the behavioral priming literature (e.g., Chartrand and
Bargh, 1996) and self-expansion theory (Aron and Aron, 1986). More specifically, they
supported the explanation that past interactions with a brand lead consumers to elicit intensive
positive psychological and behavioral responses (when the brand is associated with some goal or
desired states), and such positive responses motivate them to include the brand image into their
self-image through self-expansion processes. The existence of the direct effect of brand
experience on emotional brand attachment has the following important implication. That is,
positive responses to a brand or the related stimuli (i.e., brand experience) itself can lead to a
strong emotional attachment to a brand, regardless of its self-brand image congruity. This finding
People seek to expand the self in the sense that they seek to enhance the physical and social
resources, .., that facilitate achievement of any goal that might arise (Aron, Aron, and
Norman, 2001, p.478). In other words, this statement suggests that people are motivated to
99
expand the self by including resources (in the current context, a brand) as long as they feel that
the resources could help them achieve any goal, even when such a goal may not be relevant to
their ideal self-image or actual self-image. Still, the results suggested a considerably greater
direct effect of brand experience (= 0.542) on brand attachment than those of self-congruity
(= 0.229; 0.235, for ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity, respectively). Considering
these, the results may suggest that self-expansion motives play a much greater role than self-
The fourth and most important finding in the study is the interaction effects between self-
congruity and brand experience on emotional brand attachment. The results indicated that (ideal
and actual) self-congruity leads to a greater brand attachment when brand experience is high than
when it is low. In other words, it was observed that brand experience boosts the positive effects
of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment. This is consistent with the proposed interactive
process that, while self-congruity motivates a consumer to focus on the brand (through self-
enhancement motives or self-verification motives), when the brand stimuli activate the
corresponding part of the self-concept (i.e., ideal self-image or actual self-image) and elicit
strong positive responses (i.e., brand experience), such responses further motivate to interact
with the brand (also, led by self-expansion motives), resulting in a strong emotional attachment
to the brand. Through such interactive process, brand experience as strong positive responses are
Conversely, even when a brand is congruent with ideal or actual self-image, and therefore, the
consumer is initially motivated to focus on the brand, if the brand stimuli do not elicit strong
positive responses (i.e., brand experience is low), it is less likely that self-congruity leads to a
strong brand attachment, according to the results. Thus, the results support the proposed
100
interactive process between self-congruity and brand experience in the formation of emotional
brand attachment.
In addition, the results suggested that the interaction may create still greater effects on
emotional brand attachment (= 0.293; 0.304, for ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity,
respectively) than direct effects of self-congruity (= 0.229; 0.235, for ideal self-congruity and
actual self-congruity, respectively). Considering the fact that direct effect of brand experience
may be also considerably larger than direct effects of self-congruity, the results as a whole may
suggest the necessity to put more emphasis on brand experience and self-expansion process in
Finally, the current study found the positive effects of emotional brand attachment on the
two outcomes included in the models: willingness to pay a brand premium; and likelihood of
positive word of mouth. The results confirmed the past findings, supporting the explanation that
a consumers brand attachment results in the subsequent commitment to the brand, such as brand
The most notable contribution of this research should be derived from its synthesis of
multiple research streams that have drawn serious research interests and have been vigorously
studied especially for recent years in brand studies. This theoretical integration made it possible
for the current study to incorporate the factor of consumers experience into the study of brand
attachment in a comprehensive way. Furthermore, it also offered novel insights into self-
congruity literature that enabled the study to clearly capture the elusive effects of self-congruity,
First, this research was the first study to examine the influence of consumers
comprehensive experiences with brands on the formation of emotional brand attachment. For this
purpose, the study introduced the concept of brand experience recently developed by Brakus et al.
(2009). Since emotional attachment develops over time, consumers past experiences with
brands should play a crucial role in the formation process. Nonetheless, not only do few studies
refer to this factor, but also those exceptions argue or examine solely usage experience (e.g.,
Fournier, 1998; Aaker, et al., 2004; Kressmann et al., 2006). Experience can be direct
interactions with brands or indirect interactions (Brakus et al., 2009). Brakus et al.s (2009)
consumers experiences. By employing the concept first in the brand attachment research, the
current study conceptualized and empirically examined the impact of consumers past experience
Next, in order to explicate how such experiences are accumulated and determine their
subsequent impacts, this research developed the first comprehensive theory in the brand
literature to explain the psychological processes. As mentioned above, the current study
employed the concept of brand experience to examine the impact of consumers past experience.
However, the literature in brand experience has not argued how the impact of experience is
perception (Janiszewski, 2008) or behavioral priming (Bargh et al., 1996) have recently begun to
intensively examine the psychological processes regarding how consumers interactions with
brands develop their responses to brand-related stimuli (e.g., Chartrand et al., 2008; Fitzsimons
et al., 2008; Ferraro et al., 2009). By taking advantage of this emerging stream and merging it
102
into the brand experience literature, the current study proposed the first theoretical framework to
Furthermore, on the way of explaining how such impacts of brand experience leads to the
formation of emotional brand attachment, this research offered a more detailed explanation based
on self-expansion theory than the previous research. The significant interest in emotional brand
attachment has been emerging for these years (e.g., Malar et al., 2011; Park et al., 2010;
Swaminathan et al., 2009; Thomson et al., 2005). The majority of researchers have referred to or
mentioned self-expansion theory (Aaron and Aaron, 1986) as the central mechanism of the
attachment formation, or at least part of the explanation (Malar et al., 2011; Park et al., 2010;
Fournier, 1998). However, little existing research has provided explanations that explicitly
describe the psychological process the theory details. The current study extensively discussed the
Finally, on the basis of these integrations, this research examined the effects of self-
congruity and its interaction effects with brand experience on emotional brand attachment. Malar
et al. (2011) first examined the effect of self-congruity on emotional brand attachment. However,
they failed to find a conclusive evidence of the positive effect of ideal self-congruity. Building
on their study, this research examined the same effect by carefully adjusting such factors that
may affect the ability to detect the effect, in the research procedures. And most importantly, on
the way to propose the main hypothesis of this study, the interaction effects between self-
congruity and brand experience on emotional brand attachment, a novel explanation was
developed as to how positive impacts of brand (i.e., brand experience) and self-congruity can
103
interact and create the driving force toward stronger brand attachment, grounded on all the
Thus, the main theoretical contributions of the current study were brought by
synthesizing the recent achievements in various growing research streams which were closely
related but yet to be integrated. Through the integration, it was aimed to incorporate consumers
experience into brand attachment research and to clearly demonstrate the effects of self-
congruity. As a result, the empirical evidence strongly supported all the theoretical explanations
This study also offers several important implications for marketing managers. First, the
results suggest brand personality and its congruity with a consumer's ideal self-image as well as
actual self-image is the key factor to attain their emotional attachment to the brand. As ways to
create strong emotional brand connection with consumers, some brands have used such messages
to communicate with consumers that the products will bring them closer to realizing an ideal
image. (for example, Nikes Jordan brand used Michael Jordan as its brand spokes person to stir
athletes ideal visions of themselves), while some other brands have appealed using more
realistic images (for example, Unilivers Dove brand used average models in appearance to get a
favorable response, emphasizing how the majority of consumers actually see themselves and
how actually they can be better using the products.). With regards to the relative effectiveness
of each strategy, the previous research suggested far greater importance of actual self-congruity
(Malar et al., 2011). However, this study identified the clear effect of ideal self-congruity, and
therefore, suggests that branding strategies that appeal consumers ideal self-image can be
104
powerful enough for marketing managers to seriously consider as an alternative of those that
Next, in this study, an especially intriguing finding is the positive interaction effects of
self-congruity and brand experience, and this suggests a couple of important implications for
marketing managers in building consumers strong emotional attachment to the brand. First, in
order to enhance the effectiveness of a branding strategy, in which the brand image is sought to
attract the target consumers, marketing managers should focus on creating strong positive
impressions of the brand (i.e., brand experience) rather than further trying to adjust the brand
personality to the target. As the brand literature suggests, a branding strategy that may affect its
brand image (e.g., brand extension, brand repositioning) can damage the values of the brand.
Also, the existence of the interaction effects found in this study implies that the positive effects
marketing managers should consider boosting the effects that they assumed to attain from self-
brand image fit, by emphasizing on evoking consumers stronger positive impressions. Second,
marketing managers should consider attracting such consumers that may not necessarily fit their
brand image or brand personality by enhancing positive impressions of the brand. The results
also suggest that brand experience facilitates formation of brand attachment across various types
of consumers, depending on the degree of self-congruity (in the interaction effects). In addition,
Wheelers (2007) active-self account suggested that strong brand experience can temporarily
activate specific part of self-concept relevant to the brand, which may cause such responses that
are related to the brand-specific ideal or actual self-images, leading various types of consumers
to focus on the brand. Therefore, considering the costs and difficulties in adjusting brand images
emphasize on brand experience (i.e., creating strong positive impressions) in brand strategies, as
Finally, this study revealed that brand experience itself has a greater impact on emotional
brand attachment than self-congruity. Even when it is considered along with the interaction
effects between these two constructs, this fact suggests the significant importance of brand
experience in attaining a strong attachment, although this may sound contradictory to the original
objective of this study - clearly demonstrating the effect of ideal self-congruity on emotional
brand attachment. These results may suggest that marketing manager as well as marketing
researchers should pay a serious attention to experiential marketing, a recent research stream that
emphasizes the impacts of experiential values, including brand experience, in the development of
Some limitations of the study are worth noting because they provide ideas for future
research. First, the findings are derived from the examination of just one product category
smartphones. Although this product category was carefully chosen based on its desirable
properties to focus on the effects of brand itself, such as its limited price range or similarity in
the functional aspects, the robustness of the findings may have to be investigated across other
self-expressive product categories. Possibly, other factors (e.g., price ranges, functional
differences, variety of product designs) may need to be carefully taken into consideration to
adjust unique characteristics of each product category so that the study can clearly detect the
same effects or determine to reject the current findings. Also, testing the findings using product
categories outside of the scope of this study, such as fast-moving consumer goods or privately
consumed products, or examining the same effects in other contexts, such as service brands, shop
106
brands, corporate brands, or school brands may also be helpful in verifying the generalizability
Second, the other major limitations might include that this study did not specifically
investigate the possible individual sources (i.e., antecedents) of brand experience. Some of recent
studies have made attempts to identify the peculiar nature of brand-related information (e.g.,
narrative styles) or the specific channels of consumers interactions with brands (e.g., social
influence) that would affect the ensuing overall impressions of a brand or emotional attachment
to the brand (e.g., Phillips and McQuarrie, 2010; Grisaffe and Nguyen, 2011). By contrast, the
current study intended to capture those influences at a higher level of abstraction - in the form of
the positive impacts of consumers accumulated experiences or interactions with a brand - using
the novel concept of brand experience. In the current study, this approach was taken because of
the following reasons: 1) the individual roles or effects of such sources or channels can
considerably vary across the contexts, such as product categories or target market; and 2)
different groups of individuals may interpret the same information (in this context, brand-related
stimuli) in different ways (for example, many young people may get excited to hear rock music
in a TV commercial, while elder people may think of it as annoying), visa versa (i.e., different
contents of such information may have the same effects to the different groups of individuals).
By understanding the effect of consumers past experiences at a higher level of abstraction, this
research needs to clearly address such issues at more concrete levels, so that marketing
practitioners can figure out effective ways to enhance consumers brand experience and establish
their emotional attachment to the brand. Fortunately, several groups of marketing researchers,
107
psychologists, or neuroscientists have started working to identify brain functions related to brand
consumers brain using such a technology as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
(e.g., Aron et al., 2005; Esch et al., 2012). Although the current study was built on the findings of
their predecessors, including those by neuroscientists, it did not directly observe what is actually
happening in mind. By overcoming such limitations, this emerging research stream will
contribute to the identification of the specific brain functions that would work in common across
different brand-related contexts, let alone making it possible to more objectively measure the
intensity of positive responses evoked by brand-related stimuli as well as to directly observe how
specific stimuli affect the intensity. Through such findings, future research should offer better
understandings that might enable marketers to test the effectiveness of individual branding
strategies.
Finally, this study focused solely on the positive impact created by a consumers
interactions with a brand. Meanwhile, because a consumers attachment to a brand develops over
a substantial period of time, the formation process may be affected by such interactions that
cause negative responses in a consumers mind. For example, some groups of target consumers
may experience negative feelings for a novel but wild advertisement, which the marketer may
not have intended. At other times, an inevitable service failure may result in a consumers
negative impressions of a brand, even temporarily. Considering such practical relevance, the
research topics concerning the effects of the negative impact of brands for example, how the
brand and the subsequent outcomes, or how practitioners can effectively recover from such
5.4 Conclusion
This study offers new insights into the psychological processes that determine the
formation of emotional brand attachment. By integrating multiple research streams that have
been emerging recently, this research has developed a comprehensive explanation of the
psychological processes, on the basis of which the research hypotheses were derived and
Both ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity have a direct and positive effect on
Brand experience has a direct and positive effect on emotional brand attachment;
attachment, in such a way that self-congruity has a greater effect on emotional brand
Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on willingness to pay a
Emotional brand attachment has a direct and positive effect on likelihood of positive
word-of-mouth.
In sum, 1) ideal self-congruity, actual self-congruity, and brand experience individually enhance
a consumers emotional attachment to a brand; 2) brand experience still amplifies the effects of
both types of self-congruity, boosting the emotional attachment; and 3) the resulting emotional
brand attachment leads to consumers willingness to pay a brand premium and likelihood of
positive word-of-mouth.
109
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APPENDICES
124
Appendix A
Expected Period of Use - Participants were asked to record the number of months in a text box
I can recognize the <a brand name> brand of smartphones among other copeting brands.
I am aware of the <a brand name> brand of smartphones.
Some characteristics of the <a brand name> brand of smartphones come to my mind
quickly.
I can quickly recall the symbol or logo of the <a brand name> brand of smartphones.
I have difficulty in imaging the <a brand name> brand od smartphones.
I feel very familiar with the <a brand name> brand of smartphones.
I feel very experienced with the <a brand name> brand of smartphones.
I know the product(s) of the <a brand name> brand of smartphones.
125
Appendix B
Below are the items that were used in the main study. Each participant answered to a
questionnaire about one of the five brands that was randomly assigned when they accessed the
survey. The corresponding brand logo was continuously presented at the top left of the screen
with each set of questions concerning the brand. As the survey was presented on a website, each
break to a new page is designated below by a bold line.
[Brand Attachment]
Please indicate the extent to which each of the following statements describes your feeling
toward this brand.
[Brand Experience]
The next set of questions are about an array of responses that occur when you experience a
brand.
Here, experience can include any kind of contacts or interactions with a brand, such as usage
experiences, physical touches, looking at the product at a shop, watching or reading its
advertisements, observing people using the product and hearing their reactions, etc.
I would like you to think about such experiences you have had with this brand, and then,
consider how strongly the brand is associated with your sensations, feelings, thoughts, or
behaviors.
I am interested in how strongly these responses are evoked when you think of the <a brand
name> brand of martphone.
126
At first, please briefly describe sensations, feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that you might have
or have engaged in, alone or with others, when you experience the <a brand name> brand
of smartphone.
For example, Starbucks might be described Smells nice and is visually warm. Also, you might
think that Disney reminds me to use my imagination.
Now, I would like you to consider various aspects of your experiences with this brand and
would like to ask how strongly the brand evokes your sensations, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors.
Please think about how strongly this brand provides positive sensory impressions or aesthetic
appeal in general, after considering such experiences you have had, when you saw, heard of or
handled this smartphone brand, or watched the promotions or other information about this brand.
Once youve done this, indicate the extent to which each of the following statements applies to
you.
1. This brand makes a strong positive impression on my visual sense or other senses.
[SBE1]
2. I find this brand interesting in a sensory way. [SBE2]
3. This brand appeals to my sense in a positive way. [SBE3]
4. This brand positively excites my senses. [SBE4]
5. This brand has positive sensory appeal. [SBE5]
127
Please think about how strongly thins brand arouses positive feelings, sentiments or emotional
reactions in general, after considering such experiences you have had, when you saw, heard of or
handled this smartphone brand, or watched the promotions or other information about this brand.
Once youve done this, indicate the extent to which each of the following statements applies to
you.
Now, think about how strongly this brand stimulates positive analytical or imaginative thinking
in general, after considering such experiences you have had, when you saw, heard of or handled
this smartphone brand, or watched the promotions or other information about this brand.
Next, I want you to think about how strongly this brand reminds you of positive bodily
experiences, lifestyles, or active interactions with this brand in general, after considering such
experiences you have had, when you saw, heard of or handled this smartphone brand, or watched
the promotions or other information about this brand.
Once youve done this, indicate the extent to which each of the following statements applies to
you.
1. I (would) engage in physical actions and behaviors in a positive way when I use this
brand. [BBE1]
2. This brand (would) result(s) in positive bodily experiences. [BBE2]
3. This brand is action oriented in a positive way. [BBE3]
4. This brand reminds me of positive activities one can do. [BBE4]
5. This brand gets me to think about my behaviors in a positive way. [BBE5]
This may sound unusual, but think of the set of human characteristics associated with each brand.
For example, you might think that the human characteristics associated with Pepto Bismal are
kind, warm, caring, smoothing, gentle, trustworthy and dependable. The human characteristics
associated with Dr. Pepper might be non-conforming, fun, interesting, exciting and off-beat.
I am interested in finding out which personality traits or human characteristics come to mind
when you think of the <a brand name> of smartphone.
Please rate the extent to which the following personality traits describe this brand.
Down-to-earth
Honest
Wholesome
Cheerful
Daring
Spirited
Imaginative
Up-to-date
Reliable
Intelligent
Successful
Upper-class
Charming
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Outdoorsy
Tough
In this section, I would like you to take a moment to think about the personality of this brand
using the personality characteristics you described above.
Then, think about how you would like to see yourself (your ideal self). What kind of person you
would like to be?
Once youve done this, indicate your agreement or disagreement to the following statements.
1. The personality of this brand is consistent with how I would like to be (my ideal self).
[ISC1]
2. The personality of this brand is a mirror image of the person I would like to be (my ideal
self). [ISC2]
3. The personality of this brand reflects how I would like to be (my ideal self). [ISC3]
4. The personality of this brand is very much like who I would like to be (my ideal self).
[ISC4]
5. The personality of this brand is similar to who I would like to be (my ideal self). [ISC5]
Now, take a moment to think about the personality of this brand using the personality
characteristics you described above.
Then, think about how you see yourself (your actual self). What kind of person are you? How
would you describe your personality?
Once youve done this, indicate your agreement or disagreement to the following statements.
1. The personality of this brand is consistent with how I see myself (my actual self).
[ASC1]
2. The personality of this brand is a mirror image of me (my actual self). [ASC2]
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3. The personality of this brand reflects how I see myself (my actual self). [ASC3]
4. The personality of this brand is very much like me (my actual self). [ASC4]
5. The personality of this brand is similar to me (my actual self). [ASC5]
[Willingness to Pay a Brand Premium (WTP) & Positive Word of Mouth (WOM)]
Now, I would like you to indicate your agreement or disagreement to the following statements.
1. I am willing to pay a higher price for this brand of smartphone than for other brands of
smartphone. [WTP1]
2. I am willing to pay more for this brand than other brands of smartphone. [WTP2]
3. I would be willing to pay a higher price for this brand over other brands. [WTP3]
4. I am likely to spread positive word of mouth about this brand. [WOM1]
5. I would recommend this brand for a smartphone to my friends. [WOM2]
6. If my friend were looking to purchase smartphone, I would tell them to try this brand.
[WOM3]
7. Choose Agree from the options. [Screening Question]
[Demographic Questions]
18 24 years old
25 34 years old
35 44 years old
45 54 years old
55 64 years old
65 years old or over
Male
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Female
Caucasian/White
African American
Hispanic
Asian/Pacific Islander
Native American
Middle Eastern or Arabic
Other
Please indicate which category includes your total annual household income from all sources in
2011.
VITA
Graduate School
Southern Illinois University
Keizo Ishikawa
keizoishi@gmail.com
Keio University
Bachelor of Arts, Business and Commerce, March 1994
Rikkyo University
Master of Arts, Business Administration, March 1997
Dissertation Title:
BRAND DYNAMICS: The Effects of Brand Personality and Brand Experience on
Emotional Brand Attachment